Lecture Notes Research Chapter 10-16

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Dr. William KritsonisEducational Research

Lecture Notes

Chapter 10 – Quasi-Experimental and Single-Case Designs

1. A researcher does a study examining the effects of a preschool program. The researcher uses a nonequivalentcomparison group design. The researcher finds that thecognitive growth of the experimental group is greater

than that of the control group. Unfortunately, theresearcher later finds that in general children who live inthe area where the experimental group is located tend togrow faster cognitively than children who were from thearea where the control group is located. When theresearcher this problem, he/she discovered what threat tothe internal validity of the study?

Answer: Selection-maturation effect

2. For a treatment to be deemed effective when used in thecontext of an a-B-A single case design, the following hasto occur:

a) Behavior should change as the treatment is

implementedb)Behavior should return to baseline levels when

the treatment is removed.

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3. In changing-criterion design, changes in criterion are best done when the previous criterion is met and the

behavior is stabilized.

4. The non-equivalent comparison group design is a quasi-experimental design, in which, for reasons of practicality, we cannot insure that the control andexperimental groups are equivalent to each other whenthe experimental begins. The major interpretationaldifficulty imposed by this design is being sure that any

differences between groups at the end of the

experiment are due to the independent variable’sinfluence and not due to preexisting group

differences.

5. A treatment effect is demonstrated in the regressiondiscontinuity design by a discontinuity in the

regression line.

6. The history effect is a primary threat to the interruptedtime-series design.

7. The nonequivalent comparison-group design consistsof an experimental and a control group but participantsare not randomly assigned to the groups.

8. A form of the nonequivalent comparison-group design isrecommended when it is not possible to randomly

assign participants to groups.

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9. A threat to internal validity in the nonequivalentcomparison-group design include the following:

a) Selection-maturation effect

b)Selection-history effectc) Selection-regression effect

10. Selection-history effect is a threat to internal validity inthe nonequivalent comparison-group design.

11. How many variables should be changed at a time whenconducting a single-case design? Answer: 1

12. In quasi-experimental research designs, causalinterpretations can be made only when rival

explanations have been shown to be implausible.

13. In single-case research, “baseline” refers to the rate of

response established prior to the experimental

intervention.

14. Changing-criterion design can be used when the goal isto create a step-by-step increase (or decrease) in theamount, accuracy, or frequency of some behavior over a period of time.

15. Selection-maturation effect occurs in a comparisongroup design when one of the two groups of participantsgrows or naturally develops faster than the other group.

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16. An observation of a dependent variable response prior toany attempt to change this response is known as thebaseline.

17. The most frequently used quasi-experimental design isthe nonequivalent comparison-group.

18. A baseline is used as the standard against which changeinduced by the treatment is assessed.

A baseline is the occurrence of a response in its freely

occurring or natural state.

A baseline is first obtained prior to the administrationof a treatment.

19. A single-case experimental design in which the responseto a treatment is compared to baseline occurring before

and after the treatment is call an A-B-A design.

20. In a single-case design, the researcher hopes that the behavior of the participants prior to the administration of atreatment condition is not highly variable.

21. The A-B-A design rules out history by demonstratingthat the dependent variable response revert back to the baseline when the treatment is withdrawn.

a) Nonequivalent comparison-group design would useanalysis of covariance during data analysis.

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b) The interrupted time-series design can also be viewedas an A-B design.

c) It is important to change only one variable at a time insingle case designs because of the following reasons:d) Changing one variable allows isolation of the cause

of the change

e) Changing more than one variable at a time

confounds those independent variables.

22. What is the difference between A-B-A design

and A-B-A-B design?

a. Answer: A-B-A-B allows the reintroduction of

the treatment condition during the last phase.

23. The following are phases in the A-B-A design:

a. Baseline measurementb. Introduction of treatment

c. Removal of treatment

24. Researchers can attempt to eliminate the threat of bias from the selection-maturation effect in thenonequivalent comparison-group design bymatching experimental and control participantson important variables.

25. Group-comparison designs and single-casedesigns are both equally effective in conductingeducational research.

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Lecture Notes

Chapter 11 – Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

1. An example of a spurious relationship is when thenumber of police officers and the number of crimes are positively related.

