Title, Edition ISBN © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education, 9th Edition ISBN 013514454X © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 5 Learning Disabilities
Title, EditionISBN
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Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education, 9th EditionISBN 013514454X
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Chapter 5Learning Disabilities
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Focus QuestionsWhy has the concept of learning disabilities proven so difficult to define?What characteristic encompasses all students with learning disabilities?What factors might account for the huge increase in the prevalence of students identified with learning disabilities since the category was officially recognized in the mid-1970s?Are the achievement deficits of most students diagnosed with learning disabilities the result of neurological impairment or poor instruction?
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Focus Questions (cont.)What can a student’s responsiveness to evidence-based instruction reveal about the need and focus of special education?
How can academic tool skills and learning strategies relate to each other?
What skills are most important to the success of an elementary-age student with learning disabilities in the general education classroom? for a secondary student?
Key Terms and Concepts LD – (What IS and IS NOT an LD) IDEA definition of Learning Disabilities. Characteristics of
children with LD. (For children with Reading, Writing, and Math disabilities)
Response to Intervention – What is it and how does it work? RTI versus Discrepancy Approach Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia Teaching and testing methodologies such as: Curriculum
Based Measure, Explicit Instruction, Content Enhancement, Guided Notes
Teaching methods (graphic organizers, mnemonics, guided notes, aides, etc.
LD and LRE Behavior Problems and LD Typical Services Provided Phonemic Awareness
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IDEA Definition of Learning Disabilities (LD) A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or using language (Federal and State)
May manifest itself in an imperfect ability to: Listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do math
(mathematical calculations) Includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia
Does not include learning problems that are the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, or intellectual disabilities, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage
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The NJCLD Definition of LD A general term that refers to a group of disorders
manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or math abilities (National Joint Commissions on Learning Disabilities)
These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction and may appear across the life span
Problems with self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may coexist but do not themselves constitute a learning disability
Although learning disabilities may occur with other handicapping conditions or with extrinsic influences, they are not the result of those influences
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NJCLD Problems with IDEA LD Definition Exclusion of Adults
Learning disabilities can occur at all ages, IDEA only refers to school age children
Referent to “basic psychological processes” Left to debate on how to teach students with LD
Inclusion of spelling as a learning disability Can be subsumed under written expression, should be eliminated
from the definition Inclusion of obsolete terms
Dyslexia, minimal brain function, perceptual impairment, developmental aphasia (confuses definition)
Wording of the exclusion clause Suggests that learning disabilities cannot occur with other disabilities,
however a student can have an LD along with another disability
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Operationalizing the Definition
Most states require three criteria be met to receive services:
Discrepancy between intelligence and achievement An “unexpected” difference between general ability (IQ)
and achievement p 160-161
Exclusion criterion The student’s difficulties are not the result of another
known condition that can cause learning problems
A need for special education services The student shows specific and severe learning
problems despite normal educational efforts
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NJAC 6A:14 Definition of LD A disorder in one of more of the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia (same as federal)
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NJAC6A:14 Definition of LD A specific disability can be determined when a severe discrepancy is found between the student’s current achievement and intellectual ability in one or more of the following areas:
Basic Reading SkillsReading ComprehensionOral ExpressionListening ComprehensionMathematical CalculationMathematical Problem SolvingWritten ExpressionReading Fluency
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NJAC6A:14 Definition of LD The term severe discrepancy does not apply to students
who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, general cognitive deficits, emotional disturbance or environmental, cultural or economic disadvantage
The district shall, if it utilizes the severe discrepancy methodology, adopt procedures that utilize a statistical formula and criteria for determining severe discrepancy. Evaluations shall include assessment of current academic achievement and intellectual ability
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Let’s Review…A learning disability cannot be caused by…
A. emotional problemsB. developmental delaysC. dyslexiaD. an injury to the brain
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Reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 “When determining whether a child has a
specific learning disability … a local educational agency shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability…a local agency may use a process that determine if the child respond to scientific, research-based intervention as part of the evaluation procedures.”
