Lecture 4, 20-755: The Internet, Summer 1999 1 20-755: The Internet Lecture 4: Internetworking I David O’Hallaron School of Computer Science and Department.

Lecture 4, 20-755: The Internet, Summer 1999 1

20-755: The InternetLecture 4: Internetworking I

David O’Hallaron

School of Computer Science and

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Carnegie Mellon University

Institute for eCommerce, Summer 1999


Today’s lecture

• Connecting computers (50 min)

• Break (10 min)

• Connecting networks (50 min)


Typical computer system

Local/IO BusLocal/IO Bus

MemoryMemory Networkadapter

Networkadapter

IDE diskcontroller

IDE diskcontroller

Videoadapter

Videoadapter

DisplayDisplay NetworkNetwork

ProcessorProcessor Interruptcontroller

Interruptcontroller

SCSIcontroller

SCSIcontroller

SCSI busSCSI bus

Serial port controller

Serial port controller

Parallel portcontroller

Parallel portcontroller

Keyboardcontroller

Keyboardcontroller

KeyboardKeyboard MouseMouse PrinterPrinterModemModem

disk

disk cdrom


Simple example

Starting Point: Want to send bits between 2 computers• FIFO (First-in First-out) queue (buffer) on each end

• Can send both ways (“full duplex”)

• Name for standard group of bits sent: “packet”

• Packet format and rules for communicating them (“protocol”)

Simple request/response protocol and packet format:

0/1 data/address

0: please send the data word at “address”1: here is the data word you asked for.

header payload


Questions about simple example• What if more than 2 computers want to communicate?

– Need an interconnect? Need computer address field in packet?

• What if the machines are far away?– WAN vs LAN

• How do multiple machines share the interconnect?– multiple paths? arbitration? congestion control?

• What if a packet is garbled in transit?– Add error detection field in packet?

• What if a packet is lost?– More elaborate protocols to detect loss?

• What if multiple processes per machine?– one queue per process? separate field in packet to identify process?

• Warning: You are entering a buzzword-rich environment!!!


Generic network

softwaresoftware

hardwarehardware

Interconnect (wires, repeaters, bridges, etc)Interconnect (wires, repeaters, bridges, etc)

softwaresoftware

hardwarehardware

softwaresoftware

hardwarehardware

link link link

host host host

protocol stack

network adapter/interface card

OS code


Protocols• A protocol defines the format of packets and the rules

for communicating them across the network.

• Different protocols provide different levels of service:– simple error correction (ethernet)

– uniform name space, unreliable best-effort datagrams (host-host) (IP)

– reliable byte streams (TCP)

– unreliable best-effort datagrams (process-process) (UDP)

– multimedia data retrieval (HTTP)

• Crucial idea: protocols leverage off of the capabilities of other protocols.


Protocol layering

Protocols provide specialized services by relying on services provided by lower-level protocols (I.e., they leverage lower-level services).

Reliable byte streamdelivery(process-process)

Unreliablebest effort datagramdelivery(host-host)

Unreliablebest effortdatagramdelivery(process-process)

User application program (FTP, Telnet, WWW, email)User application program (FTP, Telnet, WWW, email)

User datagram protocol(UDP)

User datagram protocol(UDP)

Transmission control protocol (TCP)

Transmission control protocol (TCP)

Internet Protocol (IP)Internet Protocol (IP)

Network interface (ethernet)Network interface (ethernet)

hardwarehardware Physical connection

interface between user code and OS code(Application program interface (API))


Encapsulation

TCP segment header

TCP segment header datadata

datadata

Ethernet frameheader

Ethernet frameheader

IP datagramheader

IP datagramheader

TCP segment header


IP datagramheader

IP datagramheader

TCP segment header


Application program

TCP

IP

Adapter

Network

OS code

User codeUser Interface (API)

OS/adapter interface(exception mechanism)

Adapter/Network interface


Basic network types

• System area net (SAN)– same room (meters)

– 300 MB/s Cray T3E

• Local area network (LAN)– same bldg or campus

(kilometers)

– 10 Mb/sEthernet

– 100 Mb/s Fast Ethernet

– 100 Mb/s FDDI

– 150 Mb/s OC-3 ATM

– 622 Mb/s OC-12 ATM

• Metropolitan area network (MAN)

