Lecture Notes Exam 1

8/3/2019 Lecture Notes Exam 1

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Lecture 1 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM Experimental psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental

processes. (different from mid-twentieth century def)

SCHIZOPHRENIA

Most common form of psychosis (1% of the population) Schizo=split phrene = mind

o Refers to the fragmentation of thought processes Onset late adolescence-early adulthood Prognosis poor People tend to not recover from schizo, chronic illness Positive: behaviors not seen in normal humans

o Delusion- incorrect belief held despite evidence to thecontrary

Delusions are benign, see things that are not happening E.g. Alien abduction

o Hallucinations sensory experience in the absence of anystimulus

E.g. report hearing voices when there are none. During a hallucination, brain imaging shows that it is

indistinguishable from normal hearing.

Feel the need to respond the voices they arehearing. Voices are in command

Hearing voices Visual hallucinations and olfactory hallucinations

o Odd dressing, frenzied or silly behavioro Can be violent a danger to themselves or otherso Paranoido Lifetime suicide rate for schizos is 15%o 58% of schizos never work

Negative Symptomso Anhedonia: flattened affect, failure to perceive affected

responses of others

o Poverty of speech, motor retardation, catatonia


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o Pet scan can be used to pick up on the activity of onetransmitter

o Tranquilizers didnt calm schizos, just made the hallucinationstemporarily disappear

Genes/environmento Schizophrenia runs in familyo Does this fact alone argue for a genetic basis?

Could be shared environment Risk is same whether adopted or not MZ twins more similar than DZ

MZ twins come from the same zygote, DZ do not.More likely for MZ twins to be schizophrenic if one

is. Lower chance for DZ twins.

Not completely genetic or MZ twins would be identical prenatal factors?

o Genetics provides a predisposition to schizophrenia. Virus orcertain events might trigger schizophrenia in certain people.

Developmental environment factors that affect the individual

during brain development.

Socialo Correlation vs. causality: Schizophrenia is correlated with

poverty and dysfunctional family Has a causal role in SES: 58% have never worked.

Deinstitutionalization.

Dysfunctional family seems to be caused by, not thecause of schizophrenia.

Being schizophrenic makes you poor. Correlation does not tell you the direction of the cause.

o Legal vs. medical definitions of insanity much more likely toconvicted of a crime

o Although there are treatments that really help schizophrenia,the side affects are disastrous.

o A lot of these people end up in the street. No job, no socialsupport.

Summaryo Causes of schizophrenia


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Environment Genes Brain damage

Loss of brain tissue Brain chemistry abnormalities


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Lecture 2: The Neuron 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

Nervous system is hierarchically organized

WHY IS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM HIERARCHICALLY ORGANIZED?

Dont have to duplicate apparatuso Dont need a separate set of instruct for how, e.g., to run for

each activity one set of commands in lower levels of the NSthat is tapped into when needed

Guy at the top doesnt have to worry about every detail Evolutionarily, small pieces of behavior more likely to arise by

chance than large pieces

o Once a piece of behavior arises in one context, can be tappedintro for other purposes and can eventually become a part of

more complex systems

o Has been argued that intelligence is the ability to applybehavioral programs flexibly. E.g., bees vs. people.

REDUCTIONISM

Definition: Attempt to understand a phenomenon by studying itscomponent parts

2 major drawbacks:o The whole is usually more than the sum of its parts. It also

reflects their interaction

o Is possible to take the reductionistic approach too far, to losesight of the phenomenon of interest

Cant explain all phenomena Believe that someday, psychologists will be able to

explain these things in reductionist terms.

Axon: transmits information away from cell body. Cell usually hasonly one. Can be very long (or not or a few feet or a few microns)

Transmission of information to next neuron: Collaterals branchesat end of axon

Properties of cell membrane make neuron special Resting potential when undisturbed, inside -70 mv compared to

outside. Sodium potassium pump metabolic energy maintains

gradient.

Propagation of impulse: Disturbance in one area de-stabilizes thenext area of the membrane. Why doesnt it go backward?