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Responsiveness to Intervention
A local education agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures
The responsiveness to intervention approach shifts the identification of learning disabilities from a “wait-to-fail” model to one of early identification and prevention
Began in 2004 in response to problems with the discrepancy approach
RTI is a sequence of tiered interventions with each tier providing more support than the previous tier.
Discrepancy approach is “wait to fail” model
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NJAC 6A:14 Definition of RTI
A specific learning disability may also be determined by utilizing a response to scientifically based interventions methodology as described: Methodology includes scientifically based
instruction by highly qualified instructors, and that multiple assessments of student progress are included in the evaluation of the student
Not be required to include more than the assessment conducted pursuant to the district’s response to scientifically based intervention methodology in the evaluation of a student
If the parent consent in writing extend, as necessary, the time to complete an evaluation pursuant to above
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RTIBasic premise of RTI:
• Measuring low-achieving student’s response to increasingly intensive, scientifically validated instruction can determine whether the child’s struggles to learn are the result of poor or insufficient instruction or of a disability for which special education is needed
Two functions of RTI• Screening/identification and prevention
Trustworthiness of RTI depends on• The consistent, rigorous implementation of research-
based interventions• Accurate, reliable, easy to use measures for
monitoring student progress
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RTI Three Tier Model Tier One: Primary Interventions in the General Education Classroom
Evidenced based curriculum and instruction in general education classroom
Frequent progress monitoring If scores fall below criteria, or are well below that of their
classmates considered at-risk Tier Two: Secondary Interventions
Intensive fixed-duration trial (10-12 weeks) or small-group supplemental tutoring using a research based program provided by a qualified professional (reading specialist, basic skills instructor)
If successful then determined to be “remediated” and moved to tier 1; if not successful then may be referred to third tier, or try another tier 2 intervention
Dual discrepancy- student fails to make adequate growth, completes tier two intervention below benchmark criteria
Tier Three: Tertiary Intervention (Special Education) Child is evaluated and eligibility/classification is determined
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Scientifically Based Interventions Wilson Reading Program Orton-Gillingham Reading Program Touch Math Computer Aided Instruction
Success Maker Study Island
http://www.interventioncentral.org/
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Scientifically Based InterventionsWilson Reading Demohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EaAmdjHGla0
Orton Reading Demohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fWpDm6Iwdzk
Touch Math Demohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQt4JDrlbEo&feature=related
Success Maker Demohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upiQgEqAdgM
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Benefits of Responsiveness to Intervention Earlier identification of students using a problem-solving approach Reduction in the number of students referred for special education
(Prevention) Reduction in the over-identification of minority students Provision of more instructionally useful data than that provided by
traditional methods of assessment and identification Increased likelihood that students are being exposed to high-quality
instruction in the general education classroom by stipulating that schools use evidence-based instructional practices and routinely monitor the progress of all students
Encourages access to early intervention because at-risk students are identified early and an infrastructure for the appropriate delivery of services is already established
Service to all students with achievement problems, so that only those students who fail to respond to multiple levels of intervention efforts receive the label of having learning disabilities
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Concerns with RTI Consistent use of effective, evidence
based instruction does not occur in many classrooms (Tier 1)
Many professionals still favor discrepancy model
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Learning “Disabilities”: No Shame in the Name
“Let’s get a few things on the table right up front. There is no shame in having a learning disability (LD). Learning disabilities are not the result of laziness or inadequate instruction. They are not the same as hearing or vision impairments and are not a mild form of intellectual disability (formerly known as mental retardation). Learning disabilities do not go away and are not the same as learning “differences.” And learning “preferences” are a universal phenomenon — not unique to any one group of individuals — and do not contribute meaningfully to the issue of LD. “…