– same city (10’s of kilometers)

– 800 Mb/s Gigabit Nectar

• Wide area network (WAN)– nationwide or worldwide

(1000’s of kilometers)

– telephone system

» AT&T, MCI, Sprint

– 1.544 Mb/s T1 carrier

– 44.736 Mb/s T3 carrier


Examples of transmission media

2 insulated copper wires

twisted pair:twisted pair: (1-2 Mb/s at 1 km)

stiff copper wire

insulator

braided outer conductor

plastic cover

coaxial cable:coaxial cable: (1-2 Gb/s at 1 km)

silicalight source

fiber:fiber: (100-200 Gb/s at 1 km)

station wagon full of mag tapes hurtling down the highway every hour:

station wagon full of mag tapes hurtling down the highway every hour:

(15 Gb/s at 1 hour)

7 GBytes/tape1000 tapes/station wagon (50x50x50cm)7,000 GBytes total7,000 GBytes/3600 seconds = 15 Gb/s

$5/tape reused 10 times -> $500 tape cost$200 for shipping ->10 cents /GByte


Shared vs switched mediaShared media (e.g., Ethernet) Switched media (e.g., ATM)

bb

ccaa

ddswitch

aa ccbb dd

aa ccbb ddbb

ccaa

ddswitch

aa ccbb dd

aa ccbb dd

output portsinput ports


Network performance measures• Link bandwidth

– throughput measure expressed as rate

» MB/s = 220 bytes/sec» Mb/s = 106 bits/sec

– transfer rate across link

• Bisection bandwidth– smallest achievable

throughput if network is cut in half

• Latency– elapsed time (s, ms, etc) – time to cross network

• Overhead– another latency measure– time to snd/rcv first byte.


Example performance measures

Interconnect SAN LAN WAN

Example CM-5 Ethernet ATM

Bisection BW N x 5MB/s 1.125 MB/s N x 10 MB/s

Link BW 20 MB/s 1.125 MB/s 10 MB/s

Latency 5 µsec 15 µsec 50 to 10,000 µs

HW Overhead to/from 0.5/0.5 µs 6/6 µs 6/6 µs

SW Overhead to/from 1.6/12.4 µs 200/241 µs 207/360 µs (TCP/IP on

LAN/WAN)

N = number of hosts


AT&T Telephone Hierarchy

1

9876

5432

10

1 2 3 65 66 67

1 2 3 228 229 230

10 regional offices(fully interconnected)

67 sectional offices

230 primary offices

1,300 toll offices

19,000 end offices

200 million telephones

1 2 3 1298 1299 1300

local loopslocal loops

Source: Tannenbaum


Connecting distant computers with modems

codeccodec codeccodec

digital (short cable or bus)33 MB/s

digital (short cable or bus)33 MB/s

digital digital

28.8 Kb/sanaloglocal loop

1.544 Mb/s (T1 carrier) 28.8 Kb/sanaloglocal loop

local office

local office

tolloffice

homecomputer

homecomputer

ISPcomputer

ISPcomputer

V.34 modemV.34 modemV.34 modemV.34 modem


Modulating digital signals0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

binary signaling

amplitude modulation

phase modulation

00 : no shift01: 1/4 shift left10: 1/2 shift left11: 3/4 shift left(shifts are relativeto previous wave)

sine wave carrier (1kHz-2kHz)


Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

Modern modems use a combination of of amplitude and phase modulation toencode multiple bits per “symbol”, i.e. amplitude/phase pair.

3 bits/symbol QAM modulation(8 symbols)

phase angleis 1/4

4 bits/symbol QAM modulation(16 symbols)

1/8


Conventional Modems

MOdulate: convert from digital to analogDEModulate: convert from analog to digital

modem standards:

type symbols/sec bits/symbol Kb/s

v.32 2400 4 9.6v.32.bis 2400 6 14.4v.34 3200 9 28.8

modem standards:

type symbols/sec bits/symbol Kb/s

v.32 2400 4 9.6v.32.bis 2400 6 14.4v.34 3200 9 28.8

Theoretical limit for modulated signals is approx 35 Kb/s:

Shannon's law: max bits/s = H log2(1 + S/N), where H is bandwidthand S/N is signal to noise ratio. For phone network, H~3,600 bpsand 10 log10 (S/N) = 30 dB. Thus max rate is ~35 Kb/s.


