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LEAMAN, OLIVER (1998). Islamic philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.

Pakatan Rakyat Federal Government Pledges to Resolve The Issue of Indians, Dayaks And Others Born in

Malaysia Without Documentation (Birth Certificate/Identity Cards)

Pakatan Rakyat pledges upon forming federal government, to use all necessary and

required resources available to resolve the long outstanding problem of Malaysians without

documentation, primarily birth certificates and identity cards (MyKads).

I categorically state that this will be a priority of our government; we will urgently,

expediently and comprehensively complete the documentation exercise for them.

Hundreds of thousands of Indians, Dayaks and others born in Malaysia are living without

documentation because government process failed them. Without documents they are

denied schooling, employment, healthcare, travel, social security, government aid, public

office and voting rights.

They predominately are from economically challenged backgrounds and regions, and

without documents they are further disenfranchised, falling into the fringes of society and

remaining impoverished. They are effectively removed from contributing to the countrys

economy.

It is widespread and acute in the Indian and Dayak community, and despite repeated

promises from Barisan Nasional (BN) leaders and elected representatives, their plight

continues.

Citizenship is the most important right in a democratic society.

Part 3 of the Federal Constitution contains provisions ensuring no person shall be rendered

stateless in Malaysia. Yet hundreds of thousands are stateless because a BN government

has long forgotten them.

Further, most of these victims are citizens by operation of law under Article 14 of the

Federal Constitution, since they were born and raised in Malaysia. They are either without

documents or forced to accept MyKads designated for non-citizens.

One case has triggered the conscience of Malaysians over the last fortnight. A Form 5

student Reshina Batumanathan was born and raised here, yet she has been repeatedly

denied a MyKad. The National Registration Department has only issued her a non-citizen

permit so that she can continue her schooling. Her future is bleak and uncertain without the

MyKad she is entitled to. Reshina is a symbol and example of the stateless Malaysians.

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The issue of undocumented Malaysians is a moral issue, central to social justice. Reshina

and the hundreds of thousands like her are living lesser lives in their own country. Pakatan

Rakyat will champion these Malaysians and gain them their constitutionally guaranteed

rights when we form government.

DATO SERI ANWAR IBRAHIM

LEADER OF THE OPPOSITION

presentation

Bismillah Walhamdulillah Was Salaatu Was Salaam 'ala Rasulillah

As-Salaam Alaikum Wa-Rahmatullahi Wa-Barakatuhu

Prayer - 21st Jumada al-Thani 1433 (12th May 2012)

Narrated Anas bin Malik (Radi-Allahu 'anhu):

The Prophet (Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Sallam) led us in prayer and then wentup to the pulpit and beckoned with both hands towards the Qibla of themasjid and then said, "When I started leading you in prayer, I saw thedisplay of Paradise and Hell on the wall of the masjid (facing the Qibla).I never saw good and bad as I have seen today." He repeated the laststatement thrice.

Bukhari Vol. 1 : No. 716

Bismillah Walhamdulillah Was Salaatu Was Salaam 'ala Rasulillah

As-Salaam Alaikum Wa-Rahmatullahi Wa-Barakatuhu

Prayer - 21st Jumada al-Thani 1433 (12th May 2012)

Narrated Anas bin Malik (Radi-Allahu 'anhu):

The Prophet (Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Sallam) led us in prayer and then wentup to the pulpit and beckoned with both hands towards the Qibla of themasjid and then said, "When I started leading you in prayer, I saw thedisplay of Paradise and Hell on the wall of the masjid (facing the Qibla).I never saw good and bad as I have seen today." He repeated the laststatement thrice.

Bukhari Vol. 1 : No. 716

Bismillah Walhamdulillah Was Salaatu Was Salaam 'ala Rasulillah

As-Salaam Alaikum Wa-Rahmatullahi Wa-Barakatuhu

Prayer - 24th Jumada al-Thani 1433 (15th May 2012)

Narrated Abu Huraira (Radi-Allahu 'anhu):

The Prophet (Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Sallam) said, " 'Say Amin' when the Imamsays it and if the Amin of any one of you coincides with that of the angelsthen all his past sins will be forgiven." Ibn Shihab said, "Allah's Apostle(Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Sallam) used to Say 'Amin.' "

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Bukhari Vol. 1 : No. 747

Book Cover

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedications & Al-Azhar Approval

Preface

Numbering System

1.My Defense, What is Yours?

1.1The Law of Repetition

2.The Universe

2.1Models and Mathematics

2.2Creating the Universe

2.3Understanding the Known Universe

2.4Searching the Missing Universe

2.5Applications of the Law of Repetition

3.Life

3.1Facts and Assumptions

3.2History of Evolution

3.3Discrediting Evolution: Origin of Life

3.4Discrediting Evolution: The Fossil Record

3.5Discrediting Evolution: Humans or Apes?

