LECTURE 09 DATA COLLECTION Mazhar Hussain Dept of Computer Science ISP,Multan [email protected] RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1
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LECTURE 09
DATA COLLECTION
Mazhar Hussain
Dept of Computer Science
ISP,Multan
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
1
ROAD MAP
Introduction
Chosing your research problem
Chosing your research advisor
Literature Review
Plagiarism
Variables in Research
Construction of Hypothesis
Research Design
Writing Research Proposal
Writing your Thesis
Data Collection
Data Representation
Sampling and Distributions
Paper Writing
Ethics of Research
2
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
3
Data Collection
Primary Sources Secondary Sources
Observation Interviews Questionnaire Records
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
4
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Primary Sources
Information must be collected
First-hand information
Examples
Attitudes of community towards health
services
Determining job satisfaction of employees
5
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Secondary Sources
Information required is already
available and need only be extracted
Examples
Use of census data to obtain information
on the age-gender structure of a population
Use of hospital records to find out
mortality patterns in a community
Use of an organization’s records to
ascertain its activities
6
COLLECTING DATA USING PRIMARY SOURCES
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaire
7
OBSERVATION
Watching and listening to an interaction or
phenomenon as it takes place
Examples
Learning about the interaction in a group
Study the behaviour or personality trait of an
individual
In situations where full or accurate information
cannot be collected by questioning
8
OBSERVATION
Two types
Participant observation
Non-participant observation
Participant Observation
The researcher participates in the activities of the
group being observed in the same manner as its
members, with or without their knowing that they
are being observered
Examples
Study life of prisoners – pretend to be a prisoner
Examine the reaction of general public towards people in
wheel chair – observe by sitting in wheel chair9
OBSERVATION
Non-participant observation
The researcher does not get involved in the activities of
the group but remains a passive observer, watching and
listening to its activities and drawing conclusions
Examples
Study the functions carried out by nurses in the hospital –
Watch, follow and record their activities
10
PROBLEMS WITH OBSERVATION
When individuals or groups become aware that
they are being observed, they may change their
behaviour.
Positive or negative – may increase or decrease
productivity
Also known as Hawthorne Effect
Possiblity of observer bias
Interpretations drawn from observations may
vary from observer
11
RECORDING THE OBSERVATION
Narrative
Researcher records a description of the interaction in
his own words
Brief notes while observing the interaction – makes
detailed narrative notes soon after the interaction
Advantage – Deeper insight
Disadvantage
Observer biased
Different observers – Comparability is difficult
12
RECORDING THE OBSERVATION
Scales
Observer develops a scale in order to rate various
aspects of interaction or phenomenon
Recording is done on the scale
Does not provide in-depth information
13
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Netural PositiveNegative
RECORDING THE OBSERVATION
Error of central tendency
If the observer is not very confident, may tend to
avoid extreme positions on the scale using mostly the
central part
Halo Effect
Error introduced when the way an observer rates an
individual on one aspect influences the way he rates
that individual on other aspects
Teaching – Performance in one subject may influence
the impression on other subjects
14
RECORDING THE OBSERVATION
Categorical Recording
Record observations using categories
Type and number depend on the problem
Examples
Passive/Active
Sometimes/Never/Always
Strongly Agree / Agree / Uncertain / Disagree/ Strongly
disagree
Same problems as with Scales
15
RECORDING THE OBSERVATION - TOOLS
Paper and pencil
Cheap, limited to writing speed
Audio
Users speak what they are thinking
Video – accurate and realistic
Advantage: Play back many times before
drawing conclusion
Users may not behave naturally in front of
camera16
RECORDING THE OBSERVATION - TOOLS
Computer logging – automatically done
Large amounts of data difficult to analyze
User notebooks – User takes notes
himself
Coarse and subjective
Good for longitudinal studies
Mixed use in practice
Audio/video transcription with paper
record of significant events17
OBSERVATION – PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
18
Eye Tracking
Physiological Measurements
EYE TRACKING
Head or desk mounted equipment tracks the
position of the eye
Eye movement reflects the amount of cognitive
processing required
Measurements include
Fixations: Eye maintains stable position. Number
and duration indicate level of difficulty with display
Saccades: Rapid eye movement from one point of
interest to another
19
EYE TRACKING
20
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS
These may help determine a user’s reaction to an
intervention
Measurements include:
Heart activity, including blood pressure, pulse etc.