http://ncld.org/ld-basics/ld-explained/basic-facts/learning-disabilities-no-shame-name?utm_source=newsletter_july_24_2012&utm_medium=email&utm_content=introtext&utm_campaign=ldnews#.UA8VHdPXgB0.facebook
“Right or wrong, individuals with disabilities (not differences, not preferences) are entitled to protections under federal law. Whether its education law or civil rights law, individuals with disabilities have rights and entitlements that those with “differences” or “preferences” do not. Ask a child, parent, or adult who has been on the LD journey about the ways that they have benefited from the LD classification: extended time for testing, note takers, assistive technologies that capture text and convert it into speech or that capture speech and convert it into written narrative, talking calculators, and much more.”…
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CharacteristicsStudents with LD experience one or more of the following difficulties:
Reading problems - 80% of all children identified
Deficits in written language - Perform lower than their age-matched peers without disabilities across most written expression tasks
Underachievement in math – More than 50% have math IEP goals
Poor social skills - 75% have social skills deficits Attention deficits and hyperactivity Behavioral problems-Higher than usual
incidence of behavior problems Low rates of self-esteem/self-efficacy-lower levels
of self-efficacy, mood, effort, and hope
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CharacteristicsThe Defining Characteristic
Specific and significant achievement deficits in the presence of adequate overall intelligence
The performance gap becomes especially noticeable and handicapping in the middle and secondary grades
The difficulties experienced by children with learning disabilities, especially for those who cannot read at grade level, are substantial and pervasive and usually last across the life span
Difficulties experienced are substantial and pervasive and usually last across the life span
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Reading Problems Most common form of LD Children who fail to learn to ready by
1st grade tend to fall farther and farther behind their peers in reading and general academics
Large percentage of students still receive special education services in reading in 9th grade
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Reading Problems Dyslexia
According to International Dyslexia Association, DYSLEXIA is “a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities…”
Result from deficits in phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of classroom instruction
Problems at the word level of text, dysfunction in phonological awareness
Double deficit hypothesis - May also have deficits in visual naming speed (ability to rapidly name visually presented stimuli)
“What is Dyslexia?As with other learning disabilities, dyslexia is a lifelong challenge that people are born with. This language processing disorder can hinder reading, writing, spelling, and sometimes even speaking. Dyslexia is not a sign of poor intelligence or laziness. It is also not the result of impaired vision. Children and adults with dyslexia simply have a neurological disorder that causes their brains to process and interpret information differently.
Dyslexia occurs among people of all economic and ethnic backgrounds. Often more than one member of a family has dyslexia. According to the National Institute of Child and Human Development, as many as 15 percent of Americans have major troubles with reading.
Much of what happens in a classroom is based on reading and writing. So it's important to identify dyslexia as early as possible. Using alternate learning methods, people with dyslexia can achieve success.
What are the Effects of Dyslexia? Dyslexia can affect people differently. This depends, in part, upon the severity of the learning disability and the success of alternate learning methods. Some with dyslexia can have trouble with reading and spelling, while others struggle to write, or to tell left from right. Some children show few signs of difficulty with early reading and writing. But later on, they may have trouble with complex language skills, such as grammar, reading comprehension, and more in-depth writing.
Dyslexia can also make it difficult for people to express themselves clearly. It can be hard for them to use vocabulary and to structure their thoughts during conversation. Others struggle to understand when people speak to them. This isn't due to hearing problems. Instead, it's from trouble processing verbal information. It becomes even harder with abstract thoughts and non-literal language, such as jokes and proverbs.”http://www.ncld.org/ld-basics/ld-aamp-language/reading/dyslexia?tmpl=component&print=1&page=
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Reading Problems Phonological Awareness
Conscious understanding and knowledge that language is made up of sounds
Phonemic Awareness- knowledge that words consist of separate sounds (phonemes) and the ability to manipulate these individual sound units
A child with phonemic awareness can: Orally blend sounds to make a word (What word do you have if I
put these sounds together? /c/-/a/-/t/) Isolate beginning, middle and ending sounds (What is the first
sound in rose?) Segment a word into sounds (Say the sounds in the word “cat”) Manipulate sounds within a word (What word do you have if you
change the /s/ sound in sat to the /m/ sound?