T1 carrier (1.544 Mb/s)

Digital part of phone system based on the T1 carrier:

193 bit frame (125 us, 8000 samples/s, 8 bits/sample/channel)

channel 1 channel 2 channel 3 channel 24

8 data bitsper channelbit 1 is a

framing code

Each channel has a data rateof 8000 samples/s * 8 bits/channel = 64 Kb/s


56KB “Modems”

– Asymmetric: home to SP uses conventional v.34 modem

– SP has digital connection into phone system

» Channel sending 8000 samples / second, up to 8-bits/sample

– DAC encodes each sample with 92 or 128 voltage levels

» Not enough precision on analog side to handle finer resolution

– Receiver converts samples back to digital values

» Must match frequency & phase of senders DAC

» Establish using “training” signals from sender

digital (short cable or bus)

DACDAC

digital digital

Analog Samples:92 or 128 levels8000 samples/second

1.544 Mb/s (T1 carrier)

local office

tolloffice

home computerhome computerService Provider

(ISP)

Service Provider(ISP)

InterfaceInterface

V.90 modemreceiver

V.90 modemreceiver

ADCADC

Binary Signal:56,000 bits/second

Key: no analogconversion at ISP


Connecting nearby computers using Ethernet

• History– 1976- proposed by Metcalfe and Boggs at Xerox PARC

– 1978 - standardized by Xerox, Intel, DEC

• Bandwidth– 10 Mbits/sec (old) , 100 Mbits/sec (current), 1GB/s (new)

• Key features– broadcast over shared bus (the ether)

» no centralized bus arbiter

» each adapter sees the same bit stream

– each adapter has a unique (for all time!) 48-bit address

– variable length frames (packets) (64 - 1518 bytes)


Ethernet cabling

controllercontroller

10Base5 (“thick ethernet”)

transceiver (carrier and collision detection)

50 m

transceiver &controller


10Base2 (“thin ethernet”)



10Base-T

hubhub

name cable max segment nodes/segment advantages

10Base5 thick coax 500 m 100 good for backbones10base2 thin coax 200 m 30 cheapest10Base-T twisted pair 100 m 1024 easy maintenance10Base-F fiber 2000 m 1024 best between bldgs

Source: Tannenbaum


Ethernet packet (frame) format

64 bits 48 bits 48 bits 16 bits 368-12000 bits 32 bits

Preamble Destaddr

Srcaddr

Frametype

Payload CRC

64 - 1518 bytes

Preamble: 101010101 (synch)

Dest and Src addr: unique ethernet addresses

Frame type: indicates what packet type it encapsulates

E.g. encapsulated IP packets are denoted by 0x0800

Payload: data (may include encapsulated packets of other protocols)

CRC: cyclic redundancy check (error detection/correction)

8 bits

Postamble

visible from the host


Ethernet receiving algorithm

• Ethernet adapter receives all frames.

• Accepts:– frames addressed to its own address

– frames addressed to broadcast address (all 1’s).

– frames addressed to multicast address (1xxx...), if it has been instructed to listen to that address

– all frames, if it has placed in promiscuous mode

• Passes to the host OS (via the exception mechanism) only those packets it accepts.


Ethernet sending algorithm (CSMA/CD)• Problem: how to share one wire without centralized control.

• Ethernet solution: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD):

• 1. Adapter has frame to send and line is idle:– then send frame immediately

• 2. When adapter has frame to send and line is busy:– wait for line to become idle, then send frame immediately.

• 3. If “collision” (simultaneous sends) occurs during transmission:

– send at least 1024 bits

– send “jam signal” to notify receivers

– wait some period of time (binary exponential backoff)

– retry


Binary exponential backoff

FrameFrame

Contention Slots (51.2 us per slot)

Idle

Binary exponential backoff algorithm:

• after 1st collision, wait 0 or 1 contention slots, at random.

• after 2nd collision, wait 0, 1, 2, or 3 contentio slots at random.

• etc up to 1023 slots.

• after 16 collisions, exception.

FrameFrameFrameFrameFrameFrame

Contention interval


Why the 64 byte minimum packet size?

AA BB

Assume propagation delay from A to B is tau microseconds (us).

