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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
Lecture 06.CognitiveMapsandSpatialBehavior
6.1SpatialBehavior6.2Cognitivemaps
6.2.1Perception6.2.2Cognition
6.2.2.1WayFinding6.2.3ImagesandSpatialBehavior6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.1SpatialBehavior
“Spatial”meansexistingoroccurringinspace,havingextensioninspace.
Spatialbehaviormeans “Reactions
ofanindividualorgroupsofindividualswithrelationtotheimmediatesurroundingareaincludingtheanimateorinanimateobjectswithinthatarea.”(dictionarydefinition)
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.1SpatialBehavior
environment
individual
groupofindividuals
animateobjects(kinetic)
inanimateobjects(static)
+surroundingarea
surroundingarea
relation relation
Spatialbehavior=(individualorgroupofindividuals)->relationtosurrounding(withanimateandinanimateobjects)
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.1SpatialBehavior
• People’sspatialbehaviordependspartiallyontheimage
theyhaveofthestructureoftheenvironment.
•
Thewaythebuiltenvironmentisstructuredverymuchaffectstheeasewithwhichpeoplefindtheirway
throughbuildings,neighborhoods,andcities.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.1SpatialBehavior
•
Itiseasytofindyourwayinsomeplaces,whereitisdifficultinothers.
•
Whenpeoplecannotorientthemselveseasilyinaplace,theirstresslevelincreases.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.1SpatialBehavior
• Learningthelayout ofthecity
isimportantforapersontodevelophealthy,safe
andcomfortablerelationshiptohis/herenvironment.
• Theprocessoflearning
involvestheformationofcognitivemapsofone'ssurrounding.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.1SpatialBehavior
Whenpeoplecannotorientthemselveseasilyinaplace,theirstresslevelincreases
Source:http://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/typo3temp/pics/c68b9cc9c5.jpg
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2CognitiveMaps
•Cognitivemappingistheprocess
wherebypeopleacquire,code,store,recall, anddecodeinformation
abouttherelativelocationandattributes ofthephysicalenvironment
(acquire,code,store,recall,
anddecodeinfoaboutthelocationandenvironment)
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2CognitiveMaps
Giving directions to a friend by creating a map in your
“mind”.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2CognitiveMaps
•Cognitivemapsareacentralaspectofpeople'severydaybehavior.
•Cognitivemapsareaspatialthing–
arepresentationinyourmindofwherethingsare(bodyparts– houses–
cities)andhowtheyrelatetoeachother.
•Cognitivemapsarealsoreferredas“Mentalmaps”
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2CognitiveMaps
Source:https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/5c/59/58/5c5958
845ecd0118e270c67298a75548--cognitive-portland.jpg
Peopleorientsthemselvesintheenvironmentbasedoncognitivemaps
Wheretogo?Howtogo?
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2CognitiveMaps
Source:http://www.robot.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~wen/images/research_spatial1_en.jpg
Representationinyourmindofwherethingsare(bodyparts– houses–
cities)andhowtheyrelatetoeachother.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2CognitiveMaps
Given a cognitive map, the individual can formulate thebasis for
a strategy of environmental behavior.
We view cognitive mapping as a basic component in
humanadaptation, and the cognitive map as a requisite both forhuman
survival and for everyday environmental behavior,such as;
ØWhere people chose to goØHow they go thereØWhat to do thereØHow
they feel there
etc.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
Source:http://www.christopherfowler.co.uk/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Kings-Cross.jpg
6.2CognitiveMaps
Cognitivemapsarepersonalperceptionofthereality.Itgivescluesaboutpeople’sdailybehavior.
Adrawingofapersonfrommind(cognitivemap)
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
Source:https://image.slidesharecdn.com/combineresult-151207165858-lva1-app6891/95/cognitive-mapping-essay-6-638.jpg?cb=1449507556
6.2CognitiveMaps
Somepeoplemaydraw2Dcognitivemaps,whereassomecoulddraw3D.