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Reading Problems-NJAC 6A:14
Basic Reading Skills Phonological awareness
Reading Fluency Age appropriate/accurate reading rate
Reading Comprehension Understanding what is read Vocabulary/word knowledge (synonyms,
antonyms and analogies)
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Early Reading Instruction Begin teaching phonemic awareness directly in kindergarten
Phoneme deletion Word-to-word matching Phoneme counting Odd word out
Teach each letter-phoneme relationship explicitly (/m/ says “mmmm”)
Teach frequent, highly regular letter-sound relationships systematically
Show children exactly how to sound out words Give children connected, decodable text to practice the letter
phoneme relationship Reading material should reflect what letter sounds student knows
Use interesting stories to develop language comprehension Model reading strategies by reading out loud to students
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Stroop Test The famous "Stroop Effect" is named after J. Ridley Stroop
who discovered this strange phenomenon in the 1930s. Here is your job: name the colors of the following words. Do NOT read the words...rather, say the color of the words. For example, if the word "BLUE" is printed in a red color, you should say "RED". Say the colors as fast as you can. It is not as easy as you might think!
Children who are dyslexic have a higher “stroop effect” . http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/ready.html
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Stroop Test The words themselves have a strong
influence over your ability to say the color. The interference between the different information (what the words say and the color of the words) your brain receives causes a problem.
There are two theories that may explain the Stroop effect:
Speed of Processing Theory: the interference occurs because words are read faster than colors are named.
Selective Attention Theory: the interference occurs because naming colors requires more attention than reading words.Taken from
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/words.html
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Written Language Disorders Written Expression
Spelling Vocabulary Grammar Punctuation
Many students use “retrieve and write” approach Pull whatever information is in their head and put
it down on paper Do not use writing strategies to help plan,
organize, draft, edit and rewrite Written language is often worse than oral
language
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Oral Language Disorders Listening Comprehension
Understanding/following directions Oral comprehension (understanding what
is being said to you)
Oral Expression Retelling of a story immediately and over
time Picture vocabulary (naming objects)
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Dysgrahpia “Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing, which
requires a complex set of motor and information processing skills. Dysgraphia makes the act of writing difficult. It can lead to problems with spelling, poor handwriting, and putting thoughts on paper. People with dysgraphia can have trouble organizing letters, numbers, and words on a line or page. This can result partly from:
Visual-spatial difficulties: trouble processing what the eye sees Language processing difficulty: trouble processing and making
sense of what the ear hears As with all learning disabilities (LD), dysgraphia is a lifelong
challenge, although how it manifests may change over time. A student with this disorder can benefit from specific accommodations in the learning environment. Extra practice learning the skills required to be an accomplished writer can also help.”
http://www.ncld.org/ld-basics/ld-aamp-language/writing/dysgraphia
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Sample Writing (10 year old) A loge tine ago they atene a csonene they head to geatthere on fesee o One day tere were sane evesedbeats all gaseraned tesene in cladesn they hard a fest for 2 meanes
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What he meant to say was…. A long time ago there were ancient cave men. They had to get their own food. One day there were some wildebeests. They all gathered them and killed them. They had a feast for two months.