2. A researcher studies the relation between early readingand later school achievement. The research decides thata potentially extraneous variable in the relationship is IQ.In developing groups for the study, the researcher pairseach child who was an early reader with a child of thesame IQ level who was not an early reader. The control

technique the researcher used was matching.

3. Partial correlation analysis involves examining the

relationship between two or more variables

controlling for additional variables statistically.

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4. The directors of a graduate program in educationalresearch wish to see what types of jobs their graduates

take after they finish their program. They randomlysample students form the program and have them fill outquestionnaires with items asking about types of jobs theyhave had. They also are asked to describe the roles they play in their current positions. This project is bestdescribed as having a descriptive objective.

5. When research is done to test hypotheses and theories

about how and why phenomena operate as they do, thenthe primary purpose of such research is explanatory.

6. The variable the research matches to eliminate it as analternative explanation is called a matching variable.

7. Longitudinal research designs include panels and

trends.

8. The positive correlation between teachers’ salaries andthe price of liquor is spurious and due to a third-

variable.

9. Partial correlation and analysis of covariance areconsidered a special case of the general linear model.

10. Retrospective research starts with the dependentvariable and moves backwards.

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11. The method of working multiple hypotheses refers to atechnique for identifying rival explanations.

12. GLM refers to the General Linear Model.

13. The post hoc fallacy is making the argument that

because A preceded B, A must have caused B.

14. The following are steps in conducting non-experimental research:

a) Determine research problem and hypotheses

b)Analyze datac) Interpret results

15. If a research finding is statistically significant then the

observed result is probably not due to chance.

16. The following are necessary conditions for causation:

a) The relationship conditionb)The temporal antecedence condition

c) The lack of alternative explanation

condition

17. The following independent variables cannot bemanipulated in a research study:

a) Gender

b)Ethnicity

c) Intelligence and other traits

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18. Causal modeling is a form of explanatory research inwhich the researcher develops a theoretical model andempirically tests the model to determine how well the

model fits the data.

19. Non-experimental research in which the primaryindependent variable of interest is categorical issometimes called causal-comparative research.

20. The experimental approach is the strongest for establishing that a relationship is causal.

21. Is causal-comparative stronger than correlation for establishing that a relationship is causal?

Answer: One CANNOT say without additional

information (i.e., it could be either depending on how

well the researcher established the three necessary

conditions for cause and effect.

22. Statistical control is the most commonly used techniquefor controlling for extraneous variables in non-experimental research.

23. It is best to use the method of working multiplehypotheses when planning for a research study.

24. Matching can be done when you independent variable iscategorical or quantitative.

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25. If a correlation coefficient is .96, we would probably beable to say that the relationship is strong and

statistically significant.

26. What happens in a completely spurious relationshiponce the researcher controls for a confounding thirdvariable?

Answer: The relationship between the original

variables will get weaker or, if the original relationship

if fully spurious, it will disappear (i.e., the original

relationship will become zero as measured by acorrelation coefficient.

27. The most problematic condition in non-experimental

research is Condition 3: The relationship between

variable A and variable B must not be due to some

confounding extraneous variable.

28. A cross-sectional study is NOT a form of longitudinalresearch.

Note: Panel and trend studies are a form of longitudinal research.

29. Observing a relationship between two variables is NOT sufficient grounds for concluding that therelationship is a causal relationship.

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30. Panel study is a type of longitudinal research thatstudies the same individuals over an extended period of time.

31. Explanatory research tests hypotheses and theories inorder to explain how and why a phenomenon operates asit does.

32. The Pearson product moment correlation measures thedegree of linear relationship present between twovariables.

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Lecture Notes

Chapter 12 – Qualitative Research

1. Unique case orientation is a characteristic of qualitative research.

2. Phenomenology has its disciplinary origins inphilosophy.

3. The primary data analysis approach in ethnography isholistic description and search for cultural themes.

4. Bracketing is the term used to describe suspending preconceptions and learned feelings about a phenomenon.

5. A researcher studies how students who flunk out of high school experienced high school. The researchfound that it was common for such students to reportthat they felt like they had little control of their destiny.The researcher’s report that this lack of control was aninvariant part of the students’ experiences suggests thatlack of control is an essence of the “flunking out”experience.

