-
LectureOne:IntrotoLaw121
Offtopicintroductionsandannouncementsonly
PartA:BranchesofGovernmentandHistoricalBackgroundLectureTwo:ParliamentarySupremacy&RelationshipofCommonLawandStatute
ParliamentarySupremacy
CommonLaw:Derivesfromcourtdecisionsbuiltupovertheyearsby
operationofdoctrineandprecedent
StatuteLaw:Passedbyparliamentmayoverridethecommonlawsetoutin
writtenforminpublishedstatutes JudgeMadeLaw
Hierarchyofcourts[Imageonpage58ofcoursebook] MOREIN131
WestminsterSystemofGovernment TheSovereign
HermajestytheQueenofNewZealand
GovernorGeneralofNewZealand,SirJerryMateparae
TheExecutive Ministers
TheLegislature MakeLaws
TheJudiciary SupremeCourt
WestminsterModel Ministersareresponsibletoparliament
MinistersmustgainandretaintheconfidenceoftheHouseofRepresentatives
bymajorityvotesonconfidenceandsupply
Sovereignwillactontheadviceoftheministers(makingappointments,
assentingtobills,etcetera)underConventionsoftheConstitution
TheQueenreignsbutthegovernmentrulessolongasithasthesupport
oftheHouseofRepresentatives RepresentativeDemocracy
BritishconstitutionwasNOTdemocraticinitsorigins(norfullyrepresentativeuntil1930)
NZHouseofRepresentativesbecamedemocraticbeforetheUK
VotingRights:
1853Adultpropertyowningmales
-
1867AllMaorimen 1879AllEuropeanmen 1893Allmen&women
Universalsuffrage SourcesofNZconstitution
ConstitutionAct1986(statute) Prerogativepowers(commonlaw)
OtherNZstatutesegBillofRightsAct1990[Class24]
SomeoldEnglishorUKstatutes CourtCases(commonlaw)
TreatyofWaitangiandprinciples(statute&commonlaw)
Constitutionalconventions
Practiceswhichregulate,controlandinsomecasestransformtheuseoflegalpowersarisingfromtheprerogativeorconferredbystatute.Theyarenotenforceablebycourts.
Ancientrightsofdueprocess MagnaCarta1215
MagnaCarta1297(25Edw.1,c.29)
nofreemanshallbetakenorimprisonedbutbylawfuljudgementofhispeersorbythelawoftheland.
EnglishLawsAct1858ImperialLawsApplicationAct1988(NZ)
ConstitutionalMonarchy
BillofRights1688[Class7]
Pretendedroyalpowersofsuspending,ordispensingwithlawswithout
consentofParlyamentisillegal ParliamentarySupremacy
ActofSettlement1700
IndependenceofjudgesjudgescannotbedismissedbytheSovereign
whethershe/hepleases TheSeparationofPowers
JohnLockeMontesquieu
Threebranchesofgovernmentlegislative,executive,andjudicialbranches
Parliamentarysupremacy
Nofundamentallaws,nopowerallowingcourtstostrikedown
unconstitutionalActs Shouldtherebesuchapower?
InNZ,CabinetMinisters[Executive]arealsoMembersofParliament
[Legislature]LectureThree:AnnexationofAotearoa
TheAnnexationofAotearoa Cession Discovery&Settlement
-
Conquest[Usurpation] BackgroundtoAnnexation
Proposalstoannexsince1771 Commerce Christianity Colonisation
Commercefirstfollowedbymissionaries
18371839:Colonialofficedecidestoannex Untidyprocessofannexation
ActionsinLondon,Sydney&NZwereoftenuncoordinatedandcontradictory
NZCapitals:
Sydney Russell Auckland Wellington
Commerce(from1790s) JohnWebster(Whaling,Hokianga)
JamesClendon(Entrepreneur,USconsul,Trader,WitnessedTreatyof
Waitangi) Christianity(from1814)
WilliamWilliams(Methodists,1823)
MateneTeWhiwhi(KapitiCoast,SouthIsland)
BishopPompellier(Catholic)
Colonisation(from1840) JamesStephen(InChargeofColonialOffice)
WilliamHobson
Belichs3scalesgradualaccretionofBritishSovereignty
Intervention:
1883:Busby,token 1840:Hobson,minimal 18441845:Somemilitaryforce
1860:Substantial 1863:Massiveduringwars
Authority: 1835:Disclaimed 18371839:Indirectruleideas
1846:Symbolicclaimtosovereignty
Control:
Gradualextensiontookmanydecades(WhyisKingCountrysocalled?)