Refractory period e.g., hydra and nerve net.


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SPEED OF PROPAGATION

Several factors affects speed of propagation:o Axon diameter, e.g., giant squid axon bigger = fastero Myelin: like insulation not all axons are myelinated e.g., C

fibers that carry pain signals.o Intensity: if neuron obeys all or none and speed of

propagation is a function of diameter and myelin

o How do we distinguish between weak and strong stimuli? # of neurons firing rate of firing

GLIA:WHO KNEW?

Guide neuron migration Guide regeneration May modulate strength of connections important in learning May be a parallel slow communication system

SUMMARY

Neuron is special because of anatomy and membrane Within a neuron, the signal is electrical Potential energy from Na+/K+ pump Action potential All or none Myelin increases speed of conduction Code for intensity by # of neurons firing and frequency of firing Reading: Synapse


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Lecture 3 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Name a positive/negative symptom of schizophrenia

Delusions & hallucinations positive Disordered thought negative

Describe a reductionistic explanation for schizophrenia The phenomenon is the behavior of the patient. Looking at the

patients brain and brain imaging and there are enlarged ventricles.

Looking at dopamine activity, and need dopamine blockers. Looking

at neurotransmitters reductionistic approach

Name an advantage of hierarchical organization

You dont have to duplicate simple behavior patterns for standingup, walking, swallowing etc.

You dont have to consciously think about low level processesWhat happens when you take reductionism too far?

What 2 things make a neuron special

Anatomy Membrane

If you understand the neuron do you know everything you need to know

about the nervous system

No because you need to know how they interact as wellWhich part of the neuron sends information away from the cell body

Axon away from cell body, towards cell body dendritesDifference between action potential and graded potential

Action potential is all or none, once action potential is triggered it isthe same size through out travel in the neuron.

Graded potentials can be any size and are not being chargedthrough out the whole way. Sometimes get weaker as travel along

At rest the inside of the axon is negatively charged with respect to the

outside

What is a threshold?

The smallest stimulus that can cause a response. There is athreshold that needs to pass for action potential to occur.

Why does the action potential only go in one direction

Refractory period, once A.P. goes by theres that extra inside theaxon, even becomes more negative. In that period of time it is

harder to get the neuron to fire again. So A.P. moves in the


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direction of the membrane that is not charged during that

refractory period.

Give two factors that affect the speed of propagation in a given axon

Myelination makes the signal go faster because it skips from nodeto node. And the diameter of axon makes a difference as well.Remember original work on axon diameter w/ giant squids

How can the nervous represent intensity of a stimulus

The frequency of action potentials goes up and the reason for thatis because a stronger stimulus can cause a stronger A.P. in the

earlier period than a threshold period.

Neurons have different thresholds. So if you have a very weakstimulus, only the most sensitive of neurons response. As the

stimulus gets stronger, a bigger group of neurons can response

INFERRING THE SYNAPSE

Sir Charles Sherrington inferred the synapse by measuring speedof reflex

o Ex. Pinched the toe of a frog, waiting for how long its foot ofthe frog would withdraw. From toe to spinal cord back to leg.

Can measure the distance. You can measure how it takes for

the A.P. If you measure the distance it has to travel, realized

that it is a lot slower. Otto Lowei showed that the signal was chemical. Who read about

the frog heart study? (In the book)

o If you stimulate the vegas nerve you will slow the heartdown. Stimulate the nerve attached to one heart.

