LEAD 901 Chapter 4

Chapter 4

Five Qualitative

Approaches to

Inquiry

Questions for Discussion• What is the focus and definition for each approach (narrative

research, phenomenological research, ground theory research, ethnographic research, and case study research)?

• What are the origin and background influences for each approach?

• What are the defining features of each approach?

• What various forms can a study take within each approach?

• What are the procedures for using the approach?

• What challenges and emerging directions are associated with each approach?

• What are some similarities and differences among the five approaches?

2Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e.

SAGE Publishing, 2018.

Deciding Among the Five Approaches



Narrative Research:

Definition & Origins• Phenomenon or method

• Chronologically connected– Life course stages

• Postmodern orientation (Czarniawska (2004)

• Human development (Daiute & Lightfoot, 2004)

• Psychology (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, & Zilber, 1998)

• Sociology (Cortazzi, 1993; Riessman, 1998, 2008)

• Quantitative (statistical stories, event history)

• Qualitative (Elliott, 2005)



Narrative Research: Defining

Features• Collect stories (may be collaborative)

• Tell individual experiences and identities

• Stories occur within specific places or situation

• Many different forms of data

• Analyze: thematically, dialogically, structurally, or using visual analysis of images

• Shape into a chronology (need not be participant’s sequence)

• Turning points: tensions or interruptions



Narrative Research: Types

• Biographical study

• Autoethnography

– Larger cultural meaning

• Life history

• Oral history

– From one or several people

– Testimonies



Narrative Research: Procedures

7

1. Determine suitability of design

2. Select one or more participants

3. Consider shape of data collection / recording

4. Collect information about context e.g. Historical

5. Analyze participants’ stories e.g. Restory

6. Collaborate with participantsNegotiate

relationships & transitions

Epiphanies (turning points)

7. Present narrative in written form

Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e.


Narrative Research: Challenges

• Clearly understand participant’s life context within social, familial, linguistic, institutional dimensions

• Look for “figure under carpet”

• Reflect on own personal / political background

• Consider: Who owns the story?

• Visual narrative inquiry is a promising approach



Phenomenology:

Definition & Origins• Describes common meaning of lived experience

• Reduce experiences to a phenomenon

• Phenomenon: ‘object’ of human experience

• What & how experienced

• Strong philosophical component

– Role of philosophy as search for wisdom

– Suspend judgments about what is real until founded

– Intentionality of consciousness, directed at an object

– Refuse subject-object dichotomy



Phenomenology: Defining Features

• Single concept or idea, e.g., “grief”

• Heterogeneous group of participants

• Philosophical discussion

• Researcher brackets self

• Data collection: typically interviews

• Data analysis

– Narrow units to broader meaning units

• Essence of what & how experienced



Phenomenology: Types

Hermeneutical phenomenology

• van Manen (1990, 2014)

• Lived experience interpreting ‘texts’ of life

• Researcher’s abiding concern

Transcendental or psychological phenomenology

• Moustakas (1994)

• Epoche or bracketing for fresh perspective

• Transcendental: significance statements or quotes into themes

• Textural description: what experienced

• Structural description: how experienced

• Essence: textural & structural descriptions combined



Phenomenology:

Procedures• Determine suitability of design

• Identify phenomenon of interest

• Specify broad philosophical assumptions

• Called data from participants who experienced phenomenon

• Ask what experienced? What context?

• Analyze data – significant statements and themes

• Textural and structural descriptions

• Report the essence of the phenomenon



Phenomenology: Challenges• Understanding broader philosophical

assumptions

• Carefully selecting participants– With experience of phenomenon

• Bracketing personal experiences– Interpretations include assumptions

• Defining epoche or bracketing– Reflectively suspending understanding

– Deciding how to introduce personal understanding



Grounded Theory:

Definition and Origins• Generate or discover a theory “Unified theoretical

explanation”” general explanation of a process or action

• Theory grounded in data from participants (Glaser & Strauss, 1968)

• Structured data analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1998)

• Constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006)

• Situational perspective (Clarke, 2005)



Grounded Theory: Defining

Features• Focuses on process or action with distinct

steps or phases that occur over time

• Seeks to develop a theory of this process or action

• Memo ideas during data collection or analysis

• Simultaneous and iterative data collection (often interviews) and analysis

• Data analysis can be structured (open, axial, or selective coding) or less structured