ControlnotinforceinTeUrewerauntil1917
Factorsinfluencingannexation: PushfromUK:
Economicconditions
-
NewMarkets Migration
PullfromNZ/Aus: Missionaries Entrepreneurs Sydneyinterests
Ideology MythsofEmpire AngloFrenchrivalry
Fatalimpact&frontierchaos Intertribalwarfare
Selfimageofsuperiority&civilisingmission WhiteMansBurden
Key1840AnnexationDates(Notformemorising)
15June1839:LettersPatentextendedNSWjurisdictiontoNZ
14January1840:GovernorGippsProclamationsthat:
JurisdictionofNSWGovernorextendedtoNZ
OathsofofficetoHobsonasLieutenantGovernor
TitletoNZlandonlyfromcrown
19January1840:GippsProclamationspublishedinSydney
30January1840:HobsonissuesproclamationsinNZthathehasassumed
officeofLieutenantGovernor
6February1840:InitialsigningofTreatyofWaitangi
21May1840:HobsonproclaimedsoveriegntyoverNorthIslandbycession,
SouthIslandbydiscovery
16June1840:LawsofNSWappliedtoNZthroughNSWAct
September1840:Treatysigningcompleted
2October1840:HobsonsMayproclamationsgazettedinLondon
16November1840:RoyalCharterpromulgated
24November1840:LetterspatentCommissiontheGovernor
5December1840:RoyalinstructionstoGovernor
30March1841:HobsonnotifiedofImperialratificationofTreaty
NationalBirthday? 28thOctoberDeclarationofIndependence1835
14thJanuaryEnglishLawsAct1858&ImperialLawsApplicationAct1988
6thFebruaryWaitangiDayAct1976
24thNovemberStatuteofWestminsterAdoptionAct1947
LectureFour:DeclarationofIndependenceandTeTiritioWaitangi&TheTreatyofWaitangi
TeTiritioWaitangi1840KeyIssues
-
TeTiriti/theTreaty,signedin1840isnowoftendescribedasthefoundingdocumentofNZofgreatesthistoricalimportanceessentialtothefoundationofNZetc.
After1840Maori&theCrownappeartohavehaddifferentunderstandingsandexpectations
Thesedifferencesrunthroughhistorytoday
ResponsibledebatesaboutNewZealandsconstitutionnow,andinthefuture,
needtobeinformedbyanunderstandingofthesedifferences
TheDeclarationofIndependence1835[Transcriptonpg4143]
DeclaredIndependence(rangatiratanga)ofNewZealandasanIndependentState
Allsovereignpowerrestsinhereditarychiefs(TinoRangatira)
Nolegislativeauthorityorgovernmentunlessbypeopletheyappointedacting
undertheirlaws AgreedtomeetregularlyinCongress
ThankedKingWilliamIVforacknowledging1834flag
AskedKingtobecomeProtectorofinfantstateagainstallattemptsonits
independence Firstsigned:Waitangi28thOctober1835
TeWherowhero(Waikato)later1stMaoriKing(Potatau)signedJuly1839
TiritioWaitangi:Maoritext[Transcriptionpg48]
Act1:ChiefsgrantQueenrightsofkawanatanga(governorship)
Act2:Queenreaffirmsrightsofrangatira(chiefs)toexercisetino
rangatiratanga(absoluteauthority)overwenua(lands),kainga(villages),toangakatoa(allthingstreasured)
Act3:Queenwillrespecttikanga(rights,ways)ofMaoriasshedoesthoseoftheEnglish
OralAct4/protocol:GovernoragreestorespectallfaithsandthelawsandcustomsofMaori
TreatyofWaitangi:Englishtext[Transcriptionpg49]
Act1:TribescedesovereigntyabsolutelytotheQueenofEngland
Act2:Queenguaranteesfull,exclusive&undisturbedpossessionoflands,
fisheries,forests&otherproperties
Act3:MaoritobecomeBritishsubjects ComparetosummaryofMaoritext
WaitangiTribunal CreatedbytheTreatyofWaitangiAct1975
ApermanentcommissionofinquiryappointedbytheGovernmenttoinquire
intoandadvisetheGovernmentonclaimsbyMaoriagainsttheCrown
Presidedoverbyajudge
TribunalmemberswithadiverserangeofexpertiserelevanttoTribunal
inquiries TeTiritioWaitangi:plausibleMaoriunderstandings
-
Maoritextistheprimarytext,thoughactuallyachiefsword&manaismoreimportantthananywrittentext
Oraldebateisimportant(butonlyrecordedinEnglish)
ExpectationsthatMaoriwouldsuffernodiminutionofmana,ofrangatira
authority
QueentoactaskaitakiforMaoriandMaoritoprotectQueensGovernor
GovernortomediatedisputesbetweenMaoriandEuropean
WaitangiTribunalMuriwhenuaLandReport(Wai45,1997)
Maori&Queeninpartnership/alliance
MaoriwouldbenefitfromPakehapresence Maori&Governorwouldbeequal
Governorwouldinquireintolandtransactions
GovernorwouldrespectMaorisocialstructure&dealthroughleaders