Neurotransmitter: chemical released by one neuron that triggers aresponse in another neuron or target cell (e.g., muscle or gland)

o Many different transmitters, most neurons can respond tomore than one

Synaptic cleft (.02 microns or 200 Angstroms (10^-10m) Post-synaptic membrane thickening Cartoon #2 Youtube neural synapse

ENDING SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

Re-uptake dopamine Enzymatic degradation acetylcholine


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o Myasthenia gravis an example Autoimmune disease Antibodies block receptors at neuromuscular synapse Need more transmitter to get same response Give pyridostigmine, acetyl cholinesterase blocker Cartoon #3 positive tensilon (edrophonium quick

acting anti-cholinesterase) test

One type of acetylcholine receptor found in brain and nerve-musclesynapse Note that many potential binding sites

POST-SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS

EPSPs excitatory post-synaptic potentials ISPSs

o Graded responses, not APso Also conducted decrementallyo Can be any sizeo ESPSs can sumo ESPSs and ISPSs also sum

BUGS AND DRUGS

Agonists: external agents that have the same effect as atransmitters

o Amphetamine increased release of Dopamineo Block re-uptake

Cocaine (dopamine) Anti depressants (SSRIs) Serotonin

o Bind to same receptor Cannabinoids (bind to anadamide receptor) Nicotine Muscarine (Euripides) Arecoline betel nuts (slight euphoric)

Antagonists: extetnal agents that have an effect opposite to that oftransmitter

o Block release Alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (AMPT) is a tyrosine

hydroxylase enzyme inhibitor. Pheochromocytoma


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Botulinum toxin from anaerobic bacteria Botulus meanssausage. Must get inside nerve terminals and blocks

fusion of vesicles w/ membrane

o Bind to same receptor but block rather than stimulate Hardol (DA) Beta Blockers (NE) Curare & a snake venom alpha-bungarotoxin (Ach)

o Massive release followed by depletion Black widow spider venom


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Lecture 4 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

REVIEW QUESTIONS

How did Sherrington infer the synapse?

Stimulate the nerve to one heart and then you put some of theliquid in the other heart.

How was it demonstrated that the synaptic signal is chemical?What is a synaptic vesicle?

Packages of neurotransmitters that releases into a synaptic cleftwhen an action potential occurs.

Why dont the synaptic nobs get really big when the neuron fires a lot?

Synaptic vesicles are recycledName two ways that neurotransmitters are inactivated

Inactivated by an enzymeT, F, a single neuron can respond to more than one neurotransmitter true

Which transmitter system is affected in Myasthenia Gravis?

How do EPSPs and IPSPs differ from APs?

EPSPs and IPSPs are graded, they can be any size whereas actionpotentials cannot.

Name 2 ways that agonists can work

Agonist does the same thing as a transmitter, antagonist stops theprocesses

Agonists can block reuptake into the neuron OR mimic of neurotransmitters and combine with receptor OR cause release of the transmitter or promote release

ANTAGONIST CAN:

Block the receptor Promote reuptake

MOVING UP THE HIERARCHY TO REFLEX AND INHIBITION

THE REFLEX

Reflex: stereotyped glandular secretion or movement produces as adirect result of a stimulus

E.g.: startle, eye blink, pupil contraction, salivation, tendonreflexes, grasp, pulling away from pain

From DescartesWHY STUDY REFLEX HERE?


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Basic unit of movement. Can involve as little as 2 neurons. Nextstep up the hierarchy

INHIBITION

E.g. Reciprocal inhibitiono Flexors-extensors. Abduction (lift arms away from sides)-

Adduction (bring arms down toward the sides)

Cant have both contracting at the same time, not only lessefficient, but dangerous e.g. tetanus

Signal for contract for one sense an inhibitory signal to the other Where does inhibition come from? Most comes from higher levels of

the NS

Higher levels of NS dont replace lower ones, just take control of thefunctions of the lower levels and switch them on and off more

appropriately than lower levels could alone.

