Leadership What is it? –Hard to define –We know it when we see it General Definition –Social influence in an organizational setting, the effects of which.

Leadership

• What is it?– Hard to define– We know it when we see it

• General Definition– Social influence in an organizational setting,

the effects of which are relevant to or have an impact on the achievement of organizational goals

Leader Effectiveness

• How can we tell a “good” leader from a “poor” leader? (What results would we expect to see from a “good” leader?)

– Performance (the job gets done)– Motivation (followers are energized)– Effort (followers try hard)– Satisfaction (followers are happy)

Focus of Trait Approach

• Focuses exclusively on leader– What traits leaders

exhibit

– Who has these traits

• Organizations use personality assessments to find “Right” people– AssumptionAssumption - will increase

organizational effectiveness– Specify characteristics/traits

for specific positions• Personality assessment

measures for “fit”

LeaderLeaderLeaderLeader PersonalitPersonalityy

AssessmeAssessmentsnts

PersonalitPersonalityy

AssessmeAssessmentsnts

Strengths

• Intuitively appealingappealing– Perception that leaders

are different in that they possess special traits

– People “need” to view leaders as gifted

• CredibilityCredibility due to a century of research support

• Highlights leadership leadership componentcomponent in the leadership process– Deeper level understanding

of how leader/personality related to leadership process

• Provides benchmarks benchmarks for what to look for in a leader

Criticisms• Fails to delimitdelimit a

definitive list of leadership traits– Endless lists have

emerged

• Doesn’t take into account situational situational effectseffects– Leaders in one situation

may not be leaders in another situation

• List of most important leadership traits is highly subjectivehighly subjective– Much subjective experience &

observations serve as basis for identified leadership traits

• Research fails to look at traits in relationship to leadership outcomesoutcomes

• Not useful for training & training & developmentdevelopment

Application• Provides direction as to which

traits are good to have if one aspires to a leadership position

• Through various tests and questionnaires, individuals can determine whether they have the select leadership traits and can pinpoint their strengths and weaknesses

• Can be used by managers to assess where they stand within their organization and what is needed to strengthen their position

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits• IntelligenceIntelligence• Self-ConfidenceSelf-Confidence• DeterminationDetermination• IntegrityIntegrity• SociabilitySociability

Style Approach Description

• Leader-focused perspective

• Emphasis on what leaders do and how they act

• Comprised of Two Comprised of Two Kinds of BehaviorsKinds of Behaviors– Task behaviorsTask behaviors

• Facilitate goal accomplishment

– Relationship Relationship behaviorsbehaviors

• Help subordinates feel comfortable with themselves, each other, and the situation

PerspectivPerspectivee


DefinitionDefinitionDefinitionDefinition

Style Approach

• Primarily a framework Primarily a framework for assessing for assessing leadership in a broad leadership in a broad way as behavior with a way as behavior with a task and relationship task and relationship dimensiondimension

• Offers a means of Offers a means of generally assessing generally assessing the behaviors of the behaviors of leadersleaders

FocusFocusFocusFocus Overall ScopeOverall ScopeOverall ScopeOverall Scope

Strengths• Style Approach marked a major shiftmajor shift in

leadership research from exclusively trait focused to include behaviors and actions of leaders

• Broad range of studies on leadership style validates and gives credibility to the basic tenets of the approach

• At conceptual level, a leader’s style is composed of two major types of behaviors: task and relationshiptask and relationship

• Based on style approach, leaders can assess their actions and determine how to change to improve their leadership style

Criticisms

• Research has notnot adequately demonstrated how leaders’ styles are associated with performance outcomes

• No universalNo universal style of leadership that could be effective in most situations

• Implies that the most effective leadership style is High-HighHigh-High style (i.e., high task/high relationship); research finding support is limited

Contingency Theory Approach Description

“Leaders match their style to the competence and commitment of subordinates.”

• Contingency theory is a leader-matchleader-match theory (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974)– Tries to match leaders to

appropriate situations• Leader’s effectiveness effectiveness

depends on how well the leader’s style fits the context

• Fiedler et al.’s generalizations about which styles of leadership are best and worst are empirically empirically groundedgrounded

• Effective leadership Effective leadership is contingent on is contingent on matching a leader’s matching a leader’s style to the right style to the right settingsetting




Leadership Styles

• Leadership styles Leadership styles are described as:are described as:– Task motivatedTask motivated– Relationship Relationship

motivatedmotivated

• Task-motivated leadersTask-motivated leaders - -Concerned primarily with Concerned primarily with reaching a goalreaching a goal

