Leadership Final

I am more afraid of an army of 100 sheep led by a lion than an army of 100 lions led by a sheep.

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John Kotter said, Management is coping with complexity.

Good management brings order and consistency by drawing up formal plans, designing organizational structures, monitoring results etc.

o Whereas Leadership is all about coping with change.

Leaders establish directions by developing a vision of the future. Then they align people by communicating this vision and inspiring them to overcome hurdles.

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Leadership

The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.Management

Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members.

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Trait Theories up to late 1940s

Behavioral Theories up to late 1960s

Contingency Theories

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Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy• The desire to leadThe desire to lead• Honest and integrityHonest and integrity• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence• IntelligenceIntelligence• High self-monitoringHigh self-monitoring• Job-relevant Job-relevant

knowledgeknowledge

Traits Theories of Leadership

Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Gandhiji, Tata, Azim Premji, Steve jobs, Narayan Murthy etc are known as leaders by their traits such as Charismatic, enthusiastic and courageous.

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LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits found that predict No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.

• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

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• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

The failure of early studies led researchers to go in different directions. They wondered if there was something unique in the way that effective leaders behave.

Few examples of leaders who became successful in tough times by using autocratic behavior forced to think on………….. Does this suggest that autocratic behavior is preferred style for all leaders?

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Initiating Structure

The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.

It includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationship, and goals.

A leader characterizes by high initiating structure could be described as someone who “assigns group members to

particular tasks,”” expects workers to maintain definite standards of

performance” and “ emphasizes the meeting of deadlines.”

The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.

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A leader high in consideration is one who helps employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, treats

all employees as equals and express appreciation and support.

At one time Ohio state studies were thought to be disappointing. As this 2 factors added little to our study of

knowledge about effective leadership.

With the same objective that is : To locate behavioral characteristics of leader that appeared to be related to measures of performance effectiveness.

The study was carried out at University of Michigan.

They also came out with two dimensions namely: Employee oriented and Production Oriented which were very similar to Ohio states results.

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Employee-Oriented Leader

Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members.Production-Oriented Leader

One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

The grid does not show results produced; rather, it shows the dominating factors in a leader’s thinking in regard to getting results.

Managers found to perform best under a 9,9 style compared to 9,1 (authority type or 1,9 (laissez-faire type) style.

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E X H I B I T 11–1

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Development-Oriented Leader

One who values experimentation, seeking new ideas, and generating and implementing change.Researchers in Finland and Sweden question whether there are only two dimensions (production-orientation and employee-orientation) that capture the essence of leadership behavior. Their premise is that in a changing world, effective leaders would exhibit development-oriented behavior.

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Fiedler’s Contingency Model

The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.

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Leader-Member Relations

The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

Position Power

Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.

Task Structure

The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

The next step in fiedler model is to evaluate the situation in terms of these three contingency variables.

He states that the better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has.

For Ex:- A very favorable situation (in which a leader would have a great deal of control) might involve a payroll manager who is well respected and whose employees have confidence in her (good leader-member relations), for which the activities to be done such as wage computation, check writing, etc are specific and clear (high task structure), and the job provides considerable freedom for her to reward and punish her employees (strong position power).

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Contingency Theories

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Research Support:• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership

roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Cognitive Resource Theory

A theory of leadership that states that stress can unfavorably affect a situation and that intelligence and experience can lessen the influence of stress on the leader.

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Stress Level Low

Leader was

directive

High Stress situations intelligence was of little help (because

leader was too cognitively taxed to put smarts to good

use)

Intelligence was

important to a

leader’s effectivenes

s

Stress Level Low

Leader was Nondirectiv

e

Leaders are afraid to put these smarts to use to tell people

what to do?

Intelligence was of little

help to leader’s

effectiveness

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Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness.

Leader: decreasing need for support and supervision

Follower readiness: ability and willingness

Unable andUnable andUnwillingUnwilling

Unable butUnable butWillingWilling

Able andAble andWillingWilling

DirectiveDirective High Task and Relationship High Task and Relationship OrientationsOrientations

Supportive Supportive Participative Participative

Able andAble andUnwillingUnwilling

MonitoringMonitoring

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WillingUnwilling

Able

Unable DirectiveDirectiveHigh TaskHigh Task

and and Relationship Relationship OrientationsOrientations

Supportive Supportive Participative Participative MonitoringMonitoring

Follower Readiness

LeadershipLeadershipStylesStyles

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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.

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Path-Goal Theory

The theory that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide them the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.

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Leader-Participation Model (Vroom and Yetton)

A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.

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1. Importance of the decision2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision4. How well structured the problem is5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment6. Whether followers “buy into” the organization’s goals7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution

alternatives8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is

justified11. Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision

skills

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Key Elements1. Intensity: how hard a person tries2. Direction: toward beneficial goal3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

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Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.Self-Actualization

The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.

Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied

internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization

needs.

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Theory XAssumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.Theory YAssumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

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Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors

Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.

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Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that

led to extreme job satisfaction

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Core NeedsExistence: provision of basic material requirements. Relatedness: desire for relationships.Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:More than one need can be operative at the same time.If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

ERG Theory

There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.

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nAch

nPow

nAff

Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for PowerThe need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.

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Goal-Setting Theory

The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.

Self-EfficacyThe individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Factors influencing the goals–performance relationship:

Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture.

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Concepts:Behavior is environmentally caused.Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

The assumption that behavior is a function of its consequences.

