Lecture Notebook to accompany Principles of Life · Host's Diet. To treat certain digestive disorders, doctors try to increase the relative abundance of beneficial . Bifidobacterium.
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Sinauer Associates, Inc. W. H. Freeman and Company
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POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.01 Date 10-04-10
Organism
Ecosystem
Biosphere
Community
Population
FIGURE 42.1 The Hierarchy of Ecological Systems (Page 823)
A. Explorers realized that organisms and their environments are closely linked. 1. Physical geography and biogeography played major roles in this concept. 2. Environments and populations of organisms changed often. B. All organisms, including humans, are surround by an abiotic and biotic environment. C. Ecological systems can be small or large. 1. A system is an area of any interacting part. a. Such as YOUR GUT!!! How? 2. A boundary can be drawn around any part of the biological hierarchy. a. What that means is that on a tiny scale an organism and its immediate environment form an ecosystem. If it uses materials, energy.... then these can be used by other organisms.
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.02 Date 09-30-10
HYPOTHESIS
CONCLUSION
INVESTIGATION
Go to yourBioPortal.com for original citations, discussions,and relevant links for all INVESTIGATION figures.
Oligofructose stimulated the growth of bifidobacteria at the expense of potentially pathogenic bacteria.
The abundance of beneficial Bifidobacterium bacteria in the human gut can be increased relative to pathogenic bacteria by includingoligofructose in the diet.
METHOD
FIGURE 42.2 The Microbial Community of the Human Gut Depends on the Host's Diet To treat certain digestive disorders, doctors try to increase the relative abundance of beneficial Bifidobacterium bacteria in the human gut. This manipulation of the nutritional environment as a way of adjusting the species composition of the gut community is known as prebiotic therapy.
RESULTS
ANALYZE THE DATAResearchers measured the energy content of the subjects' stools and compared itwith the energy content of the ingested oligofructose. The stools contained nooligofructose because it had been fermented—converted into bacterial biomass and waste heat.
A. Was all of the oligofructose energy excreted?B. What happened to the energy that wasn’t excreted?C. What do these observations suggest about the role of gut bacteria in host nutrition?D. Why did the researchers follow the oligofructose diet with “Sucrose 2”? (Hint: If the microbial community in Sucrose 2 had not moved back toward its composition in Sucrose 1, would the Conclusion be different?
1. Feed 8 healthy human subjects a standardized experimental diet for 45 days. On days 1–15 supplement the diet with 15 g sucrose/day (“Sucrose 1”); on days 16–30, substitute 15 g oligofructose for the sucrose; on days 31–45 return to 15 g sucrose (“Sucrose 2”). 2. Collect stool samples during each 15-day period and assay for bacterial composition and energy content.
aSignificantly different from sucrose 1 (P < 0.01).bSignificantly different from oligofructose (P < 0.01).cSignificantly different from sucrose 1 (P < 0.05).
The number of bifidobacteriawas highest on the oligofructose diet.
The numbers of these potentially pathogenic bacteria were lowest on the oligofructose diet.
Energy (kJ/day)
Ingested as oligofructose 240Excreted in stools 77
(Page 824)
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A. What is a microbial community? How is this classified as an ecosystem? 1. Small ecosystems tend to be less complex that large ecosystems. 2. Larger ecosystems contain more interacting parts over a greater range of spatial and temporal scales. What is prebiotic therapy? or probiotic? Bifidobacterium? A gram positive, non-motile, anaerobic, gut bacterium that lives in the gastrointestinal digestive tract of humans. They are used in probiotics. Sucrose is basically table sugar/ 16 grams per tsp. Oligofructose is a natural sweetner derived from a plant that has an almost 0 caloric intake. Bifidobacterium can inhibit the caloric intake of potential pathogenic bacteria! When conducting an experiment, don't forget your data, graphs and conclusion! Go onto Microsoft Excel Read p. 825 top left paragraph!
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.03 Date 09-30-10
At and near the Equator, sunlight strikes Earth at a steep angle, delivering more heat and light per unit area.
Toward the poles, the sun’s rays strike Earth at an oblique angle andare spread over a larger area,so that their energy is diffused.
Toward the poles, the sun’s rays are absorbed as they must travel a longer distance through the atmosphere.
Equator (0°)
Direction ofEarth’s rotation
SouthPole(90°)
NorthPole(90°)
FIGURE 42.3 Solar Energy Input Varies with Latitude (Page 826)
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A. Climate and topography shape the earth's physical environment. 1. These processes determine whether a place is cold or hot, moist or dry, aquatic or terrestial. 2. Climate is a variation of patterns over time and what is expected. 3. Weather is the current.....and what you get. 4. Organisms respond differently to weather and climate. a. a plant can respond quickly to a hot summer day. b. an animal has to adapt to a certain climate.