• Relationship-motivated Relationship-motivated leadersleaders - Concerned with developing close interpersonal relationships

DefinitionDefinitionDefinitionDefinition Dimension Dimension DefinitionsDefinitionsDimension Dimension DefinitionsDefinitions

Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) ScaleLeast Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) ScaleLeader Style Measurement ScaleLeader Style Measurement Scale

High = Relationship-motivated leaderHigh = Relationship-motivated leaderLow = Task-motivated leaderLow = Task-motivated leader

Situational Variables

Leader-Member Leader-Member RelationsRelations

Task StructureTask Structure Position Power

LMRLMR - Refers to the group atmosphere and the degree of confidence, loyalty, and attraction of followers for leader

TSTS - Concerns the degree to which requirements of a task are clear and spelled out

PPPP - Designates the amount of authority a leader has to reward or punish followers

SituationaSituationall

FactorsFactors

SituationaSituationall

FactorsFactors


DetermineDetermineFavorablenessFavorablenessof Situationsof Situations

in Organizationsin Organizations

DetermineDetermineFavorablenessFavorablenessof Situationsof Situations

in Organizationsin Organizations

Contingency Model

GoodGood

11

PoorPoor

High High StructureStructure

High High StructureStructure

Low Low StructureStructure

Low Low StructureStructure

StrongStrongPowerPower

WeakWeakPowerPower


WeakWeakPowerPower


WeakWeakPowerPower


WeakWeakPowerPower

Leader-Leader-MemberMemberRelationsRelations

TaskTaskStructureStructure

PositionPositionPowerPower

PreferredPreferredLeadershipLeadershipStyleStyle

22 33 44 55 66 77 88Low LPCsLow LPCs

Middle LPCsMiddle LPCs High LPCsHigh LPCsLowLow

LPCsLPCs

Strengths• Empirical support. Empirical support. Contingency theory has been tested by many researchers and

found to be a valid and reliable approach to explaining how to achieve effective leadership.

• Broadened understanding.Broadened understanding. Contingency theory has broadened the scope of leadership understanding from a focus on a single, best type of leadership (e.g., trait approach) to emphasizing the importance of a leader’s style and the demands of different situations.

• Predictive.Predictive. Because Contingency theory is predictive, it provides relevant information regarding the type of leadership that is most likely to be effective in particular contexts.

• Not an all-or-nothing approachNot an all-or-nothing approach. Contingency theory contends that leaders should notnot expect to be effective in every situation; thus companies should strive to place leaders in optimal situations according to their leadership style.

• Leadership profiles.Leadership profiles. Contingency theory supplies data on leadership styles that could be useful to organizations in developing leadership profiles for human resource planning.

Criticisms• Fails to fully explain why why leaders with particular leadership

styles are more effective in some situations than others (Black Black Box problemBox problem)

• Criticism of LPC scale validityvalidity as it does not correlate well with other standard leadership measures

• Cumbersome Cumbersome to use in real-world settings

• Fails to adequately explain what should be done done about a leader/situation mismatch in the workplace

Path-Goal Theory Approach Description

• Goal - Goal - To enhance employee To enhance employee performance and satisfaction by performance and satisfaction by focusing on employee motivationfocusing on employee motivation

• Premise Premise - Subordinates will be - Subordinates will be motivated if they believe: (a) they motivated if they believe: (a) they are capable of performing their are capable of performing their work; (b) that their efforts will be work; (b) that their efforts will be rewarded; and (c) that the payoff rewarded; and (c) that the payoff will be worthwhilewill be worthwhile

• Challenge Challenge - To use a leadership - To use a leadership style that best meets style that best meets subordinates’ motivational needssubordinates’ motivational needs

• Path-goal theory Path-goal theory centers on how centers on how leaders motivate leaders motivate subordinates to subordinates to accomplish accomplish designated goalsdesignated goals




Conditions of Leadership Motivation

• It increases the It increases the numbernumber and and kinds kinds of payoffsof payoffs

• Path to the goal is Path to the goal is clearclear and and easily traveled with easily traveled with coachingcoaching and and directiondirection

• Obstacles and roadblocks are Obstacles and roadblocks are removedremoved

• The work itself is personally The work itself is personally satisfyingsatisfying

Leadership generates motivation when:Leadership generates motivation when:

Path-Goal Theory Approach

• Path-goal theory is a Path-goal theory is a complex but also pragmatic complex but also pragmatic approachapproach

• Leaders should choose a Leaders should choose a leadership style that best leadership style that best fits the needs of fits the needs of subordinates and their worksubordinates and their work

• Path-goal theory Path-goal theory provides a set of provides a set of assumptionsassumptions about about how different how different leadership styles will leadership styles will interact with interact with subordinate subordinate characteristics and the characteristics and the work situation to affect work situation to affect employee motivationemployee motivation

FocusFocusFocusFocus Overall ScopeOverall ScopeOverall ScopeOverall Scope

Strengths• Useful theoretical framework. Useful theoretical framework. Path-goal theory is a useful Path-goal theory is a useful

theoretical framework for understanding how various leadership theoretical framework for understanding how various leadership behaviors affect the satisfaction of subordinates and their work behaviors affect the satisfaction of subordinates and their work performance.performance.