6. Shared beliefs are the specific cultural conventions or statements that people who share a culture hold to betrue or false.

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7. Norms are the written and unwritten rules that specifyappropriate group behavior.

8. The following are advantages for studying multiplecases:

a) Multiple cases can be compared for similarities

and differences

b)Multiple cases can more effectively test a theory

than a single case

c) Generalizations about population are usually

better when based on multiple cases.

9. Shared values are the standards of a culture about whatis good or bade or desirable or undesirable.

10. Phenomenology is the study of human consciousnessand individuals’ experience of some phenomenon.

11. The following are characteristics of qualitativeresearch:

a) Design flexibility

b)Inductive analysis

c) Context sensitivity

12. Grounded theory is a general methodology for developing theory that is based on data systematicallygathered and analyzed.

13. Selective coding is the final stage in grounded theorydata analysis.

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14. Naturalistic inquiry is a major characteristic of qualitative research that refers to studying real world

situations as they unfold naturally.

15. As a qualitative research approach, phenomenology’s

primary goal is to gain access to individuals’ inner worlds of experience.

16. Ethnography is the type of qualitative research thatdescribes the culture of a group of people.

17. The grounded theorist is finished analyzing data whentheoretical saturation occurs.

18. An example of instrumental case study and/or

collective case study is when the researcher focuses primary interest on understanding something more

general than the particular case.

19. Ethnocentrism is judging people from a differentculture according to the standards of your own culture.

20. The following are characteristics of qualitativeresearch:

a) Design flexibility

b)Dynamic systems

c) Naturalistic inquiry

Note: Deductive design is not a characteristic of qualitative research.

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21. Collective case study involves the studying of multiplecases in one research study.

22. The following apply to qualitative research:a) Data are often words and pictures

b)Uses the inductive scientific method

c) Involves direct and personal contact with

participants

Note: Qualitative research does not end with a

statistical report.

23. The difference between ethnographic research andother types of qualitative research is that ethnographersspecifically use the concept of “culture” to helpunderstand the results.

24. Emic perspective is a term that refers to the insider’s perspective.

25. In data analysis of the grounded theory approach, axial

coding is the step that focuses on the main idea,developing the story line, and finalizing the theory.

26. The following are 4 major approaches to qualitativeresearch:

a) Ethnography b) Phenomenologyc) Case studyd) Grounded theory

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27. In “phenomenology,” a well written report will behighly descriptive of the participants’ experiences and

will often elicit in the reader a feeling that they feel asthough they are experiencing the phenomenonthemselves. This experience is called a vicarious

experience.

28. A researcher wants to study a Native American groupin New Mexico for a six month period to learn all theycan about them so he/she can write a book about that

particular tribe. The researcher wants the book to beaccurate and authentic as well as informative andinspiring. The researcher will likely be conductingethnographic research.

29. The emic perspective refers to an internal view of reality.

30. Ethnography is used to describe cultural scenes or thecultural characteristics of a group of people.

31. Terms such as “geeks,” “book worms,” “preps,” areknown as Emic terms.

32. When a researcher identifies so completely with thegroup being studied that he or she can no longer remainobjective we have what is called going native.

33. The etic perspective is external.

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34. The emic perspective is the native or insider’s perspectrive; the etic perspective is an external, socialscientific perspective.

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Lecture Notes

Chapter 13 – Historical Research

1. A researcher was interested in studying why the “newmath” of the 1960s failed. The researcher interviewsseveral teachers who used the new math during the1960s. These teachers are considered primary sources.

2. External criticism is the process of dealing withconcerns over the authenticity of a source.

3. A researcher studying the history of medical educationfinds a manuscript that purports to be from the 14th century.Before the researcher uses the source, he/she goes to threeother experts who help identify whether the manuscript is

authentic or not. Authentification of the object is referredto as external criticism.

4. A historical researcher studying the implementation of the “new math? During the 1960s uses as a source a textwritten on the subject by a critic who was a mathematicsteacher during that time period. As the researcher examines the document, he/she discovers that the datathe individual based their conclusions on was falsified.Hence, the conclusions drawn were erroneous. Theresearcher’s analysis of the document to check itsaccuracy is referred to as internal criticism.