Relationship of higher levels to lower illustrated best bydisinhibition: what happens when higher levels are removed

Low level behaviors are often still intact but run on uncontrollably E.g., Neonatal reflexes e.g. rooting, grasp, sucking

o Seen in babieso Not seen in normal adultso Seen in brain damaged adults. Were inhibited as person got

older but were released from inhibition with brain damagePRAYING MANTIS

Female reflexive killer Makes copulation a problem (more in captivity than wild) In some species, male gives female something to chew on In others, male wraps gift first so that female spends whole time

unwrapping and can steal back to use with other mates

In still others, male dresses up as female and steals gifts that malesbring to him

Mantis does none of this Male carefully creeps up If female looks, he freezes Waits until she looks away to creep up some more Can take 10 minutes to move inches When gets close, leaps & turns in mid-air


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If, at any point, he makes a mistake, she is liable to eat him Why arent they extinct? Male copulates without head Illustrates importance of inhibition Illustrates how major levels of the NS interact

o Higher cerebral centers do not replace lower centers duringthe process of evolution and development

In the mantis, pattern for copulatory behavior resides in the 6thabdominal ganglion

Brain is able to turn pattern on and off by using inhibition Brain is more attuned to environment than is the 6 th ganglion alone I.e., brain uses visual information, ganglion runs continuously on its

own

ENCEPHALIZATION

In seeming contrast, as we travel the evolutionary tree toorganisms that are close man, find an increasing dependence on

higher centers

Encephalization is evolutionary tend for increasing dominance ofhigher cerebral centers

Hydra-nerve neto No hierarchicalorganizationo Simple reflexive behavior like withdrawing from a stimuluso Removal of one body part is no more debilitating than the

removal of any other

Mantis has some hierarchical organizationo Capable of more complex and flexible behavior than the hydrao Still not high flexible.

Encephalization does not mean that have thrown out functions oflower centers, just that they are carrying a smaller proportion of

the burden

Part of the reason for this is that higher centers not only takecontrol of the lower ones, but also add to them

Hughlings Jackson: loss of higher centers is like loss of prominentmen of government. We lose the talents of the particular men but

also lose the control that they provided.

HUMAN BRAIN


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See many alternating levels of inhibition and added capacities E.g., Thermoregulation, regulation of food intake from cortex, to

hypothalamus, to midbrain, to hindbrain, to spinal cord

PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is divided into the:o Central nervous system-brain and spinal cordo Peripheral nervous system (PNS)-includes bother efferent

and afferent nerves

The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system andthe autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic

Sympathetic activated more as a wholeo Sympathetic has a chain of ganglia near spinal cord.

Activation spreads

o Parasympathetic has ganglion near the end organo Parasympathetic uses Acetylcholineo Sympathetic uses epinephrine/norepinephrine (aka

adrenaline)

o Epinephrine also a hormone


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Lecture 5: Functional Circuitry of the Brain5/4/2012 12:58:00 AM

REVIEW QUESTIONS

How did Descartes philosophy lead to scientific study of the nervous system?

Perhaps some human and animal behavior is also mechanical.Name a neonatal reflex

GraspingWhat is a reciprocal inhibition?

Pairs of muscles that do opposite things, i.e. flex and extend.Why can the mantis copulate without his head?

The basic motor pattern is in the ganglion in the abdomen, not inthe head. When the head is bitten off, the activity pattern continues

on its own.

Why cant people behave without their heads?

Encephalization -> as there is evolution in the nervous system, youadd layers of control so newer parts of the brain take control of

other parts of the brain, but they also add to them. As people we

become dependent on the newer parts of the brain. We have

trouble moving without the head, but if you pinch a toe you could

get a response. We depend on our brains to be people.

What are the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system?

Somatic and autonomic nervous systemsWhich is used to digest food?

ParasympatheticWhich divisions of the autonomic nervous system tends to activate on a

whole?

Parasympathetic -> two mechanismso acetylcholine

Chain ganglion for the sympathetic nerves.LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION

Idea that specific brain parts are responsible for specific activities(movement, vision, speech, memory)

Certain components of activities that depend on specific parts of thebrain.