• Integrates motivation.Integrates motivation. Path-goal theory attempts to integrate the Path-goal theory attempts to integrate the motivation principles of expectancy theory into a theory of leadership.motivation principles of expectancy theory into a theory of leadership.

• Practical model.Practical model. Path-goal theory provides a practical model that Path-goal theory provides a practical model that underscores and highlights the important ways leaders help underscores and highlights the important ways leaders help subordinates.subordinates.

Criticisms• Interpreting the meaning of the theory can be confusingconfusing because it

is so complex and incorporates so many different aspects of leadership; consequently, it is difficult to implement.

• Empirical research studies have demonstrated only partial supportpartial support for path-goal theory.

• It fails to adequately explain the relationshiprelationship between leadership behavior and worker motivation.

• The path-goal theory approach treats leadership as a one-wayone-way event in which the leader affects the subordinate.

Application• PGT offers valuable insights that can be

applied in ongoing settings to improve one’s leadership.

• Informs leaders about when to be directive, supportive, participative, or achievement oriented

• The principles of PGT can be employed by leaders at all organizational levels and for all types of tasks

Leadership as Power

• Agent exerts more influence on a target than a target can resist.

• Possible outcomes of using power– Resistance– Compliance– Commitment

• Sources of Power– Reward– Coercive– Legitimate– Expert– Referent

Likely Outcomes of Using Power

Type of Outcome Base of Power Commitment Compliance Resistance

Referent Likely Possible Possible

Expert Likely Possible Possible

Legitimate Possible Likely Possible

Reward Possible Likely Possible

Coercive Very Unlikely Possible Likely

LMX Theory Approach Description

• Development - Development - LMX theory first LMX theory first described by Dansereau, described by Dansereau, Graen, & Haga (1975), Graen & Graen, & Haga (1975), Graen & Cashman (1975), and Graen Cashman (1975), and Graen (1976)(1976)

• Revisions Revisions - Theory has - Theory has undergone a number of undergone a number of revisions since its inception revisions since its inception and continues to be of interest and continues to be of interest to researchersto researchers

• AssumptionAssumption - - LMX theory LMX theory challenges the assumption that challenges the assumption that leaders treat followers in a leaders treat followers in a collective way.collective way.

• LMX theory LMX theory conceptualizes conceptualizes leadership as a leadership as a process centered in process centered in the interactions the interactions between leaders between leaders and followers.and followers.




Later Studies• Initial research primarily addressed Initial research primarily addressed differencesdifferences between in-groups and out-groups; later research addressed how LMX theory was related to between in-groups and out-groups; later research addressed how LMX theory was related to organizational effectivenessorganizational effectiveness• Researchers (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) found that Researchers (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) found that high-qualityhigh-quality leader-member exchanges resulted in: leader-member exchanges resulted in:

– Less employee turnoverLess employee turnover– More positive performance evaluationsMore positive performance evaluations– Higher frequency of promotionsHigher frequency of promotions– Greater organizational commitmentGreater organizational commitment– More desirable work assignmentsMore desirable work assignments– Better job attitudesBetter job attitudes– More attention and support from the leaderMore attention and support from the leader– Greater participationGreater participation– Faster career progressFaster career progress

Phases in Leadership MakingGraen & Uhl-Bien (1995)

StrangerStranger

ScriptedScripted

AcquaintanceAcquaintance PartnerPartner

RolesRoles

InfluencesInfluences

ExchangesExchanges

InterestsInterests

One WayOne Way

Low QualityLow Quality

SelfSelf

TestedTested

MixedMixed

Medium QualityMedium Quality

Self / OtherSelf / Other

NegotiatedNegotiated

ReciprocalReciprocal

High QualityHigh Quality

GroupGroup

TIMETIME

Phase 1Phase 1 Phase 2Phase 2 Phase 3Phase 3

Phase 1Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)