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1. A researcher is interested in studying approaches toteaching writing in schools during the 1800s. Theresearcher discovers a grammar book, but there is noauthor or copyright date in the book. The researcher examines the typeface in the book as well as thewriting style. After investigating further, theresearcher finds a reference to the book from ateacher’s diary from the 1800s. The diary also

mentions an author’s name. After further searchingthe researcher is able to identify the author of the book. The researcher was engaged in the sourcing

process.

2. Historical research is conducted for the followingreasons:

a) To identify the relationship that the past hasto the present.

b)To evaluate and record accomplishments of

individuals or entities

c) To enhance understanding of the culture in

which we live

d)To uncover the unknown

3. Historical research is interpretative.

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4. The following are steps in the process of conductinghistorical research:

a) Preparing a report or narrative exposition

b)Identifying a research topic and formulationof the research problem or question

c) Data synthesis

d)Data collection and/or literature review

5. Oral histories can be based on the following:a) Interviews with people

b)Stories and tales

c) Songs

6. In historical research, a primary source consists of thefollowing:

a) First hand accounts by witnesses to events

b)Can consist of sources that include original

maps, diaries, transcripts of minutes of a

meeting, and photographs

7. In historical research secondary sources are generally

considered less useful than primary sources.

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8. In evaluating historical research sources, externalcriticism…

a) Can involve the use of carbon dating and

handwriting expertsb)Helps determine the validity, trustworthiness

or authenticity of a source

c) Can involve use of historical linguists’

knowledgeable with the writing style of the

period

9. Contextualization refers to the process of identifying

when and where an event took place.

10. Internal criticism is the process of determining thereliability or accuracy of the information contained inthe sources collected.

11. Presentism in historical sources is the assumption that

the present-day connotations of terms also existed inthe past.

12. “Comparing documents to each other to determinewhether they provide the same information or reachthe same conclusion” is known as corroboration.

13. The “identification of when and where an event took place” is known as contextualization.

14. Three heuristics for evaluating documents arecorroboration, sourcing, and contextualization.

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15. In historical research, data synthesis usuallyincludes the following:

a) Defining and interpreting key words, phrasesand terms

b)Chronologically ordering eventgs

c) Differentiating between how people should

behave and how they did behave

d)Maintaining a distinction between intent and

consequences

Note: In historical research data synthesis usually doesnot include inferring causation based on simple correlation.

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Lecture Notes

Chapter 14 – Mixed Method and Mix Model Research

1. Mixed research occurs when quantitative andqualitative techniques are mixed in a single study.

2. Mixed model research occurs when quantitative andqualitative approaches are mixed within or across the

stages of the research process.

3. Mixed method research occurs when a quantitative phase and qualitative phase are included in the overallresearch study.

4. The use of a qualitative research objective, collection of

qualitative data, and performance of quantitative analysisis an example of across-stage mixed model research.

5. The use of a quantitative research objective, collection of quantitative data, and the use of quantitative dataanalysis is known as mono-method research.

6. Mixed researchers typically use the pragmatist philosophy.

7. The pragmatist philosophy is most closely associatedwith the compatibility thesis.

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8. A weakness of quantitative research is that the

researcher’s categories that are used might not reflect

local constituencies.

9. A weakness of qualitative research is that the results are

more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal

idiosyncrasies.

10. A weakness of mixed research is that it is more time

consuming and expensive.

11. If a researcher develops a questionnaire that includesclosed-ended and open-ended items then they haveconducted within-stage mixed model research.

12. A mixed method notation is as follows:

“QUAL quan”

13. A mixed design notation is as follows:QUAL + QUAN

This means qualitative and quantitative are given

equal status and they are done concurrently.

14. What would this mixed method design be called:

Qual

QUAN

This means a dominant-status sequential design.

15. What would this mixed method design be called:

QUAL QUAN

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This means equal-status sequential design.

16. What would this mixed method design be called:Qual + QUAN

This means dominant-status concurrent design.

17. What would this mixed method design be called:QUAL + QUAN

This means equal-status concurrent design.

18. The following can serve as a purpose or rationale for mixed research designs:

a) Triangulation

b)Complementarity

c) Developmentd)Initiation

e) Expansion

19. Complementarity is a mixed research method that seekselaboration, enhancement, illustration, and clarificationof the results from one method with the results from theother method.