3.6Discrediting Evolution: Comparative Anatomy

3.7Discrediting Evolution: Mutation

3.8The Creation Model

3.9Law of Cause and Effect

4.God

4.1Homo Arrogans

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4.2God and Science

4.3Polytheism

4.4Monotheism

4.5God in the Bible

4.6His Name is Allah

4.7The Religion Criteria

5.Setting the Stage for Christianity

5.1The Old Testament

5.2Contradictions in the Old Testament

5.3The Prophets in the Old Testament

5.4 The Axial Age

5.5The Hellenistic Age

5.6Greek Philosophy

5.7Jewish Religious Groups

6.Evolution of Christianity Four Phases Theory

6.1Versions of the New Testament

6.2The Gospels

6.3Other Gospels

6.4Sources of the Gospels

6.5Contradictions in the New Testament

6.6Paul and the Judeo-Christianity

6.7Gnosticism

6.8The Fathers of the Church

6.9The Ecumenical Councils of Church

7.Islam and Christianity

7.1The Doctrine of Trinity

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7.2The Doctrine of the Son of God

7.3The Doctrine of Original Sin and Atonement

7.4The Crucifixion and the Resurrection

7.5Jesus Christ (Pbuh)

7.6Muhammad (Pbuh) in the Bible

8.Islam

8.1Islamic Sources

8.2The Five Pillars of Islam

8.3Articles of Faith in Islam

8.4The Prophet (Pbuh)

8.5Islam and Community

8.6The Divine Standard

8.7The Fastest Growing Religion

8.8The Process of Elimination

9.The Scientific Miracle

9.1The Divine Big Bang

9.2The Existing Universe in the Quran

9.3The End of the Universe in the Quran

9.4Solar System in the Quran

9.5The Earth in the Quran

9.6Life and Death in the Quran

9.7Embryology in the Quran

9.8Physics in the Quran

10Conclusions

10.1The Religion Criteria

References

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Websites

AstronomyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused withAstrology.

This article is about the scientific study of celestial objects. For other uses, seeAstronomy (disambiguation).

Astar-forming region in theLarge Magellanic Cloud, anirregular galaxy.

A giantHubblemosaic of theCrab Nebula, asupernova remnant

Astronomy is anatural sciencethat deals with the study ofcelestial objects(such

asstars,planets,comets,nebulae,star clustersandgalaxies) and phenomena that originate outside

theatmosphere of Earth(such ascosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics,

chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as theformation and development of the

universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Prehistoric cultures left behind astronomical artifacts such as

theEgyptian monuments,Nubian monumentsandStonehenge, and early civilizations such as

theBabylonians,Greeks,Chinese,Indians,IraniansandMayaperformed methodical observations of thenight

sky. However, the invention of thetelescopewas required before astronomy was able to develop into a modern

science. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse asastrometry,celestial navigation,

observational astronomy, the making ofcalendars, andastrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays

often considered to be synonymous withastrophysics.

During the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split intoobservationaland theoretical branches.Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of celestial objects, which is then

analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development of

computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement

each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results, and observations being

used to confirm theoretical results.

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Amateur astronomershave contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, and astronomy is one of

the few sciences where amateurs can still play an active role, especially in the discovery and observation of

transientphenomena.

Astronomy is not to be confused withastrology, the belief system which claims that human affairs are

correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although thetwo fieldsshare a common origin they are now

entirely distinct.[1]

Contents

[hide]

1 Lexicology

o 1.1 Use of terms "astronomy" and "astrophysics"

2 History

o 2.1 Scientific revolution

3 Observational astronomy

o 3.1 Radio astronomy

o 3.2 Infrared astronomy

o 3.3 Optical astronomy

o 3.4 Ultraviolet astronomy

o 3.5 X-ray astronomy

o 3.6 Gamma-ray astronomy

o 3.7 Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum

o 3.8 Astrometry and celestial mechanics

4 Theoretical astronomy

5 Specific subfields

o 5.1 Solar astronomy

o 5.2 Planetary science

o 5.3 Stellar astronomy

o 5.4 Galactic astronomy

o 5.5 Extragalactic astronomy

o 5.6 Cosmology

6 Interdisciplinary studies

7 Amateur astronomy

8 Unsolved problems in astronomy

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9 See also

10 References

11 Bibliography

12 External links

[edit]Lexicology

The word astronomy(from theGreekwords astron(), "star" and-nomyfrom nomos(), "law" or

"culture") literally means "law of the stars" (or "culture of the stars" depending on the translation).

