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PERCEPTION ANDLEARNING
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Perception Defined
The process of receivinginformation about and makingsense of the world around us
deciding which information tonotice
how to categorize thisinformation
how to interpret information
within our existing knowledgeframework
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Selective Attention
Objects characteristics size, intensity, motion,
repetition, novelty
Perceiver characteristics
Emotional marker process
Expectations
Self-concept and beliefs
Confirmation bias
Screen out informationcontrary to our beliefs/values
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Perceptual
Organization/Interpretation
Categorical thinking
Mostly nonconscious process of organizingpeople/things
Perceptual grouping principles
Similarity or proximity
Closure -- filling in missing pieces
Perceiving trends Interpreting incoming information
Emotional markers automatically evaluateinformation
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Social Perception and SocialIdentity
Categorization process compare characteristics of
our groups with othergroups
Homogenization process similar traits within a group;
different traits across groups
Differentiation process
develop less favourableimages of people in groupsother than our own
HamidSenni
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Stereotyping
Assigning traits to people based on theirmembership in a social category/groupwhere they are belong
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Attribution Process
Perception that behavioris caused by personsown motivation or ability
Internal
Attribution
External
Attribution
Perception that behavior iscaused by situation or fate-- beyond persons control
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Attribution Theory: Judgingothers
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.
Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
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Attribution
Theory
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Internal Attribution
Behavior is attributed
To internal factors
External attribution
Behavior is attributed
To external factors
Distinctiveness
How often does theperson act this
way in other
setting
Frequently
(high consistency)
Frequently
(low distinctiveness)(low consensus)
Seldom
(low consistency)Seldom
(high distinctiveness)(high consensus)
Consistency
How often didthe person act
this way in
the past
Consensus
How often do
other people
act this way in
similar situation
RULES OF
ATTRIBUTION
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Attribution Errors
Fundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to see the people rather than thesituation as the main cause of behavior
We blame people first, not the situation
Self-Serving Bias
attributing our successes to internal factors
and our failures to external factors
It is our success but their failure
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
...The perceptual process in which ourexpectation about another person cause that
person to act in a way that is consistent withthose expectation
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle
Supervisorforms
expectations
Expectationsaffect supervisors
behavior
Supervisorsbehavior affects
employee
Employeesbehavior matches
expectations
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Self-Fulfilling ProphecyEffect is Strongest...
...at the beginning of the relationship (e.g.employee joins the team)
...when several people have similarexpectations about the person
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Other Perceptual Errors
Halo effect one trait forms a general impression
Primacy effect
first impressions
Recency effect most recent information dominates perceptions
False-consensus effect overestimate the extent to which others havebeliefs and characteristics similar to our own
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Definition of Learning
A relatively permanent change in
behavior (or behavior tendency) that
occurs as a result of a persons
interaction with the environment
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Explicit vs.Tacit Knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Knowledge that is articulated through language,such as documents
Tacit knowledge
Knowledge acquired through observation anddirect experience
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Behavior Modification
We operate on the environment
alter behavior to maximize positive andminimize adverse consequences
Learning is viewed as completelydependent on the environment
Human thoughts are viewed as
unimportant
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A B C f B h i
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A-B-Cs of BehaviorModification
Consequences
What happensafter behavior
Co-workersthankoperator
Example
Behavior
What personsays or does
Machineoperator turnsoff power
Antecedents
What happensbeforebehavior
Warninglightflashes
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Contingencies of Reinforcement
Behavior
increases/maintained
Behavior
decreases
Consequenceis introduced
Consequenceis removed
Punishment
Positivereinforcement
Extinction Punishment
Negativereinforcement
Noconsequence
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Behavior Modification inPractice
Behavior modification is used in:
every day life to influence behavior of others
company programs to reduce absenteeism,
improve safety, etc.
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Social Learning Theory
Behavioral modeling
Observing and modeling behavior of others
Learning behavior consequences
Observing consequences that others experience
Self-reinforcement
Reinforcing our own behavior with consequenceswithin our control
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