Learning Chapter 8. Squirt Test CAN, dish, CAN, bridge, scale, can, fan, board, CAN, cool, three, horn, disk, CAN, can, cast, test, pen, dime, CAN, dish,

LearningChapter 8

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Definition

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to

experience.

Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed behaviors of

Chinooks, for example.

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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

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Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His

work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F.

Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

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Pavlov’s Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

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Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

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Extinction

When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to

decrease and eventually causes extinction.

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Spontaneous Recovery

After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the

CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

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Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by

using miniature vibrators (CS) on the

thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s

body, salivation dropped.

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Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and

other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

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1. Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positive-associations with alcohol.

2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

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Skinner’s ExperimentsSkinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s

thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to

occur again.

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Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target

behavior through successive approximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

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Types of Reinforcers

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively

reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

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1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.

2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

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Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.

2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.

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Ratio Schedules

1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.

2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

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Interval Schedules

1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)

2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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Punishment

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.

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Punishment

1. Results in unwanted fears.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear

in its absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear

in place of another.

Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

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Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during

a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious

reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the

layout of the maze (environment).

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Latent Learning

Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

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Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these

behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements

for correct rewards.

In School

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.

In Sports

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share

profits and participate in company ownership.

At work

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Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to

obtain a reward.

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Bandura's Experiments

Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)

indicated that individuals

(children) learn through imitating

others who receive rewards and punishments.

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Applications of Observational Learning

Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial models (family,

neighborhood or TV) may have

antisocial effects.

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Positive Observational Learning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

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Television and Observational Learning

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that

children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video

games express increased

aggression.

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Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression

of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

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