Grounded Theory: Systematic Type

• Category: unit of information

– Events, happenings, and instances

• Theoretical sampling

– Multiple passes to the field until categories saturated

• Constant comparative method of analysis

– Compare new to existing categories

• Conditional matrix

– Connects macro- and micro- conditions



Grounded Theory: Systematic Coding

Open coding: main categories

Axial coding: Identify ‘core’ phenomenon from open coding

Causal conditions: factors causing core phenomenon

Strategies: actions in response to core phenomenon

Intervening conditions: broad situational factors

Consequences: outcomes of strategies

Axial coding: visually model core & surrounding categories

Selective coding: develop propositions or hypotheses



Grounded Theory: Constructivist Type

• Diverse local worlds, multiple realities

• Interpretive approach: flexible guidelines

• Makes visible hierarchies of power

• Beliefs, feelings, and ideologies of participants

– Rather than methods of research

• View complex terms as attempt to gain power

• Active codes: gerund-based phrases

• Conclusions: incomplete and inconclusive



Grounded Theory: Procedures

19

• Determine suitability of grounded theory

• Focus the interview on how individuals experience the process

• Theory building through iterative data collection, analysis, memoingProcess

• Categories

• Properties

Open coding

• Logic diagram

• Central phenomenon

• Causal & intervening conditions

• Consequences

Axial coding

• Presented as a discussion or a modelSubstantive-level theory



Grounded Theory: Challenges

• Set aside (pre-existing) theoretical ideas

• Allow substantive theory to emerge

• Follow specific steps (if Corbin & Strauss, 2007)

• Determine when categories saturated

– E.g. Discriminant sampling

• Produce theory with specific components

• Use Charmaz (2006) for more flexibility



Ethnography:

Definition & Origins

• Focus on culture-sharing group

• Describes values / behaviors / beliefs /

language

• Participant observation

• Researcher immersed in group

• Adapted from anthropological field

methods to study cultural groups



Ethnography:

Defining Features

• Complex descriptionCulture

• Look for patternsIdeas & beliefs

• Long enough to develop patternsGroup intact

• Interviews, observations, symbols, artifactsExtensive fieldwork

• Participant, insider viewsEmic perspective

• Develop new, novel understandingCultural interpretation

• Essence of function, way of lifeHow culture-sharing

group works



Ethnography Types

Realist Ethnography

Traditional

Objective account

3rd person

Dispassionate report of facts

Standard categories

Ethnographer interprets

Critical Ethnography

Advocates for emancipation

Serves marginalized groups

Against inequality / domination

Value-laden

Empowers people

Challenges status quo

Addresses power & control



Ethnography: Procedures

• Determine suitability of ethnography

• Locate culture-sharing group: identify gatekeeper

• Select cultural themes

• Determine type of ethnography

• Conduct fieldwork: multiple types of data

• Description of culture-sharing group

• Cultural portrait: emic & etic

• Present the patterns in written or performance format



Ethnography:

Definition of Culture

25

Attributed to a group

when looking for patterns of social world

Inferred from words & actions of group members

Attributed by the researcher

Consists of behaviors, language, and potential

tension

between what group does & what ought to do

p. 95



Ethnography: Challenges

• Understanding of – Cultural anthropology

– Meaning of a social-cultural system

– Concepts explored by students of culture

• Extensive time to collect data

• Literary narratives may limit audience

• Researcher may ‘go native’

• Sensitivity to participants

• Access & report impact



Case Study:

Definition & Origins• Study of real-life case in contemporary setting or

context (Yin, 2014)

• A bounded system

• Defined what to study more than methods

• Creswell & others: strategy

• Multiple sources of information– Case description or themes

• Multisite study: multiple cases

• Within-site study: single case

• Long tradition in many disciplines



Case Study:

Defining Features• Identification of a specific case that is bounded

• Intent: intrinsic or instrumental

• In-depth understanding of case

• Approach to analysis: multiple cases or entire case

• Description of case and case themes

• Organization: chronological, cross-case, theoretical

• Conclusions: assertions



Case Study: 3 Intents

Single instrumental case

• Focus on one issue or concern

• Select one bounded case

Collective or multiple case

• Focus on one issue or concern

• Select multiple cases (maybe within one site)

Intrinsic case

• Focus on case itself for unusual situation



Case Study: Procedures

• Determine suitability of a case study approach

• Identify case(s): purposeful/maximal sampling

• Collect extensive data drawing on multiple sources

• Analysis: holistic, embedded, thematic

• Multiple case: within, cross-case, assertions

• Report the case study and lessons learned



Case Study: Challenges

• Must identify case– Broad (Boy Scouts)

– Narrow (decision-making process of a college)

• Consider single or multiple case(s)– More than one dilutes analysis

– No more than 4 or 5

– Multiple allow generalizability

• Rationale for sampling strategy– Data collection matrix

• Decide boundaries or constraints of case– Time, events, and processes



5 Approaches: Common Process

32

Research Problem

Research Questions

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Research Report



5

Approaches

Foundations

33Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research

Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.

5 Approaches Data Procedures



5 Approaches Reporting



LEAD 901 Chapter 4

Education