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20. The following two questions must be answered inorder to select one of the specific mixed method designs:

a) Is the qualitative or quantitative paradigm going

to be given priority, or will they be given equalstatus in the study?

b)Should the qualitative and quantitative

components be carried out concurrently or

sequentially?

21. A researcher wants to understand why people arewilling to handle snakes as part of their church activities in

several rural churches in Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia.The researcher makes qualitative observations at severalchurches but also hands out fairly lengthy instruments thatquantitatively measure several constructs (IQ, religiousity,self-esteem, and a political attitudes construct). Theresearcher does some mixing during the discussion of hisreport about how the qualitative and quantitative insights

are related. Which design is this? Equal-statusconcurrent design.

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Lecture Notes

Chapter 15 – Descriptive Statistics

1. What is the median of the following set of scores?18,6,12,10,14

Answer: 12

2. Approximately 68% of scores fall within one standarddeviation of the mean in a normal distribution.

3. The denominator (bottom) of the z-score formula is thestandard deviation.

4. The predicted score for someone with 10 years of

education and an aptitude test of 5 is 80.

5. The standard deviation is the square root of the

variance; a measure of variability; an approximate

indicator of how numbers vary from the mean.

6. Hypothesis testing and estimation are both types of descriptive statistics.

7. A set of data organized in a participants(rows)-by-variables (columns) format is known as a “data set.”

8. A line graph uses vertical bars to represent data.

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9. The goal of descriptive statistics is to focus onsummarizing and explaining a specific set of data.

10. The mode is the most frequently occurring number in aset of values.

11. As a general rule, the mean is the best measure of centraltendency because it is more precise.

12. Descriptive statistics focuses on describing or

explaining data. Going beyond immediate data andmaking inferences is a function of inferential statistics.

In other words, focusing on describing or explainingdata versus going beyond immediate data and makinginferences is the difference between and descriptive andinferential statistics.

13. Why are variance and standard deviation the most popular measures of variability?

Answer: The variance and standard deviation are

the most stable and are foundations for more advanced

statistical analysis.

14. Regression analysis is the set of procedures used toexplain or predict the values of a dependent variable based on the values of one or more independentvariables.

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15. The mean is the value calculated when we want thearithmetic average.

16. Scatterplots are used when we want to visually examinethe relationship between two quantitative variables.

17. The median is often the preferred measure of centraltendency if the data are severely skewed.

18. H – L is the formula for range.

19. A raw score that has been transformed into standarddeviation units is called a z score.

20. The following are measures of variability:a) Variance

b)Standard deviation

c) Range

Note: The median is not a measure of variability.

21. The following are common measures of centraltendency:

a) Mode

b)Median

c) Mean

Note: The Range is not a common measure of centraltendency.

22. What is the median of this set of numbers:

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4,6,7,9,2000000?

Answer: 7

Note: Remember, the median is the middle score.

23. What is the mean of this set of numbers:4,6,7,9,2000000?

Answer: 4000,005.2

Note: Remember, the mean is the arithmetic average.

24. Percentile rank is interpreted as the percentage of scores in a reference group that falls below a particular raw score.

25. The median is the middle point.

26. The median is a measure of central tendency that takesinto account the magnitude of scores.

27. If a test was generally very easy, except for a fewstudents who had very low scores, then the distributionof scores would be negatively skewed.

28. One dependent variable is used in multiple regression.

29. The median represents the fiftieth percentile, or themiddle point in a set of numbers arranged in order of magnitude.

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30. If a distribution is skewed to the left, then it is negativelyskewed.

31. In a grouped frequency distribution, the intervals should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

32. When a set of numbers is heterogeneous, we cannot place more trust in the measure of central tendency asrepresenting the typical person or unit.

33. Non-overlapping categories or intervals are known asmutually exclusive.

34. To interpret the relationship between two categoricalvariables, a contingency table should be constructed witheither column or row percentages, and if the

percentages are calculated down the columns, then

comparisons should be made across the rows. If thepercentages are calculated across the rows,

comparisons should be made down the columns.

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Lecture Notes

Chapter 16 – Inferential Statistics

1. The following symbol represents a population parameter:

σ

2. If we drew all possible samples from some population,calculated the mean for each of the samples, andconstructed a line graph (showing the shape of thedistribution) based on all of those means, what would wehave?