Influential idea in the mid 20th century The brain is hierarchal organized but we can talk about certain

components of activities that depend on different parts of the brain


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LANDMARKS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX

Frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. Central fissure, lateral fissure, longitudinal fissure Gyrus a bump in the brain Dorsal, ventral, lateral, medial, rostral, caudal

Longitudinal fissure divides the halves of the brain

Central fissure between frontal lobe and parietal lobe

Lateral fissure between temporal and frontal lobe

DIRECTIONS

Dorsal the top of the brain Ventral the bottom of the brain Lateral - sides Medial middle Rostral front Caudal back

Occipital lobe visual system

Temporal lobe auditory processing, language

SECTIONS

Cut through parallel to the face coronal section Cut through parallel to the floor horizontal section Cut through parallel to ears through middle of head, perpendicular

to face saggital section (the left side of the brain, medial surface)

Stimulate different parts of the brain to see their function.


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APRAXIA damage to a motor association area frontal lobe

Motor associations are just in front of frontal lobe Not paralyzed but movements will lack meaningful organization.

AGNOSIA damage to a sensory association area Visual agnosia people can see, they know that they can see, but

they cant make sense out of what they see.

o Damage in the occipital lobe (primary projection area forvision)

APHASIA deficit in the comprehension of language

Usually due to a lesion


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Lecture 6 5/4/2012 12:58:00 AM

PROJECTION AREAS

Language and practically every other behavior recruits componentsfrom all over the brain

You have crossed projection, crossed controlo The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body

and vice versa

Association areas are important because they show you howprojection areas can work alone

o If someone is damaged in the visual association area, theyarent necessarily blind but they cant make sense of what

they see, cant identify objects

APRAXIA

Damage to a motor association areaAPHASIA

Deficit in the production or comprehension of language usually dueto a lesion, brain damage

Brocas Aphasiao He could only say Ton

Wernickes Aphasiao Area is near the temporal lobe, next to auditory cortexo Very different type of language disordero Tremendous difficulty in understanding language however

they can speak fairly fluently

LANGUAGE CIRCUIT

In a blood flow study, what lights up when you speak?


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image and it can be put together by computer in the same

way that a cat scan can.

Functional imagingo fMRI (functional MRI): images over time that are related to

behavior. Measures blood flow in the brain. Oxygenatedhemoglobin responds differently to the field than does

deoxygenated hemoglobin. When a part of the brain is active,

blood flow to the part of the brain increases.

o positron emission tomography: small detectors all over thehead. Inject something with a radioactive label, something

like glucose (cells in the brain use more of when youre

active). Disadvantage: need a physicist to inject it.

Lesion Stimulation


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Lecture 7 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

MOTIVATION AND HIERARCHY

More complex Goal directed Behavior sequences arranged flexibly to achieve goal

THERMOREGULATIONIS FOOD INTAKE REGULATED?

More complex Dual center theory NO! NO! NO! Weight regained after diet What about response to over eating?

o No where near as robust as to the response to under eatingHOW IS INTAKE MONITORED &CONTROLLED?

Liver monitors fuelo Liver short term glucagon stores

Blood glucose monitored? Gut receptors produce hormones Leptin produced by fat stores Cortex (culture) and limbic system

OBESITY A GLOBAL EPIDEMIC

Very clear genetic component Which genes? Must also be environment

NON-HOMEOSTATIC EATING

Defend against caloric deficit Dont fully compensate for excess Eating in absence of need leads to obesity Also need to consider exercise

LIKING, WANTING, AND CRAVING DEFINED

Liking pleasantness or hedonic response or evaluative response toa stimulus

Wanting - desireo Craving a very strong desire

WHAT IS CRAVED?

Chocolate and pizza top most lists What is the critical characteristic?

o Calories?


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o Fat?o Forbidden?o Palatability?

YOUNG WOMEN REPORT MORE CRAVINGS FOR SWEETS

About 60% of the foods craved by young women are sweet andabout 40% are savory. For older adults and for young men the

proportions are reversed.

IS BOREDOM ENOUGH?