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Characteristics:1. Skill variety2. Task identity3. Task significance4. Autonomy5. Feedback

Job Characteristics Model

Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

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Job Characteristics ModelJobs with skill variety, task identity, task

significance, autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:Knowledge of resultsMeaningfulness of workPersonal feelings of responsibility for results

Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

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Skill Variety

The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities.Task Identity

The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.Task Significance

The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

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Autonomy

The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

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Feedback

The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

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People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.

Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.

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Concept:Employee attitudes and behaviors are responses to social cues by others.

Social Information Processing (SIP) Model

The fact that people respond to their jobs as they perceive them rather than to the objective jobs themselves.

Concepts of the SIP Model• Employees adopt attitudes and behaviors

in response to the social cues provided by others (e.g., coworkers) with whom they have contact.

• Employees’ perception of the characteristics of their jobs is as important as the actual characteristics of their jobs.

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Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

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Effort–Performance RelationshipThe probability that exerting a given amount of effort will

lead to performance. Performance–Reward Relationship

The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Rewards–Personal Goals RelationshipThe degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an

individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.

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Teamwork Concept of people working together as a team

Team playerA team player is someone who is able to get along with their

colleagues and work together in a cohesive group

Team BuildingProcess of establishing and developing a greater sense of collaboration and trust between members

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When staff use their skills and knowledge together, the result is a stronger agency that can fulfill its mission

“To provide accurate information that would assist individuals in achieving a better quality of life.”

People working together can sustain the enthusiasm and lend support needed to complete the work of each program.

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A Teams succeeds when its members have:

• A commitment to common objectives• Defined roles and responsibilities• Effective decision systems, communication and work procedures• Good personal Relationships

Listen Question Persuade Respect Help Share Participate

FormingForming

StormingStorming

NormingNorming

PerformingPerforming

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The Team• Defines the problem

• Agrees on goals and formulates strategies for tackling the tasks• Determines the challenges and identifies information needed• Individuals take on certain roles• develops trust and communication

Encourages and maintains open communicationLeads by setting a good example Motivates and inspires team membersHelps the team focus on the taskFacilitates problem solving and collaborationMaintains healthy group dynamicsEncourages creativity and risk-takingRecognizes and celebrates team member contributions

Initiator - Someone who suggests new ideas. One or more people can have this role at a time.

Recorder - This person records whatever ideas a team member may have. It is important that this person quote a team member accurately and not "edit" or evaluate them.

Devil's Advocate/Skeptic - This is someone whose responsibility is to look for potential flaws in an idea.

Optimist - This is someone who tries to maintain a positive frame of mind and facilitates the search for solutions.

Timekeeper - Someone who tracks time spent on each portion of the meeting.

Gate Keeper - This person works to ensure that each member gives input on an issue. One strategy to do this is to ask everyone to voice their opinion one at a time. Another is to cast votes.

Summarizer - Someone who summarizes a list of options.

Help members understand each other

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Extraverts ------------------ IntrovertsSensors --------------------- IntuitiveThinker ---------------------- FeelersJudger ----------------------- Perceiver

By selecting one from each category, we define our personality type, ESTJ, ENTJ…INFP

Extraverts•Need to think

aloud•Great explainers•May overwhelm

others

Introverts•Need time to

process•Great

concentration•May not be heard

Intuitive •Great at big

picture•See connections•May make

mistakes in carrying out plans

Sensor•Great executors•May miss big

picture, relative importance

Thinker•Skillful at

understanding how anything works

Feeler•Knows why

something matters

Judger•Good at

schedules, plans, completion

•Makes decisions easily (quickly)

•May overlook vital issues

Perceiver•Always curious,

wants more knowledge

•May not get around to acting

During the Storming stage team members:realize that the task is more difficult than they imagined

have fluctuations in attitude about chances of success

may be resistant to the taskhave poor collaboration

Do we have common goals and objectives?

Do we agree on roles and responsibilities?

Do our task, communication, and decision systems work?

Do we have adequate interpersonal skills?

Separate problem issues from people issues.

Be soft on people, hard on problem.

Look for underlying needs, goals of each party rather than specific solutions.

State your views in clear non-judgmental language.

Clarify the core issues. Listen carefully to each person’s

point of view. Check understanding by restating the

core issues.

During this stage members accept:•their team•team rules and procedures•their roles in the team•the individuality of fellow members

Team members realize that they are not going to crash-and-burn and start helping each other.

Competitive relationships become more cooperative.

There is a willingness to confront issues

and solve problems. Teams develop the ability to express

criticism constructively. There is a sense of team spirit.

Be descriptive Don't use labels Don’t exaggerate Don’t be judgmental Speak for yourself

Use “I” messages. Restrict your feedback to things you

know for certain. Help people hear and accept your

compliments when giving positive feedback.

Listen carefully. Ask questions for clarity. Acknowledge the feedback. Acknowledge the valid points. Take time to sort out what you heard.

Team members have:gained insight into personal and team

processesa better understanding of each other’s

strengths and weaknessesgained the ability to prevent or work

through group conflict and resolve differences

developed a close attachment to the team

Commitment to shared goals and objectives

Clearly define roles and responsibilitiesUse best skills of eachAllows each to develop in all areas

Effective systems and processes•Clear communication•Beneficial team behaviors; well-defined

decision procedures and ground rules•Balanced participation•Awareness of the group process•Good personal relationships