StrangerStranger• Interactions rule boundInteractions rule bound• Rely on contractual relationshipsRely on contractual relationships• Relate to each other within prescribedRelate to each other within prescribed

organizational rolesorganizational roles• Experience lower quality exchangesExperience lower quality exchanges• Subordinate motives directedSubordinate motives directed

toward self-interesttoward self-interest

Phase 1Phase 1


AcquaintanceAcquaintance• Offer by leader/subordinate for improved Offer by leader/subordinate for improved career-oriented social exchanges career-oriented social exchanges • Testing period of taking on new roles and Testing period of taking on new roles and leader providing new challengesleader providing new challenges• Shift from formalized interactions toShift from formalized interactions to new ways of relatingnew ways of relating• Quality of exchanges improve along with Quality of exchanges improve along with greater trust and respectgreater trust and respect• Less focus on self-interest, moreLess focus on self-interest, more on goals ofon goals of the groupthe group

Phase 2Phase 2


Mature PartnershipMature Partnership• Marked by high-quality LMX exchangesMarked by high-quality LMX exchanges• Experience high degree of mutual trust, Experience high degree of mutual trust, respect, and obligation toward one anotherrespect, and obligation toward one another• Tested relationship that is dependableTested relationship that is dependable• High degree of reciprocity between leader andHigh degree of reciprocity between leader and subordinatesubordinate• May depend on each other for favors and May depend on each other for favors and special assistancespecial assistance• Highly developed patterns of relating that Highly developed patterns of relating that produce positive outcomesproduce positive outcomes

Phase 3Phase 3

LMX Theory Approach

• Essential to recognize Essential to recognize existence of in-groups & out-existence of in-groups & out-groupsgroups

• Significant differences in how Significant differences in how goals are accomplished using goals are accomplished using in-groups vs. out-groupsin-groups vs. out-groups

• Relevant differences in in-Relevant differences in in-group vs. out-group behaviorsgroup vs. out-group behaviors

• Best understood within the Best understood within the Leadership Making ModelLeadership Making Model– Leader forms special Leader forms special

relationship with each relationship with each subordinatesubordinate

– Leader should offer each Leader should offer each subordinate an opportunity subordinate an opportunity for new roles/responsibilitiesfor new roles/responsibilities

– Leader should nurture high-Leader should nurture high-quality exchanges with all quality exchanges with all subordinatessubordinates

– Rather than concentrating on Rather than concentrating on differences, leader should differences, leader should focus on ways to build trustfocus on ways to build trust

DescriptivDescriptivee

DescriptivDescriptivee

PrescriptivePrescriptivePrescriptivePrescriptive

Strengths• LMX theory LMX theory validatesvalidates our experience of how people within our experience of how people within

organizations relate to each other and the leaderorganizations relate to each other and the leader

• LMX theory is the only leadership approach that makes the LMX theory is the only leadership approach that makes the dyadic relationshipdyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process the centerpiece of the leadership process

• LMX theory directs our attention to the importance of LMX theory directs our attention to the importance of communicationcommunication

• SolidSolid research foundation on how the practice of LMX theory research foundation on how the practice of LMX theory is related to positive organizational outcomesis related to positive organizational outcomes

Criticisms• Inadvertently supports the development of privileged

groups in the workplace; appears unfair and appears unfair and discriminatorydiscriminatory

• The basic theoretical ideasbasic theoretical ideas of LMX are not fully developed

• Because of various scales and levels of analysisvarious scales and levels of analysis, measurement of leader-member exchanges is being questioned

Application

• Applicable to all levels of management and different types of organizations

• Directs managers to assess their leadership from a relationship perspective

• Sensitizes managers to how in-groups and out-groups develop within their work unit

• Can be used to explain how individuals create leadership networks throughout an organization

Model of Transformational LeadershipBass (1985)

TL motivates followers beyond the expected by:TL motivates followers beyond the expected by: raising consciousness about the value and importance of specific and idealized goals transcending self-interest for the good of the organization addressing higher-level needs

TransformationalTransformational

LeadershipLeadership

TransactionalTransactional


Laissez-FaireLaissez-Faire


Transformational Leadership Factors

Tra

nsfo

rmati

on

aTra

nsfo

rmati

on

all

Factor 1Factor 1Idealized InfluenceIdealized Influence

CharismaCharisma

Factor 2Factor 2InspirationalInspirationalMotivationalMotivational

Factor 3Factor 3IntellectualIntellectualStimulationStimulation

Factor 4Factor 4IndividualizedIndividualizedConsiderationConsideration

Tra

nsacti

on

al

Tra

nsacti

on

al

Factor 5Factor 5Contingent RewardContingent Reward

ConstructiveConstructiveTransactionsTransactions

Factor 6Factor 6Mgmt. by ExceptionMgmt. by Exception

Active & PassiveActive & PassiveCorrective TransactionsCorrective Transactions

Lassie

z-F

air

eLassie

z-F

air

e

Factor 7Factor 7Laissez-FaireLaissez-Faire

NontransactionalNontransactional

Leaders who exhibit TL:Leaders who exhibit TL: have a strong set of values & idealshave a strong set of values & ideals are effective in motivating followers to supportare effective in motivating followers to support greater good over self-interest greater good over self-interest