A sends to B at time 0

AA BBpacket almost at B at time tau-eps

AA BBB sends at time tau: collision

AA BBNoise burst gets back to A at time 2*tau

Conclusion: Senders must take morethan 2*tau seconds to send their packets.

For ethernet, 2*tau is specified by standard(2500 m cable w/ 4 repeaters) to be 51.2 us,which at 10 Mb/s is 512 bit times, or 64 bytes.

Rough estimate: propagation through copperis about 20 cm/ns. With a 2500 m cable,tau is 12.5 us and 2*tau is 25 us.

As speeds increase there are two possibilities:1. increase packet sizes2. decrease maximum cable length

Neither is particularly appealing.


Ethernet pros and cons

• Pros:– simple

– robust

– cheap ($50/adapter in 1998)

• Cons:– no quality of service guarantees

» OK for data

» not always OK for real-time bit streams like video or voice

– fixed bit rate

» not keeping up with faster processors

» workstations can produce data at 10-50 MBytes/sec

– prone to congestion

» processors getting faster

» bridged Ethernets can help


Break time!


Today’s lecture

• Connecting computers (50 min)

• Break (10 min)

• Connecting networks (50 min)


The internetworking idea (Kahn, 1972)

• Build a single network (an interconnected set of networks, or internetwork, or internet) out of a large collection of separate networks.

– Each network must stand on its own, with no internal changes allowed to connect to the internet.

– Communications would be on a best-effort basis.

– “black boxes” (later called routers) should be used to connect the networks.

– No global control at the operations level.


Internetworking challenges

• Challenges:– heterogeneity

» lots of different kinds of networks (Ethernet, FDDI, ATM, wireless, point-to-point)

» how to unify this hodgepodge?

– scale

» how to provide uniques names for potentially billions of nodes? (naming)

» how to find all these nodes? (forwarding and routing)

• Note: internet refers to a general idea, Internet refers to a particular implementation of that idea (The global IP Internet).


Internetworking with repeaters

r

r

r

r

Repeaters (also called hubs)(r in the figure) directly transferbits from their inputs to their outputs


Internetworking with repeaters

Host on network A

Host on network B

Telnet, FTP, HTTP, email application

transport

network

data link

physical

application

transport

network

data link

10Base-T physical

Repeater(forwards bits)


Internetworking with repeaters:Pros and cons

• Pros– Transparency

» LANS can be connected without any awareness from the hosts.

– Useful for serving multiple machines in an office from one ethernet outlet.

• Cons– Not scalable

» ethernet standard allows only 4 repeaters.

» more than 4 would introduce delays that would break contention detection.

– No heterogeneity

» Networks connected with repeaters must have identical electrical properties.


Internetworking with bridges

b

b

b

b

Bridges (b In the figure) maintain a cache of hosts on their input segments.

Selectively transferethernet frames from their inputs to their outputs.


Internetworking with bridges

Host on network A

Host on network B

Telnet, FTP, HTTP, email application

transport

network

data link

physical

application

transport

network

data linkCSMA/CD

10Base-T physical

Bridge(forwards ethernet

frames)


Bridges

A B C

X Y Z

bridge

Ethernet A

Ethernet X

adapter (interface)

port 1 (really just another adapter)

port 2

Unlike repeaters (which operateat the physical level), bridges operate at the data link level(or link level).

By link level, we mean that theycan parse and understand e.g. ethernet frames (as opposed to IP packets).

Basic forwarding algorithm (flooding): copy each received frame to all other ports.


Learning bridges

Problem: Flooding is wasteful

A B C

X Y Z

bridge

Ethernet A

Ethernet X

port 1

port 2

Optimization: Forward packets only when necessary by learning andremembering which hosts are connected to which bridge ports.


Learning bridges (cont)

Learning algorithm:

1. start with empty hash table T that maps hosts to ports2. receive frame from host src on port p3. add (src,p) to T4. delete old entries

Forwarding algorithm: 1. receive frame f from host src to host dst on port p 2. if T(dst) = n/a then flood f. else if T(dst) = p then discard f else forward f on port T(dst).


