Lecture 1 Introduction to Research Method

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PI10203Research Methods

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Introduction to Research Methods

An Example From PsychologyResearch

Psychologists develop theories and conductresearch to answer questions about behavior andmental processes.

Psychological research provides answers thatimpact individuals and society.

One example is the research on the effects ofmedia violence on youth.

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Media Violence and Aggression

After five decades of research, what dopsychologists say about the behavioral,emotional, and social effects of media violence? Exposure to media violencecausesan increase in the

likelihood of aggressive thoughts, emotions, andbehaviors in short- and long-term contexts.

The effects of violence in the media are consistentacross a variety of research studies and methods,samples of people, and types of media (e.g., TV,films, video games, Internet, music).

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Media Violence and Aggression(continued)

Recent long-term studies link frequent childhoodexposure to media violence with adult aggression

including physical assaults and spouse abuse.

Research evidence supports psychologists theoriesthat media violence:

activates (primes) peoples aggressive cognitions andphysiological arousal,

facilitates peoples learning of aggressive behaviorsthrough observation (modeling), and

desensitizes people to violence.

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Media Violence and Aggression(continued)

Factors that influence the likelihood of aggression inresponse to media violence include: characteristics of viewers (e.g., age, identification with

aggressive characters), social environments (e.g., parental monitoring), and

media content (e.g., realism of violent depictions,consequences of violence).

Nooneis immune to the effects of media violence.

Source: Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R.,Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N. M., & Wartella, E. (2003). Theinfluence of media violence on youth.Psychological ScienceinthePublicInterest, 4,81-110.

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The Scientific Method

Scientific method refers to

anabstract concept,

not aparticulartechnique or method.

The scientific method refers to ways in whichscientists ask questions and the logic andmethods they use to gain answers.

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The Scientific Method(continued)

Two important aspects of the scientific method

are: the reliance on anempirical approach,and

theskeptical attitudescientists adopt towardexplanations of behavior and mental processes.

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The Scientific Method(continued)

An empirical approach to gaining knowledgeemphasizes:

observation of behaviors that can be observeddirectly, and

experimentation in which scientists employsystematic control in the situation to be observed.

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Science in ContextHistorical, Social/ Cultural, and Moral Contexts

Historical Context The scope of scientific psychology has increased dramatically

in 100 years. The American Psychological Association (APA) and theAmerican Psychological Society (APS) promote the scienceof psychology.

At the turn of the 20thcentury, early psychologists adoptedthe empirical approach as the best means for developing thescience of psychology.

The computer revolution has been a key factor in the shiftfrom behaviorism to cognitive psychology as the dominanttheoretical perspective in psychology.

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Science in Context (continued)

Social and Cultural Context

Scientists questions, resources, and acceptance areinfluenced by the currentzeitgeist (pronounced:tsahyt-gahyst) the social and cultural spirit of the times.

Because scientists conduct psychological research ina social and cultural context, they are susceptible tothe potential bias of ethnocentrism.

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Ethnocentrism

Abiasin which we try to understand the behavior ofindividuals in adifferentculture through the framework orviews of ourownculture.

Be aware of cultural influences.

The way we think about ourselves and others is heavilyinfluenced by the culture in which we live.

Our understanding of psychology is based on researchdone primarily within the American cultural context.

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An ethnocentric bias can influence the research areas andquestions we choose to pursue.For example:

Do we focus ondeficitsin aging people (e.g., decliningmemory) rather thanstrengths(e.g., wisdom)?

Do we examine questions of aggressionand race rather thannurturanceand race?

When developing a research question, be sure to considerwhether you are being ethnocentric.

Consider developing a research question that goesagainstthe cultural norm.

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An ethnocentric bias also influences how weinterpret behavior.

Consider, for example, how we stereotype peoplebased on their dress, hairstyle or body art (e.g.,Goths, Hip-Hop).

Has your behavior ever been interpreted in terms ofan ethnocentric bias?

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Moral Context

Scientists maintain the highest standards for integrityand ethical conduct.

Scientists do not fabricate data, plagiarize, orselectively report research findings.

Psychologists consult the ethical principles of theAmerican Psychological Association.

The code of ethics helps researchers to evaluate dilemmas, such astherisks and benefitsassociated withdeceptionandthe use ofanimalsin research.

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Thinking Like a Researcher

To think like a researcher is to beskeptical regardingclaims about the causes of behavior and mentalprocesses even claims made on the basic of published scientific

findings.

The strongest evidence for a claim about behaviorcomes fromconvergingevidenceacross many studies although scientists recognize that claims are always

probabilistic.

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Thinking Like a Researcher(continued)

Scientists are similar to detectives and others inthe legal system. Both groups seek to make decisions based on

evidence.

In the legal system, a small amount of evidenceleads tosuspicion, but a large amount of evidenceis needed to convictsomeone of a crime.

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Thinking Like a Researcher(continued)

Similar to legal evidence, scientific evidence variesaccording to the strength of the evidence.

Description of behavior

Prediction about behavior

Evidence for the cause of a behavior

Replications (repetitions) of findings for the cause ofbehavior

The stronger the evidence, the more confident we canbe about the claim about behavior.

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Evidence and Decision Making

Quality & Extent ofLegal Decision Evidence Scientific Decisions

suspicion of guilt low description

arrest prediction

arraignment statement about causes

c onvi ction hi gh r epli catio n o f f in dings

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Guidelines for Evaluating Reports ofResearch

Dont confuse pseudoscience or nonscience

with science. Be skeptical.

Be aware that scientists may disagree.

Keep in mind that research is generally aboutaverages.