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What would happen if the earth tilted 5 degrees more toward the sun?
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5. The sun's energy is greatest at the tropics. The heated air expands, becoming less dense and more buoyant and rises. It continues to expand and cool, adiabatically, when compressed gas expands it cools. 6. The cooled air sinks back to Earth and compresses then warms. 7. It completes a two patterns of vertical atmospheric circulation called Hadley cells.
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.07 Date 09-20-10
Latit
ude
60°
30°
0°
30°
60°
North Atlantic Drift
GulfStream
Equatorial Countercurrent
Carol,I’m using this map projection because it is used elsewhere in the book. If author wants the same projection as the Brooker art ms, I will have to redraw the map.This could get smaller.
Circumpolar Current
FIGURE 42.7 Ocean Currents (Page 828)
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Poleward flowing ocean currents carry heat from the tropics toward the poles, moderating the climates of higher latitudes.
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.08 Date 10-04-10
Tem
pera
ture
(°C
)
Precipitation (m
m)
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May JunMonth
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200100
Perth
Australia
FIGURE 42.8 Walter Climate Diagrams Summarize Climate in an Ecologically Relevant Way (Page 829)
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.09 Date 09-20-10
Prevailing winds pick up moisture over water bodies.
On the windward side of the mountain, air rises and cools, releasing moisture in the form of rain or snow and leading to lush vegetation.
On the leeward side of the mountain, air descends and warms. Moisture remains in the atmosphere as water vapor, resulting in dry conditions.
3
2
1
FIGURE 42.9 A Rain Shadow (Page 830)
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Walter climate diagrams show average monthly temperature and precipitation throughout the year. Walter determined that plant growth is optimal when the temperature is greater than 0 degrees Celsius and the precipitation line is above the temperature line. Looking at the diagram to the right when is the best growing time in Perth Australia?
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**For #2, think of condensation forming on your ice cup.
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1. Precipitation tends to lower on the leeward side of a mountain. Moisture remains in the atmosphere as water vapor as the warm air descends. The dry air is known as the rain shadow. 2. Physical conditions in any particular place and their range of variation determine which organisms can live there.
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.10 Date 11-08-10
Tropicalrain forest
Temperate rain forest
Tropicalseasonalforest/savanna
Subtropicaldesert Temperate
grassland/desert
Temperateseasonalforest
Woodland/shrubland
Borealforest
Tundra
Ann
ual p
reci
pita
tion
(cm
)
30 20 10 0 –10Average temperature (C°)
100
0
200
300
400
FIGURE 42.10 Temperature and Precipitation Gradients Determine Terrestrial Biomes (Page 831)
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.11 Date 11-08-10
Tropical rain forest
Tropical seasonal forest/savanna
Subtropical desert
Woodland/shrubland
Temperate grassland/desert
Temperate rain forest
Temperate seasonal forest
Boreal forest
Tundra
Polar ice cap
Alpine (mountains)
FIGURE 42.11 Global Terrestrial Biomes (Page 831)
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Concept 42.3 p. 830 I. Physical Geography provides a template for biogeography. A. Naturalist explorers of the 18th and 19th centuries laid the foundations for understanding how the distribution of Earth's physical environments shapes the distribution of organisms. 1. Species are only found in environments they can tolerate. Later read bottom paragraph p. 830 about Humboldt and plants. a. his discovery led the concept of biomes. b. species that occupy the same biome geographically separate regions are not closely related phylogenetically. Their morphological, physiological or behavioral similarities therefore reflect convergent evolution. 2. The distribution of terrestrial biomes is broadly determined by annual patterns of precipitation and temperature. 3. Elevation gradients also determine the distribution of biomes. Example tundra can be found on mountain tops in the tropics.
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.12 Date 10-12-10
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
FIGURE 42.12 Same Biome, Different Continents (Page 832)
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The Mediterranean climate produces a convergent woodland/ shrubland (biome) vegetation that is found all over the world. a. SW Australia b. Shrubland on the windward side of a California mountain c. Croatia d. Cape region of S. Africa
TABLE 42.1 Major Aquatic Biomes BIOMEa DESCrIpTION
FRESHWATER
Rivers and streams Flowing water. Many fast-flowing, small source streams form on high ground, feeding into networks of ever larger, slower-flowing streams and rivers. Biota adapted to constantly moving water.
Wetlands Glades, swamps, and marshes. Rich biota adapted to water-saturated soil and/or standing fresh water.
Ponds and lakes Significant bodies of standing fresh water. Ponds are smaller and shallower, subject to drying. Biotic zones determined by distance from shore and light penetration (see Figure 42.13A).