Transformational Leadership FactorsThe 4 “I”s

Individualized Individualized InfluenceInfluence

Describes leaders who act as strong role models for followersDescribes leaders who act as strong role models for followers

Inspirational Inspirational MotivationMotivation

Leaders who communicate high expectations to followers, inspiring Leaders who communicate high expectations to followers, inspiring them through motivation to commitment and engagement in the them through motivation to commitment and engagement in the shared vision of the organizationshared vision of the organization

Intellectual Intellectual StimulationStimulation

Stimulates followers to be creative and innovative; challengesStimulates followers to be creative and innovative; challengestheir own beliefs and values and those of leader and organizationtheir own beliefs and values and those of leader and organization

IndividualizedIndividualizedConsiderationConsideration

Leaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefullyLeaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefullyto the needs of followersto the needs of followers

Transactional Leadership Factors

The exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort byThe exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort byfollowers is exchanged for specified rewardsfollowers is exchanged for specified rewards

Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcementnegative reinforcement• Two formsTwo forms

• Active Active - Watches follower closely to identify mistakes/rule violations- Watches follower closely to identify mistakes/rule violations• PassivePassive - Intervenes only after standards have not been met or - Intervenes only after standards have not been met or problems have arisenproblems have arisen

Contingent Contingent RewardReward

Management by Management by ExceptionException

Nonleadership Factor

The absence of leadership. A hands-off, let-things-ride The absence of leadership. A hands-off, let-things-ride approach. Refers to a leader who abdicates responsibility, approach. Refers to a leader who abdicates responsibility, delays decisions, gives no feedback, and makes little effort delays decisions, gives no feedback, and makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs.to help followers satisfy their needs.

Laissez-FaireLaissez-Faire

Transformational Leadership Approach

• TLs empower and nurture TLs empower and nurture followersfollowers

• TLs stimulate change by TLs stimulate change by becoming strong role models becoming strong role models for followersfor followers

• TLs commonly create a visionTLs commonly create a vision

• TLs act as change agentsTLs act as change agents

• TLs are social architectsTLs are social architects

• Describes how Describes how leaders can initiate, leaders can initiate, develop, and carry develop, and carry out significant out significant changes in changes in organizationsorganizations

Focus of Focus of Transformational Transformational

LeadersLeaders

Focus of Focus of Transformational Transformational

LeadersLeadersOverall ScopeOverall ScopeOverall ScopeOverall Scope

Strengths• Broadly researchedBroadly researched.. TL has been widely researched, including a large body of TL has been widely researched, including a large body of

qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.• Intuitive appeal.Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.• Process-focused.Process-focused. TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers

and leaders.and leaders.• Expansive leadership view.Expansive leadership view. TL provides a broader view of leadership that TL provides a broader view of leadership that

augments other leadership models.augments other leadership models.• Emphasizes follower.Emphasizes follower. TL emphasizes followers’ needs, values, and morals.TL emphasizes followers’ needs, values, and morals.• Effectiveness.Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.

Criticisms• Lacks conceptualconceptual clarity

– Dimensions are not clearly delimited– Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership

• Measurement Measurement questioned– Validity of MLQ not fully established– Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the transformational model

• TL treats leadership more as a personality trait or predisposition than a behaviorbehavior that can be taught

• TL is elitist elitist and antidemocraticantidemocratic

• Suffers from heroic leadershipheroic leadership bias

• TL is based primarily on qualitativequalitative data

• Has the potential to be abusedabused

Application• Provides a general way of thinking about

leadership that stresses ideals, inspiration, innovations, and individual concerns

• Can be taught to individuals at all levels of the organization

• Able to positively impact a firm’s performance

• May be used as a tool in recruitment, selection, promotion, and training development

• Can be used to improve team development, decision-making groups, quality initiatives, and reorganizations

• The MLQ helps leaders to target areas of leadership improvement

Leadership What is it? –Hard to define –We know it when we see it General Definition –Social influence in an organizational setting, the effects of which.

Documents

traits leaders

important leadership

leadership position

leader slide

traits organizations

happy slide

good leader

leader effectiveness