Whenever possible, go to theoriginal source.

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Adams asserts in her book Chicken Little that "without adoubt, the chicken came

before the egg" (as cited in Smith, 2005).

Getting Started Doing Research

What should I study?

Choose a research topic by reviewing topics in

journals,

textbooks, and

courses.

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Getting Started(continued)

Research Hypotheses

A hypothesis(plural: hypotheses) is

a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, and

is often stated in the form of a prediction togetherwith an explanation for the prediction.

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Examples of hypotheses:

Research participants who play violent video gamesarepredictedto behavemoreaggressively afterexposure than participants who passively viewtelevision violence

because

video game participants aggression is reinforced(rewarded) while playing the game.

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Examples of Hypotheses(continued)

Research participants who play violent video gamesarepredictedto behavelessaggressively after theexposure than participants who passively viewtelevision violence

because

video game participants have the opportunity torelease any aggressive impulses; passive televisionviewers do not have the opportunity during

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How do I develop a hypothesis to test in myresearch? Think about deviations (oddities, exceptions) from a general

trend or principle. Imagine how you would behave in a task or when faced with a

specific problem. Consider similar problems with known solutions. Make sustained, deliberate observations of a person or

phenomenon (e.g., perform a case study). Generate counterexamples for an obvious conclusion about

behavior. Borrow ideas or theories from other disciplines. Read reports of psychological research.

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Is the research question a good one? Why might this question be scientifically important?

What is the scope of this question?

What are likely outcomes if I carry out this research project?

To what extent will psychological science be advanced byknowing the answer to this question?

Why would anyone be interested in the results obtained byasking this question?

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The Multimethod Approach toPsychological Research

There isonescientific method.

There aremanypsychological research questionsand research methods.

Psychologists study many different topics fromdiverse areas:

clinical, social, industrial/organizational,developmental, counseling, physiological,cognitive, educational, personality, human factors,neuropsychology, etc.

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The Multimethod Approach(continued)

No single research method or technique cananswer all of the different questions.

An important advantage of the multimethodapproach is that researchers obtain a morecomplete understanding of complex behaviorand mental processes.

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Researchers recognize there is no perfectmethod for answering questions

each method or measure of behavior has flaws ormay be incomplete in its ability to answer researchquestions fully.

By using multiple methods, the flaws associatedwith any particular method are overcome byother methods that fill in the gaps.

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The multimethod approach means that we have atoolbox with different tools for conductingresearch.

The focus of this class is to introduce you to thedifferent research tools and how to use them.

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Steps of the Research Process(An overview of this course.)

1. Develop a research question.

Be aware of ethnocentrism.

Gain personal experience doing research.

Read psychological literature.

2. Generate a research hypothesis.

Read psychological theories on your topic.

Consider personal experience, think of exceptions,and notice inconsistencies in previous research.

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Research Steps(continued)

3. Form operational definitions.

Look to previous research to see how others havedefined the same constructs (concepts).

Identify the variables you will examine.

4. Choose a research design. Decide whether your research question seeks to

describe, allow prediction, or identify causalrelationships.

Choose the appropriate research design for yourquestion.

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5. Evaluate the ethical issues. Identify the potential risks and benefits of the research and

the ways in which participants welfare will be protected.

Submit a proposal to an ethics review committee.

Seek permission from those in authority.

6. Collect and analyze data; form conclusions. Get to know the data.

Summarize the data.

Confirm what the data reveal.

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6. Report research results.

Present the findings at a psychologyconference.

Submit a written report of the study to apsychology journal.

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Discussion Questions

Have you heard or read media reports about

psychological research? Did you accept the report without questions?

Why or why not?

Did you have enough information?

What do other scientists say about the topic?

Could the report be biased?

Copyright 2015 McGraw-HillEducation. All rights reserved. No reproductionordistribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Discussion Questions,continued

Do you remember ever being skeptical aboutresearch presented in the media?

Why were you skeptical?

What information would have made you lessskeptical?

Did a finding seem too good to be true?

Did anyone have anything to gain through thereport?

Have the findings been replicated (repeated)?



What research topics in psychology interest you?

What hypotheses can you form about your topic?

What relationships might exist between variables (factors)

youve identified?Can you make predictions regarding your topic?

Can you identify potential causes for the behavior orphenomenon?



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Does your cultural background influence your

choice of topic and hypotheses? Would people with different backgrounds view your

topic similarly?

Consider people with different sex, age, racial,socioeconomic status than yourself.

Might these characteristics make a difference foryour topic?

Are there other cultural variables that would make adifference?



What research topics and theories are currentlypopular among psychologists?

What psychology research topics areinvestigated at your school?



How might our current social and culturalcontext be related to the prominence of certainresearch topics?

To what extent does ethnocentric bias play arole in the prominence of current researchtopics?



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Tutorial Classes PT10203 (SECTION 2) tutorial registration for is nowopen. Please register your tutorial class

online. Maximum35 students/tutorial. For Section 1 please contact Mr.BedduSalamBaco.

Tuesday 8am-9am(BS3)

Tuesday 9am-10am(BS3)

Wednesday8am-9am(BS3)



Wednesday11am-12pm(BS3)

Thursday8am-9am(BS3)

Online registration will commencefrom6th February 2015(8a.m.) to 27February, Friday (5p.m.). Any later than that will not be entertained.

Tutorial classesbeginonthe THIRD WEEK of the semester(3, 4& 5March 2015).

Attendanceis compulsory.

Please be informed that theFIRST LECTUREwill commenceon theSECONDWEEKofthe semester (24th Feb 2015).

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Lecture 1 Introduction to Research Method

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