Is a nutritional deficit necessary for craving?o Nutritional deprivation is not necessary

fMRI AN EXAMPLE

4T (tesla) scan 2 groups MD and ND Imagine two liked goods or imagine monotonous diet in block

design

Why use imagination rather than video?BEHAVIORAL RESULTS

All participants in the MD group experienced cravings when theywere imagining the liked goods

No one experienced cravings when imagining the monotonous diet We were very successful at turning craving on and off in 30 sec.

binsBRAIN ACTIVATION ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD CAVING

These areas activated by drug craving as well Caudate involved inhabit and automatic responding

3 areas largely associated with craving: Hippocampus, Insula andCaudate

fMRI

fMRI is a potential non-verbal measure of liking, wanting, andcraving

Ultimately, all non-verbal measures & animal models must bevalidated against self-report

CONDITIONING

Conditioning effects used to explain compulsion to use drugs longafter withdrawal

Nutritional deprivation not necessary to produce food cravings


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Sight, smell or imagery may be trigger food craving Craving may be acquired response based on repeatedly eating the

craved food when hungry

PREVENTION OF AUTOMATIC EATING

Distraction prevent obsession Prevent response Remove trigger - prevent impulsive eating Portion control New cravings can be learned


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Lecture 8: Emotion 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

DEFINITIONS ARE MUDDY

Emotiono How many?

Moodo Related to emotion, but longer lasting

Affecto More general

MECHANISMS

Some brain mechanisms are the same, others are different All involve autonomic nervous system and limbic system

MECHANISMS,II

Common sense view see danger fear run James-Lange theory see danger body responds perceive

bodily response (running, elevated heart rate) fear

Cannono Physical responses not that differento Cold emotion

MECHANISMS,III

Schacter-Singer (Jukebox theories)

The physiological response may play a role, also cognitiono 4 groups Suproxin

Adrenalin, informed Adrenalin, uninformed Adrenalin, misinformed Saline

o Waiting room with confederateo Got emotion effects in groups 2 & 3

(Romeo & Juliet studies)FACIAL EXPRESSION

Darwin Facial Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals Homologous with other mammals

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS,II

Species general in humanso Cross culturalo Blind children

DISPLAY RULES


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Cultural norms (top of hierarchy) Expressions differ when alone and with others

REVIEW QUESTIONS

How do motivated behaviors fit into the hierarchy?o We do whatever it is that we need to do in order to reach the

goal (get food, get away from the bear, etc.)

What does homeostasis mean?o Staying the same. Theres something in the body that is being

regulated at the same level (body temperature, amount of

fluid)

What is a set point?o Related to the concept of homeostasis.o Target. When you move away from the set point of

physiological response might be triggered.

Name an autonomic response to being cold.o Shivering. Goosebumps.

What is the dual center theory of intake regulation?o There are two centers in the brain: the satiety center and the

feeding center. Feeding center: everything is a network.

Give some evidence that humans regulate their body weight - thatthey do not?

o People who stay thin no matter what regulate their bodyweight in the face of caloric excess

o People dont regulate their body weight: overweight people,they do not respond to Leptin.

What is glucagon? Leptin? Is obesity genetic?

o It is polygenic. Why does cue-induced eating promote weight gain?

o Often causes you to eat when you are not actually hungry.Respond more vigorously to caloric excess

Define food craving.o Strong desire to eat a specific food. Strong wanting

What is the difference between liking and wanting?o Wanting is desire.

Who is most likely to report food cravings?


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o Young women. Do cravings reflect a nutritional deficit?

o No. Triggered by cues in the environment. Is fMRI a more reliable measure of craving than self-report?

o Might want to do both. An overweight person might not wantto admit to the dessert cravings that were shown in the fMRI

What is localization of function?o Certain parts of the brain do specific things. Gives you the

idea that there is a speech center and language center and

that the function of the brain responds to words in our

language but that is not true.

What is your parietal lobe?o Top of your head, near the back.

Longitudinal fissure? Central fissure?o Runs between the two hemispheres.o Side that divides the parietal lobe

What is a gyrus?o A bump, one of the raised areas

Where would you find a motor homunculus? For the left side?o Motor projection area, the last place in the cortex that

movement is processed before the commands go back down

to the spinal cords in the muscles.o On the right side of the brain

Would more space be allotted to the hand or the arm?

Lecture Notes Exam 1

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