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Math Underachievement Calculation Problem Solving (numerical reasoning) 50% of LD students have Goals and
Objectives for math Deficits in: Retrieving number facts Solving number stories
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Dyscalculia “Dyscalculia refers to a wide range of lifelong learning
disabilities involving math. There is no single type of math disability. Dyscalculia can vary from person to person. And, it can affect people differently at different stages of life. Two major areas of weakness can contribute to math learning disabilities:
Visual-spatial difficulties, which result in a person having trouble processing what the eye sees
Language processing difficulties, which result in a person having trouble processing and making sense of what the ear hears”
http://www.ncld.org/ld-basics/ld-aamp-language/ld-aamp-math/what-is-dyscalculia
(VIDEO)
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Social Skills Deficits Poor social skills often lead to rejection,
low social status, fewer positive interactions with teachers, difficulty making friends and loneliness
May be due to way students interpret social situations and nonverbal cues
May not be caused by LD - may be the result of interactions with parents, teachers and other students
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Attention Problems and Hyperactivity Some have difficulty attending to tasks
and or display high rates of hyperactivity
May have ADHD (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder)
High degree of comorbidity with ADHD and LD
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Behavioral Problems Higher incidences of behavioral
problems with LD students
Not knowing if the difficulty with learning causes difficulty with behavior
Teacher must implement a Behavioral Intervention Plan if behavior interferes with learning
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Low Ratings of Self-Efficacy Report lower levels of self-efficacy,
mood, effort and hope than peers without learning disabilities
History of disappointments with academic and social situations
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Defining Characteristic Presence of a significant achievement
deficits in spite of adequate overall intelligence
Sometimes plateau in high school
Are substantial and pervasive and last over a lifetime
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Prevalence
LD is by far the largest of all special education categories
42.3% of all school-age children with disabilities receive services under the LD category and about 4% of the school-age population
Males with LD outnumber females by a ratio of 3:1
The rising incidence of children with LD led some scholars to suggest it be considered an epidemic
Some contend that too many low achievers have been improperly diagnosed as LD
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CausesBrain damage or dysfunction
In most cases there is no evidence of brain damage Neuroimaging research has been reasonably consistent in revealing functional
and/or structural differences in the left temporal lobe of the brain of individuals with dyslexia
Educators should refrain from placing too much emphasis on theories linking learning disabilities to brain damage or brain dysfunction
Heredity There is growing evidence that genetics may account for at least some family
linkage with dyslexia
Biochemical imbalance Most professionals give little credence to biochemical imbalance as a cause
Environmental Factors Impoverished living conditions early in a child’s life and limited
exposure to highly effective instruction probably contribute to achievement deficits
The tendency for learning disabilities to run in families suggests a correlation between environmental influences on children’s early development and subsequent achievement in school
Many students’ learning problems can be remediated by direct, intensive, and systematic instruction
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AssessmentFour forms of assessment are frequently used: Standardized tests
Used to measure the discrepancy between achievement and general intellectual ability (Often used for the discrepancy approach)
Criterion-referenced tests Student’s score compared to a predetermined mastery
criterion to identify specific skills in need of instruction Curriculum-based measurement
Used to measure the growth of student’s proficiency in the core skills that contribute to success in school. (“tests” materials taught in class)
Direct daily measurement Observing and recording a child’s performance on a specific
skill each day it is taught
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Examples of Standardized Tests
Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ3)
Wechsler Individualized Achievement Test (WIAT3)
Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT4) Test of Written Language (TOWL) Key Math Test
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Criterion-Referenced Tests Child’s performance is matched with a
predetermined criterion or mastery level, rather than with normed scores (bell curve)
Example: child must get 9/10 correct to be at mastery level
Identify specific skills the child has mastered, and what is requires for instruction
Pretest and post test Example:
Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills
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Curriculum Based Measurement(progress monitoring)
Frequent assessment of a student’s progress in learning the objectives that make up the curriculum in which student is participating
Formative assessment- provides information on student learning over time – as student is learning
Summative assessment- cannot be used to inform instruction, used after instruction has taken place (end of marking period or school year)
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Curriculum Based MeasurementDIBELS (174)
DIBELS: Reading assessment used for early identification of children who are at risk for reading difficulties. It also assesses the effectiveness of reading interventions
First sound fluency Letter naming fluency Phoneme Segmentation Fluency Nonsense Word Fluency DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency Daze (Reading passage with “missing” words. Students select
correct word from multiple choice options) Composite Score
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Direct Daily Measurement Observing and recording a measure of the student’s
performance each time a specific skill is taught Provides information about student learning, teacher
can modify lessons daily Precision teaching- make instructional decisions
based on instructional performance Stander celeration chart- plot that shows student
performance Examples:
Reading rate Multiplication facts
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Educational ApproachesExplicit instruction (pages 166 - 167)
Provide a sufficient range of examples to illustrate a concept
Provide models of proficient performance Have students explain how and why they
make decisions Provide frequent, positive feedback for
student performance Provide adequate practice opportunities “Demonstrate-Prompt-Practice”
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Educational Approaches contContent enhancements- a wide
arrangements of teaching techniques
and require the teacher to teach
content and learning processes Guided notes (note taking) Graphic organizers and visual displays Mnemonics
Guided Notes
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Educational Approaches cont
Learning strategiesStudents use task-specific strategies to guide themselves successfully through a learning task or problem
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Educational Placement AlternativesGeneral education classroom
During the 2008–2009 school year, 62% of students with LD were educated in general education classrooms.