ESTUARIESb
Salt marshes Cool-temperate stands of salt-tolerant grasses, herbaceous plants, and low-growing shrubs. Crucial to nutrient cycling and coastal protection; rich habitat supporting diverse aquatic and terrestrial life.
Mangrove forests Tropical and warm subtropical coasts and river deltas. Dominated by mangrove trees with aerial roots (see Figure 28.11A). Rich in animal life; protect against coastal erosion.
mARInE
Intertidal Sandy or rocky coastlines subject to rising and falling tides; organisms adapted to withstand both submerged and dry conditions, as well as the force of waves and moving water.
Kelp forests Found in shallow coastal waters of temperate and cold regions. Dominated by large, leaflike brown algae (kelp) that support a wide variety of marine life.
Seagrass beds “Meadows” of monocot grasses (see Figure 21.29C) found in shallow, light-filled temperate and tropical waters.
Coral reefs Rich, highly endangered ecosystems of shallow tropical waters. Dependent on cnidarian corals (see Figure 23.9C) and their photosynthetic endosymbionts (see Concept 20.4).
Open ocean The pelagic zone (see Figure 42.13B) is rich in photosynthetic planktonic organisms that support a host of marine ani-mals. Below the level of light penetration, the abyssal zone supports a fauna largely dependent on detritus that sinks down from pelagic regions.
Hydrothermal vents Abyssal ecosystems warmed by volcanic emissions. Chemolithotrophic prokaryotes (see Concept 19.3) nourish large annelid worms (see Figure 23.17B) and other invertebrates.
a A benthic region—silt, sand, or other substrate and the organisms encompassed there—occurs in all three biome types.b Estuaries are coastal biomes where the water is brackish (i.e., fresh and salt water mix).
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.14 Date 10-04-10
The species living on Bali are similar to those in Thailandand the islands to the west.
The species living on Lombok are similar to those in Australia and New Guinea.
Wallace’s line separates two distinct modern terrestrial faunas.
Thailand
Borneo
Sumatra
Sunda Shelf
Java
New Guinea
Arafura Basin
Australia
PhilippinesCurrent land surface
Continental shelf (exposed during the Pleistocene)
Deep water (≥ 200 m below current sea level)
FIGURE 42.14 Wallace’s Line (Page 835)
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1. Wallace and Darwin accounted for the idea that natural selection influenced the evolution of life's diversity. 2. These differences could not be explained by climate or soil characteristics. 3. The movement of continents accounts for biogeographic regions. a. Wallace's observations of animal distributions led him to divide the world into 6 continental scale areas called biogeographic regions. b. Each region contains a distinct assemblage of animal species, of which many are phylogenetically related.
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During Pangea, the same animals lived in the same place. After the drift, the same animals ended up in different places on different islands. The animals then evolved to adapt to the new region or new biome.
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.15 Date 09-20-10
Carol,This is 42.15 and 42.17 combined. I had to add Antarctic to the map, also not sure how to handle the label near Madagascar that pointed to India before it attached to Asia.
The Sahara and Arabian Deserts separate the Palearctic and Ethiopian regions.
The Himalayas separate the Oriental and Palearctic regions.
The Mexican Plateau separates the Nearctic and Neotropical regions.
NEARCTIC
NEO-TROPICAL
ANTARCTIC
PALEARCTIC
ETHIOPIAN
ANTARCTIC
ANTARCTIC
ORIENTAL
Wallace’s line separates the Oriental and Australasian regions.
AUSTRALASIAN
Cretaceous (100 mya)
70
45
180
100
100–110
180
6
45
80
49
49
17
FIGURE 42.15 movement of the Continents Shaped Earth’s Biogeographic Regions (Page 835)
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The major biogeographical regions occupy land masses that have been isolated from one another for most of the Cenozoic era- long enough to allow the organisms present at the time to undergo independent evolutionary radiations. Continued movements of continents have more recently eliminated some barriers to dispersal and have caused mixing of species, referred to as biotic interchange. This happened when India collided with Asia 45mya allowing the mixing of organisms. Africa collided with Eurasia 17 mya but the Sahara desert presented a climatic barrier. Currently, the Mexican Plateau provides a barrier to the northward dispersal of tropical species.
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.16 Date 09-20-10
The southmost land mass in Gondwanaseparated from South America and driftedacross the South Pole, to become Antarctica and the South Pacific land masses.
Distributionof Nothofagus
Australia
New Guinea
New Caledonia
New ZealandTasmania
SouthAmerica
Present
Cretaceous(100 mya)
Nothofagus sp.
Laurasia
Gondwana
FIGURE 42.16 Distribution of Nothofagus (Page 836)
POL HillisSinauer AssociatesFigure 42.17 Date 09-20-10
FIGURE 42.17 Human Agricultural Practices Produce a Uniform Landscape (Page 838)