Answer: A sampling distribution

3. A calculation at the 95% confidence interval indicates

the following:a) The process we used will capture the true

parameter 95% of the time in the long run

b)We can be “95% confident” that our

interval will include the population

parameter

c) We can be “5% confident” that our interval

will not include the population parameter.

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4. What would happen (other things equal) to a confidenceinterval if we calculated a 99 percent confidence intervalrather than a 95 percent confidence interval?

Answer: The confidence interval will become wider.

5. The following statement sounds like a null hypothesis:

There is no difference between male and female

incomes in the population.

6. The analysis of variance is a statistical test that is used to

compare two or more group means.

7. The standard deviation of a sampling distribution iscalled the standard error.

8. Hypothesis testing and estimation are the two key branches of the field of inferential statistics.

9. A sample is a subset of a population.

10. A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample and aparameter is a numerical characteristic of a population.

11. A sampling distribution is based on the following:a) Sample means

b)Sample correlations

c) Sample proportions

12. As a general rule, researchers tend to use 95 percent

confidence intervals.

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13. A researcher is usually interested in supporting the

alternative hypothesis when he/she is engaging in

hypothesis testing.

14. When p (.05 is reported in a journal article that weread for an observed relationship, it means that theauthor has rejected the null hypothesis (assuming that theauthor is using a significance or alpha level of .05).

15. When p ).05 is reported in a journal article that we

read for an observed relationship, it means that theauthor has accepted the null hypothesis (assuming thatthe author is using a significance or alpha level of .05).

16. Confidence limits are the values that mark the boundaries of the confidence interval.

17. Type II error results if we fail to reject the nullhypothesis when the null hypothesis is actually false.

18. A good way to get a small standard is to use a large

sample.

19. An example of a point estimate is as follows:

The car will probably cost about $16,000.

20. The following steps would be included in hypothesistesting:

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a) State the null and alternative hypotheses

b)Set the significance level before the research

study

c) Obtain the probability value using acomputer program such as SPSS

d)Compare the probability value to the

significance level and make the statistical

decision

21. A confidence interval is a range of numbers inferredfrom the sample that has a certain probability of

including the population parameter over the long run.

22. Standard error is the standard deviation of a samplingdistribution.

23. An effect size indicator is a statistical measure of thestrength of a relationship.

24. The following can be viewed as an effect sizeindicator:

a) r-squared

b)r

c) Eta-squared

d)Omega-squared

25. When the researcher rejects a true null hypothesis, aType I error occurs.

26. A post hoc test is a follow-up test to the analysis of

variance when there are three or more groups.

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27. Inferential statistics uses the laws of probability tomake inferences and draw statistical conclusions about

populations based on sample data.

28. One-way analysis of variance is a statistical test used tocompare 2 or more group means.

29. A statistical test used to determine whether a correlationcoefficient is statistically significant is called the t-test

for correlation coefficients.

30. The cutoff the researcher uses to decide whether to rejectthe null hypothesis is call the significance level or alpha

level.

31. A 99 percent confidence interval will be the widest (i.e.,the least precise) for a particular data set that includes

exactly 500 cases.

32. As a sample size goes up, the following tends tohappen to 95% confidence intervals:

a) They become more precise

b)They become more narrow

33. Type II error is the failure to reject a false nullhypothesis.

34. According to the logic of hypothesis testing, thefollowing statements are true:

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a) When the null hypothesis is true, it should

not be rejected

b)When the null hypothesis is false, it should

be rejected

35. What is the key question in the field of statisticalestimation?

Based on my random sample, what is my estimate

of the population parameter?

36. Assuming innocence until “proven” guilty, a Type Ierror occurs when an innocent person is found guilty.

37. Sampling error is the difference between a samplestatistic and the corresponding population parameter.

38. The “equals” sign (=) is included when conducting null

hypothesis testing.

39. A Type I error is also known as a false positive.

40. A Type II error is also known as a false negative.

41. If a finding is statistically significant one must alsointerpret the data, calculate an effect size indicator, andmake an assessment of practical significance.

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Lecture Notes Research Chapter 10-16

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