[edit]Use of terms "astronomy" and "astrophysics"

Generally, either the term "astronomy" or "astrophysics" may be used to refer to this subject.[2][3][4]Based on

strict dictionary definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's

atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties"[5]

and "astrophysics" refers to the branch ofastronomy dealing with "the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and

phenomena".[6]In some cases, as in the introduction of the introductory textbook The Physical

Universe byFrank Shu, "astronomy" may be used to describe the qualitative study of the subject, whereas

"astrophysics" is used to describe the physics-oriented version of the subject.[7]However, since most modern

astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called

astrophysics.[2]Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics. Various

departments in which scientists carry out research on this subject may use "astronomy" and "astrophysics,"

partly depending on whether the department is historically affiliated with a physics department,[3]and many

professional astronomers have physics rather than astronomy degrees.[4]One of the leading scientific journals

in the field is the European journal namedAstronomy and Astrophysics. The leading American journals areThe

Astrophysical JournalandThe Astronomical Journal.

[edit]History

Main article:History of astronomy

Further information:ArchaeoastronomyandList of astronomers

A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographerFrederik de Wit.

In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to

the naked eye. In some locations, such asStonehenge, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that likely

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had some astronomical purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, theseobservatoriescould be employed to

determine the seasons, an important factor in knowing when to plant crops, as well as in understanding the

length of the year.[8]

Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars had to be conducted from the only

vantage points available, namely tall buildings and high ground using the naked eye. As civilizations developed,

most notably inMesopotamia,China,Egypt,Greece,India, andCentral America, astronomical observatories

were assembled, and ideas on the nature of the universe began to be explored. Most of early astronomy

actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to asastrometry.

From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun,

Moon and the Earth in the universe were explored philosophically. The Earth was believed to be the center of

the universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as thegeocentric modelof

the universe, or thePtolemaic system, named afterPtolemy.[9]

A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which

began amongthe Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in

many other civilizations.[10]TheBabyloniansdiscovered thatlunar eclipsesrecurred in a repeating cycle known

as asaros.[11]

Greek equatorialsun dial,Alexandria on the Oxus, present-dayAfghanistan3rd2nd century BCE.

Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy were made inancient Greeceand

theHellenisticworld.Greek astronomyis characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical

explanation for celestial phenomena.[12]In the 3rd century BC,Aristarchus of Samoscalculated the size of the

Earth, and measured thesize and distance of the Moon and Sun, and was the first to propose

aheliocentricmodel of the solar system. In the 2nd century BC,Hipparchusdiscoveredprecession, calculated

the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as

theastrolabe.[13]Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations

of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy.[14]TheAntikythera mechanism(c. 15080 BC) was

an earlyanalog computerdesigned to calculate the location of theSun,Moon, andplanetsfor a given date.

Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when

mechanicalastronomical clocksappeared inEurope.[15]

During the Middle Ages, astronomy was mostly stagnant inmedievalEurope, at least until the 13th century.

However,astronomy flourished in the Islamic worldand other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of

the first astronomicalobservatoriesin theMuslim worldby the early 9th century.[16][17][18]In 964, theAndromeda

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Galaxy, the largestgalaxyin theLocal Group, containing theMilky Way, was discovered by the Persian

astronomerAzophiand first described in hisBook of Fixed Stars.[19]TheSN 1006supernova, the

brightestapparent magnitudestellar event in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic

astronomerAli ibn Ridwanand theChinese astronomersin 1006. Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly

Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant contributions to the science includeAl-

Battani,Thebit,Azophi,Albumasar,Biruni,Arzachel,Al-Birjandi, and the astronomers of

theMaraghehandSamarkandobservatories. Astronomers during that time introduced manyArabic names

now used for individual stars.[20][21]It is also believed that the ruins atGreat ZimbabweandTimbuktu[22]may

have housed an astronomical observatory.[23]Europeans had previously believed that there had been no

astronomical observation in pre-colonial Middle Agessub-Saharan Africabut modern discoveries show

otherwise.[24][25][26][27]

[edit]Scientific revolution

Galileo's sketches and observations of theMoonrevealed that the surface was mountainous.

During theRenaissance,Nicolaus Copernicusproposed aheliocentric modelof thesolar system. His work was

defended, expanded upon, and corrected byGalileo GalileiandJohannes Kepler. Galileo innovated by using

telescopes to enhance his observations.[28]

Kepler was the first to devise a system that described correctly the details of the motion of the planets with the

Sun at the center. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down.[29]It

was left toNewton'sinvention ofcelestial dynamicsand hislaw of gravitationto finally explain the motions of

the planets. Newton also developed thereflecting telescope.[28]

Further discoveries paralleled the improvements in the size and quality of the telescope. More extensive star

catalogues were produced byLacaille. The astronomerWilliam Herschelmade a detailed catalog of nebulosity

and clusters, and in 1781 discovered the planetUranus, the first new planet found.[30]The distance to a star

was first announced in 1838 when theparallaxof61 Cygniwas measured byFriedrich Bessel.[31]