Learning bridges (example)

A B C

X Y Z

bridge

Ethernet A

Ethernet X

1

2

host portA 1

A -> C

flood 2 & 3

host portA 1B 1

B -> A

discard

host portA 1B 1X 2

X -> A

forward on 1

P Q R

3 Ethernet P


Cycles in bridged networks

1. host writes frame Fto unknown destination

B2B1

F1

2. B1 and B2 flood

F2

B2B1

F

B2B1

F1

4. B1 and B2 flood

F2

B2B1

F1

3. B2 reads F1, B1 reads F2

F2

B2B1

F2

5. B1 reads F1 B2 reads F2

F1

B2B1

F1

6. B1 and B2 flood

F2


Spanning tree bridges

B3

A

B4 B5

B

G

B2

B1

C D

E

F

B3

A

B4 B5

B

G

B2

B1

C D

E

F

• Networks are graph nodes, ports are graph edges• Tree is constructed dynamically by a distributed “diffusing computation” that prunes ports.• “spanning” refers only to networks, not bridges


Portion of the bridged CMU internet

ATM

PSCpitt.edu

AT&T Sprint

es-weh-cle-4.net.cs(PDL/CMCL Labs)

7th floorWean

es-weh-cl6-2.net.cs

gw.cs

poconos.cmcl

backbone-1.net.csinterlink.sw.net

8th floor Wean

baker porterrtrbone.net

cmu-fddi.psc.net

cyert host


Internetworking with bridges:Pros and cons• Pros

– Transparency

» LANS can be connected without any awareness from the hosts

» popular solution for campus-size networks

• Cons– Transparency can be misleading

» looks like a single Ethernet segment, but really isn’t

» packets can be dropped, latencies vary

– Homogeneity

» can only support networks with identical frame headers (e.g., Ethernet/FDDI)

» however, can connect different speed Ethernets

– Scalability

» tens of networks only

– bridges forward all broadcast frames

– increased latency


Internetworking with application gateways

• application gateways (g in the figure) connect different networks for particular applications.

• Example: – User on host x posts

news item to gateway machine on network A.

– Gateway on A passes item (along with others) to gateway B.

– User on host y reads message from gateway on B.

g x

g y

Network A

Network B

phone system


Internetworking with application gateways

Application gatewayon network A

host on network B

usenet news application

data link

physical

application

data linkmodem

phone physical

Application gatewayon network B

transport

network

Gateway program


Internetworking with application gateways:

Pros and cons• Pros

– Heterogeneous

» can connect different types of networks

– Simple

» modems + gateway software

• Cons– Not general-purpose

» each solution is application-specific


Internetworking with routers

• Def: An internetwork (internet for short) is an arbitrary collection of physical networks interconnected by routers to provide some sort of host-to-host packet delivery service.

internetinternet

hosthost

hosthost

hosthost

hosthost


Building an internet

XX YY ZZ

network 2 (ECE)

adaptoradaptor adaptoradaptoradaptoradaptor

AA BB CC

network 1 (SCS)


We start with two separate, unconnected computer networks (subnets), which are at different locations, and possibly built by different vendors.

Ethernet ATM

Question: How to present the illusion of one network?


Building an internet (cont)

XX YY ZZ

network 2 (ECE)


AA BB C (router)C (router)

network 1 (SCS)


Next we physically connect one of the computers, called a router (in this case computer C), to each of the networks.

adaptoradaptor



XX YY ZZ

network 2 (ECE)


AA BB C (router)C (router)

network 1 (SCS)

adaptoradaptor adaptoradaptoradaptoradaptor adaptoradaptor

128.2.250.1

Finally, we run a software implementation of the Internet Protocol (IP)on each host and router. IP provides a global name space for the hosts, routing messages between network1 and network 2 if necessary.

IP addresses:128.2.250.0128.2.80.0128.2.250.2 128.2.80.1 128.2.80.2 128.2.80.3



internetinternet

128.2.250.1128.2.250.1

128.2.80.3128.2.80.3

128.2.80.1128.2.80.1

128.2.250.0128.2.80.3

128.2.250.0128.2.80.3

128.2.250.2128.2.250.2128.2.80.2128.2.80.2

At this point we have an internet consisting of 6 computers built from2 original networks. Each computer on our internet can communicatewith any other computer. IP provides the illusion that there is just one network.

Lecture 4, 20-755: The Internet, Summer 1999 1 20-755: The Internet Lecture 4: Internetworking I David O’Hallaron School of Computer Science and Department.

Documents