Adrawingofapersonfrommind(cognitivemap)
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
Source:http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ePXm7lH-elY/UAyb495lhNI/AAAAAAAAAAM/5VJo9qyibjg/s1600/Cognitive+Map.jpg
Cognitivemapsaredistorted,thereisnoscale(especiallyinthedrawingsofyoungchildren).Bythedistortionofcognitivemaps,wemeanthecognitivetransformationsofbothdistanceanddirection.
Adrawingofapersonfrommind(cognitivemap)
6.2CognitiveMaps
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
According to Land (1987)
“The work on cognitive mapping providesenvironmental designers
with an understanding ofhow to create legible and imageable
buildings,building complexes, neighborhoods, and cities.
This work is particularly important in enhancing the
experienceof people in places where they are not frequent visitors,
such asmany public buildings, hospitals, airports, and parks.”
6.2CognitiveMaps
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
Source:http://humanspatialcognitionlab.org/wherefor-art-thou-cognitive-map/
6.2CognitiveMaps
Howdowedevelopimagesandlocationoftheplacesinourmind?
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.1Perception
Perception isgatheringinformationabouttheenvironment.
Sensationreferstotheprocessofsensingourenvironmentthroughtouch,taste,sight,sound,andsmell.
Theprocessoforganization,identification,andinterpretation
thisrawformofinformation iscalled“perception”.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.1Perception
Sensationistheprocessthatallowsourbrainstotakeininformationviaourfivesenses,whichcanthenbeexperiencedandinterpretedbythebrain.
gettinginformationabouttheenvironmentviasenses
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.1Perception
SensoryreceptorsEyes,ears,noseetc.
Stimulusenergy
Light,sound,smelletc.
Neuralimpulses
BrainVisual,auditory,olfactory,areas
sensation
perceptionInformationcomesfromtheenvironment(light,soundetc.),rawdataisprocessedbysensorreceptors–eyes,ears,nose,skin,tongue(sensation)andsensationsareprocessesinthebrain(perception).
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.1Perception
Howdowestoretheinformationwegetfromtheenvironmentandrecallitwhenneeded?
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2Cognition
Cognition
referstoallofthementalactivitiesassociatedwiththinking,knowing,rememberingandcommunicating.
Therefore,cognitionisthusthesubjectmatterofinteresttogeographers,physicalplanners,andenvironmentaldesignersworkingonbehaviorissues.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2Cognition
Cognitionistheprocessbywhichsensoryimputesaretransformed,reduced,elaborated,stored,recovered,andused.
ExternalSenses
BehaviorReaction
input process output
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2Cognition
Cognition isthemoregeneraltermandincludesperception
aswellasthinking,problemsolving,andtheorganizationofinformationandideas.
thinkingproblemsolvingorganizationofinformationideas
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
Howdopeopleorientthemselvesandnavigatethroughspace?
Wayfindingstudiesseekstoanswertothisquestion.
Wayfindingtaskscanbecategorizedaccordingtotwoactivities:
1.Travel toafamiliarenvironment
2.Travel toanunfamiliarenvironment
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
AccordingtoAllen(1999),people’swayfindingabilitiesdependson:
• Perceptualcapabilities•
Fundamentalinformation-processingcapabilities•
Previouslyacquiredknowledge• Motorcapabilities
Theseabilitiesmaychangefrompersontoapersonandalsodependsonthescaleofdestination(wayfindinginabuildingisdifferentthanwayfindinginastreet)
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
AccordingtoWeisman(1981)therearefourvariablesthatinfluencewayfindingperformanceinbuiltenvironments:
1.Visualaccess
2.Architecturaldifferentiation
3.Signsandroomnumberstoprovideidentificationordirectionalinformation
4.Planconfiguration
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
Visualaccessaffectspeoplewayfindingsinthebuiltenvironment
Source:http://www.atkinsglobal.com/en-gb/projects/shentong-metro-wayfinding-strategy
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
Architecturaldifferentiationaffectspeoplewayfindingsinthebuiltenvironment
Source:http://www.designindaba.com
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
Signsandroomnumbersaffectpeoplewayfindingsinthebuiltenvironment
Source:https://nsfunk.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/8155503_orig.jpg
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
Planconfigurationaffectspeoplewayfindingsinthebuiltenvironment
Source:http://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5372/d36b/c07a/80ac/fd00/006e/large_jpg/Floor_Plan_1.jpg?1400034138
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.2.1WayFinding
Todaywealsousedigitaltechnologiesforwayfinding
Source:http://appliedwayfinding.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/downtown-finder-ipad-photocomp-2-e1422875951265.jpg
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.3ImagesandSpatialBehavior
Whatisanimage?