During the 1819th centuries, attention to thethree body problembyEuler,Clairaut, andD'Alembertled tomore accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined

byLagrangeandLaplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their

perturbations.[32]

Significant advances in astronomy came about with the introduction of new technology, including

thespectroscopeandphotography.Fraunhoferdiscovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of the Sun in

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181415, which, in 1859,Kirchhoffascribed to the presence of different elements. Stars were proven to be

similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range oftemperatures,masses, and sizes.[20]

The existence of the Earth's galaxy, theMilky Way, as a separate group of stars, was only proved in the 20th

century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of theUniverse, seen in

the recession of most galaxies from us.[33]Modern astronomy has also discovered many exotic objects such

asquasars,pulsars,blazars, andradio galaxies, and has used these observations to develop physical theories

which describe some of these objects in terms of equally exotic objects such asblack holesandneutron

stars.Physical cosmologymade huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of theBig

Bangheavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as thecosmic microwave

background radiation,Hubble's law, andcosmological abundances of elements.Space telescopeshave

enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally blocked or blurred by the

atmosphere.

[edit]Observational astronomy

Main article:Observational astronomy

In astronomy, the main source of information aboutcelestial bodiesand other objects is the visiblelightor more

generallyelectromagnetic radiation.[34]Observational astronomy may be divided according to the observed

region of theelectromagnetic spectrum. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from theEarth's surface,

while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or space. Specific information on these

subfields is given below.

[edit]Radio astronomy

TheVery Large ArrayinNew Mexico, an example of aradio telescope

Main article:Radio astronomy

Radio astronomy studies radiation withwavelengthsgreater than approximately one millimeter.[35]Radio

astronomy is different from most other forms of observational astronomy in that the observedradio wavescan

be treated aswavesrather than as discretephotons. Hence, it is relatively easier to measure both

theamplitudeandphaseof radio waves, whereas this is not as easily done at shorter wavelengths.[35]

Although someradio wavesare produced by astronomical objects in the form ofthermal emission, most of the

radio emission that is observed from Earth is seen in the form ofsynchrotron radiation, which is produced

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whenelectronsoscillate aroundmagnetic fields.[35]Additionally, a number ofspectral linesproduced

byinterstellar gas, notably thehydrogenspectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.[7][35]

A wide variety of objects are observable at radio wavelengths, includingsupernovae, interstellar gas,pulsars,

andactive galactic nuclei.[7][35]

[edit]Infrared astronomy

Main article:Infrared astronomy

Infrared astronomy deals with the detection and analysis ofinfraredradiation (wavelengths longer than red

light). Except atwavelengthsclose to visible light, infrared radiation is heavily absorbed by the atmosphere,

and the atmosphere produces significant infrared emission. Consequently, infrared observatories have to be

located in high, dry places or in space. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to

radiate visible light, such as planets andcircumstellar disks. Longer infrared wavelengths can also penetrate

clouds of dust that block visible light, allowing observation of young stars inmolecular cloudsand the cores of

galaxies.[36]Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared. This can be used to study chemistry in space;

more specifically it can detect water in comets.[37]

[edit]Optical astronomy

TheSubaru Telescope(left) andKeck Observatory(center) onMauna Kea, both examples of an observatory that operates

at near-infrared and visible wavelengths. TheNASA Infrared Telescope Facility(right) is an example of a telescope that

operates only at near-infrared wavelengths.

Main article:Optical astronomy

Historically, optical astronomy, also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest form of astronomy.[38]Optical

images were originally drawn by hand. In the late 19th century and most of the 20th century, images were

made using photographic equipment. Modern images are made using digital detectors, particularly detectors

usingcharge-coupled devices(CCDs). Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000to 7000

(400nmto 700 nm),[38]the same equipment used at these wavelengths is also used to observe somenear-

ultravioletandnear-infraredradiation.

[edit]Ultraviolet astronomy

Main article:Ultraviolet astronomy

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Ultraviolet astronomy is generally used to refer to observations atultravioletwavelengths between

approximately 100 and 3200 (10 to 320 nm).[35]Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's

atmosphere, so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from

space. Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot

bluestars(OB stars) that are very bright in this wave band. This includes the blue stars in other galaxies, which

have been the targets of several ultraviolet surveys. Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light

includeplanetary nebulae,supernova remnants, and active galactic nuclei.[35]However, as ultraviolet light is

easily absorbed byinterstellar dust, an appropriate adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary.[35]

[edit]X-ray astronomy

Main article:X-ray astronomy

X-ray astronomy is the study ofastronomical objectsatX-ray wavelengths. Typically, objects emit X-ray

radiation assynchrotron emission(produced by electrons oscillating around magnetic field lines),thermalemission from thin gasesabove 107 (10 million)kelvins, andthermal emission from thick gasesabove

107 Kelvin.[35]Since X-rays