Research on the academic achievement of students with LD in inclusive classrooms is mixed.
Consultant teacher Provides support to general educators who
work directly with students with learning disabilities
Works with several teachers and thus indirectly serve many children
Most consultant teachers have little direct contact with students
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Educational Placement AlternativesResource room
A resource room is a specially staffed and equipped classroom where students with LD come for one or several periods during the school day to receive individualized instruction
The resource room teacher works closely with general educators to suggest and plan each student’s program
During the 2008-2009 school year, 28% of students with learning disabilities were served in resource rooms
Separate classroom A special education teacher is responsible for all
education programming for 8–12 students with learning disabilities
During the 2008-2009 school year, 8% of students with learning disabilities were served in separate classrooms
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Video F.A.T. City by Richard D. Lavoie
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ResourcesAccommodations and Modifications9 Types of Adaptations http://www.stmary.k12.la.us/specialservices/accommod.htm 9 Types of Curriculum Adaptations: http://www.lbusd.k12.ca.us/Main_Offices/Curriculum/Services/Special_Education/pdf/NinetypesofAdaptations.pdf Teaching
Teaching Students with Disabilities (by disability type): http://dsp.berkeley.edu/TeachStudentsWithDisab.html The Learning Enrichment Centre (Teachers’ Things – accommodations grouped by disability) http://teacherweb.com/ON/JohnMcGregorSecondarySchool/LearningandEnrichmentCentre/photo5.aspx
Instructional Strategies: http://www.appomattox.k12.va.us/acps/attachments/6_6_12_dan_mulligan_handout.pdf http://www.minisink.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Intermediate/Strategies%20for%20Struggling%20Students%20-%20Format%202.pdf
Accommodations and Instructional Strategies That Can Help Students http://education.vermont.gov/new/pdfdoc/pgm_ess/educ_accommodations_strategies.pdf
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Resources continuedTestingState of NJ, Department of Education: http://www.nj.gov/education/specialed/accom900.htm Testing Modifications: http://www.oswegoboces.org/setrc/test_modifications.htm Graphic Organizers (a sample of web sites): http://www.enchantedlearning.com/graphicorganizers/ http://edhelper.com/teachers/graphic_organizers.htm http://aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/backgroundpapers/graphic_organizers Scholastic.com: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lesson-plan/graphic-organizers-reading-comprehension
Social Understanding Groups (Play dates for children with LD/Social Skill challenges) – Rick Lavoie 5.55http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODxwotH5IEo
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Resources continuedTeaching Materials/worksheets/strategiesTeacher resources www.teach-nology.com
Teachervision.com Lots of great materials
ttp://aim.cast.org/
One Place for Special Needs Home Page: http://www.oneplaceforspecialneeds.com/ Special Needs Apps http://www.oneplaceforspecialneeds.com/resources_online/resource_online_browse.html?category=22#category_22 Complete Guide to educational and special needs appshttp://www.oneplaceforspecialneeds.com/main/library_special_needs_apps.html Glossary of Instructional Strategies http://www.beesburg.com/edtools/glossary.html
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Resources continuedStrategies for effective teaching/teacher evaluations: Danielson Model and Teachscapehttp://www.danielsongroup.org/article.aspx?page=frameworkforteaching http://www.teachscape.com/ ReadingReading Recovery Council of America www.readingrecovery.org
VIDEOSDifferentiated classroom http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2i-Uz95SRs Scaffolding – self-directed learning in primary grades http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YqMu38AOl0