Animageisavisualrepresentationofsomething.
Imagesmaybetwo-dimensional,suchasaphotographorscreendisplay,orthree-dimensional,suchasastatueorhologram.
Amentalimageexistsinanindividual'smind,assomethingoneremembersorimagines.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.3ImagesandSpatialBehavior
People behave
inaworld“astheyseeit”—whatevertheflawsimperfectionsofcognitivemaps,theyarethebasisforspatialbehavior.
WhatIknowWhatIrememberWhatIfeelWhatIwant
spatialbehavior
Aspeopleactintheenvironment,theyacquireknowledgeaboutit,storetheknowledgeintheirheads,anduseittoguidetheirbehaviorinadaptiveways.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.3ImagesandSpatialBehavior
environmentindividual
ObservationCollectinginformation
(image)
Developingwayfindingstrategies
Knowledge
perception
action
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
Source:https://mentalcharlois.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/mental_map_cristina-ampatzidou1.jpg?w=510&h=401
6.2.3ImagesandSpatialBehavior
Themoreexperienceapersonhaswithanenvironment,thebettercognitivemapstheydevelop.Lessinteractionorexperiencewithanenvironmentresultsweakcognitivemaps.
Adrawingofapersonfrommind(cognitivemap)
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
•
Thegraphicrepresentationsofcognitivemaps–thatis,thedrawingspeoplemakeofareasofcitiesorbuildings–
arepartial,schematized,anddistortedinamannerthatreflectsbothgroupsimilaritiesandindividualdifferences.
•
Thecognitivemapsthatpeoplehaveofthelayoutofcitiesandbuildingsdifferfrompersontoperson.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
Kevin Lynch (1960) found that people approachedthe mapping task
in five ways:
1. Some emphasized paths and the elements along them.
2. Some drew boundaries first and then filled in the Maps.
3. Some drew a repetitive system-such as the grid layout of
streets-and then filled it in.
4. Some drew districts first and then connected them.
5. Some started out drawing the nodal points and then filled in
theirsurroundings.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
Source:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Spence/publication/6333108/figure/fig3/AS:277836767219718@1443252855250/Fig-3-Examples-of-Mental-Map-from-Children-in-H-W-Neighborhood.png
6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
Studiesshowedthatindividualphysiologicaldifferencesaffectthewayinwhichpeopleformimagesoftheirsurroundings.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
Source:http://groups.ischool.berkeley.edu/mentalmaps/img/sketch_ys.jpg
Cognitivemapsvariesaccordingtoone’sexperience andinterests.
Adrawingofapersonfrommind(cognitivemap)
6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
Studies also showed that map form changes according tothe
following factors:
• Gender
• Socioeconomic status
• Place of residence and work
• Length of residence in a location
• Types of transportation used.
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
Abilities and disabilities also affect formation ofcognitive
maps.
• For example blind people are known to pay attention tovery
different characteristics of the environment
(such as textures of the surfaces along whichthey walk,the
sounds of the environment,and even such details as the layering of
airtemperatures).
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ARCH114
HumanandSocio-CulturalFactorsinDesignLecture06
EasternMediterraneanUniversityDepartmentofArchitecture
6.2.4IndividualDifferencesinMapForm
Studies also showed that women's images of theenvironment are
different from men's.
Children’s mental maps differs as well from theadults.
Culture is an important predictor of the orientingschemata
people use.