Activity of sweat glands
Activity in muscles
Activity in brain
Difficulty in interpreting these physiological
responses - more research needed
21
COLLECTING DATA USING PRIMARY SOURCES
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaire
22
INTERVIEWS
A person to person interaction between two or
more individuals with a specific purpose in mind
Can be:
Flexible
Interviewer has the freedom to formulate questions as they
come to mind around issue being investigated
Inflexible
Strictly keep the questions decided before hand
Interviews are classified according to the degree
of flexibility
23
INTERVIEWS
24
Interviews
Unstructured Structured
Flexible Rigid
Different levels of flexibility
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
Almost complete freedome in terms of content
and structure
Freedom in sequence, wording and explanation of
questions
Forumalate questions on the spur of the moment
depending upon the context of the discussion
25
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
Pre-determined set of questions
Same wording and sequence of questions as
specified in the interview schedule
Written list of questions
Open ended
Closed ended
26
COLLECTING DATA USING PRIMARY SOURCES
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaire
27
QUESTIONNAIRE
Written list of questions – answers are recorded
by respondents
Respondents
Read the questions
Interpret what is expected
Write the answers
Contrary to interview – No one to explain the
questions
Questionnaire must be clear and understandable
28
INTERVIEW VS. QUESTIONNAIRE
Nature of Investigation
An issue - respondents may feel reluctant to disucss
with an investigator – Questionnaire ensures
anonymity
Examples: Drug use, criminal activities, personal info
Geographical Distribution of study population
Potential respondents – scattered over a wide area
Interviews – Too expensive
Type of study population
Illiteraute, very young or very old, handicapped –
Interviews are a good option
29
QUESTIONNAIRES
Opening
30
In order to gain an understanding of the situation
of employment in the country, we would like to
ask some questions about your work history
………….
Example paras in your text book
ADMINISTRATING A QUESTIONNAIRE
Mailed questionnaires
Send by mail – most common
Assumption – access to addresses of respondents
Also send a pre-paid self addressed envelope with the
questionnaire
Accompanied by a covering letter
Problem – low response rate
31
ADMINISTRATING A QUESTIONNAIRE
Collective Administration
Captive Audience – Students in a
class, people in a function,
participants in a conference
High response rate
Explain the purpose/questions
32
ADMINISTRATING A QUESTIONNAIRE
Administration in a public place
Shopping centers, parks etc.
Slightly time consuming
Similar advantages as collective administrative
33
COVERING LETTER WITH QUESTIONNAIRE
Introduce yourself and institution
Objectives of study
General Instructions
Assure about anonymity of information
Provide contact number
Give a deadline/return address
Thank them for participation
34
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Less expensive
Save time, finances and human resource
Convenient and inexpensive
Collective administration – least expensive
Greater anonymity
No face to face interaction
Sensitive questions – likely to have more accurate
responses
35
DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Limited application
Study population that can read and write
Low response rate
People do not return questionnaires – 25 to 30%
Effective sample size will reduce
Selection bias
Those who returned may have attributes different
from those who did not return
Findings may not be representative of population
Clarification of issues
Can not clarify the questions36
DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Spontaneous responses
Inappropriate when spontaneous responses are
required
Questionnaire gives time to reflect before answering
Cosultation
Respondent may consult others – not own opinion
Influence of other questions
Respondent can see all questions before answering
Knowledge of other questions may affect the response
to a question
37
FORMS OF QUESTIONS
Open Ended Questions
Possible responses are not given
Answer in words of respondents
Example: What is your average annual income?
Closed Ended Questions
Possible answers in the questionnaire
Respondent ticks the appropriate choice
Example: What is your average annual income?
38
Under 10, 000
10, 000 – 19, 999
20, 000 – 39, 000
40,000 +
OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS
Provide in-depth information
Analysis is difficult
Respondent feel free – variety in information
Respondents may not be able to express
themselves
39
CLOSED ENDED QUESTIONS
Information lacks depth and variety
Researcher’s Bias – Only those choices are listed
which researcher thinks are the possible answers
Ease of answering – ready-made list of responses
Ensure that required information is obtained
Analysis is easy
40
CONSIDERATIONS IN FROMULATING
QUESTIONS
Use simple and everyday language
Avoid technical terms
Example: ‘Is anyone in your family dipsomaniac?’
Do not ask ambiguous questions
Are you satisfied with your canteen?
Which aspect: Service, prices, quality of food?
Do no ask questions based on presumptions
How many cigarettes do you smoke in a day?
Do not ask leading questions
Unemployment is increasing, isn’t it?
41
CONSIDERATIONS IN FROMULATING
QUESTIONS
Do not ask double-barrelled questions
Question within a question
You do not know which particular question the user
has answered
Some respondents may answer both the questions,
others may answer only one
Example:
How often and how much time do you spend on each visit?
Does your department have a special recruitment policy of
minorities and women?
YES – for both categories?
42
COLLECTING SENSITIVE INFORMATION
Direct Manner
May be offensive
Indirect Manner
Showing cartoons
Asking to pick up cards
Asking to complete sentences etc.
43
COLLECTING DATA FROM SECONDARY
SOURCES
Government of semi-government publications
Census, surveys, economic reports
Earlier Research
Personal records
Historical and personal records
Mass media
Newspapers, magazines etc.
Ensure validity and reliability
44
REFERENCES
Research Methodology, Ranjit Kumar, Chapter 9
45
The material in these slides is based on the following resources.
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