British(unspoken)assumptionsincludedtheradicaltitleoftheCrownand(as
timewentby)theapplicationofEnglishlawtoallBritishsubjects
WaitangiTribunalhearings20102011
WaitangiTribunalconvenedhearingsatWaitangiforthefirsttimeeverin2010=claimsofNgapuhitribe
FourweeksofhearingsdevotedexclusivelytoevidenceconcerningtheconstitutionalstatusoftheDeclarationandtheTreaty
ManyNgapuhiandexpertsassertedthattheindependence/rangatiratangaof1835wasaffirmedbyrangatiratangaguaranteesinthetreaty
Crownevidenceandsubmissionswerethattheindependence(suchasitwas)from1835wascededtotheBritishCrownin1840infavourofBritishsovereignty
WaitangiTribunalTePaparahioTeRaki(Wai1040,2014)
TherangatiradidnotcedetheirsovereigntyinFebruary1840
Thatis,theydidnotcedetheirauthoritytomakeandenforcelawovertheir
peopleandwithintheirterritories
Rather,theyagreedtosharepowerandauthoritywiththeGovernor.Thedetail
ofhowthisrelationshipwouldworkinpractice,especiallywheretheMaoriandEuropeanpopulationsintermingled,remainedtobenegotiatedovertimeonacasebycasebasis
ButtherangatiradidnotsurrendertotheBritishthesolerighttomakeandenforcelawoverMaori
ResponsestoReportMinisterofTreatyNegotiations
ThereisnoquestionthattheCrownhassovereigntyinNewZealand.This
reportdoesntchangethatfact.
Nothingwillchange.NewZealanderscanresteasyintheirbedstonightand
wakeupinthemorninghappyintheknowledgethattheQueenstillreignsoverusandthatthegovernmentstillrulesus.
ResponsestotheReportPrimeMinister
-
InmyviewNewZealandwasoneoftheveryfewcountriesintheworldthatweresettledpeacefully,
Maoriprobablyacknowledgethatsettlershadaplacetoplayandbroughtwiththemalotofskillsandcapital.
LectureFive:ParliamentandtheEnactmentofLaws
Constitution Executive Legislative Judicial
Wheredoesthepowerlie?
MostinExecutive(publicservice/governmentdepartments)
Cabinetdirectsgovernmentpolicyanddecidesonthelegislativeprogramme
TechnicallydescribedasaninformalcommitteecreatedbyconstitutionalconventionandnotbyanystatuteBagehot(1867)pg52ofcoursebook
MinistersmustalwaysbeMembersofParliament,soseparationofpowersisnotcomplete
SystemsofParliament(Legislative) FirstPastthePost(Pre1996)
Partywithmostseatshadunbridledpowerregardlessofwhetherornotitwonasmanyvotesastheoppositionparty(asinboth1978and1981)andevenifitwonsubstantiallylessthan50%ofallvotes
Cabinethadneartotalpowerbycontrolofthegoverningcaucusandthusofparliament
Anelectedonepartystatefor3years
Governmentswerenotboundbytheirpartyselectionmanifesto
Parliamentcouldpasswhateverlawsitliked
ReformtoVotingSystem
RoyalCommissionontheElectoralSystem1986inquiredandreported
BothLabourin1987andNationalin1990brokepromisesmadeduring
theelectioncampaign
Nonbindingreferendum1992onelectoralreformsvotedforchange
Bindingreferendum1993choseMMP 1996firstMMPParliament
MixedMemberProportional(1996Onwards)
Nopartyhasobtainedamajorityinparliamentsince1996
LessdominanceofParliamentbyCabinet,increaseddistinction
betweenExecutiveandLegislativefunctionsofgovernment
CabinetManualnolongerrequiresCabinettobeunanimous(butnotall
ministersareinthesameParty)
MorePowertotheHouseofRepresentatives?
-
Cabinetcannowincludemembersofpartiesnotinaformalcoalitionwithelectoratewinningmajorparties
MorepublicdebatewithintheHouse,insteadofbehindcloseddoorsofCabinetandcaucus
SomeuncertaintyoverwhatParliamentwillpass LegislativeProcess
UnicameralParliamentonechambernoUpperHouse(Since1951inNZ)
MostParliamentsarebicameraltwohouses
AlmostallActsareintroducedasGovernmentBillsintheHouseof
Representatives
ImportanceoftheCabinetLegislationCommitteeandtheCabinet
Manual PrivateMembersbillsfewareeverpassed
Crimes(SubstitutedSection59)AmendmentAct2007[bashingor
smackingchildren]LectureSix:Courts&Juries
CommonLawSystem
NZscourtandlawsystemsarederivedfromEnglandscommonlaw
Commonbeinginreferencetolawcommontothewholerealmasopposedtolocalorcustomlaw
MostcommonwealthnationsandtheUSAhaveacommonlawlegalsystemastheirpracticesaresimilarlyderivedfromEngland
DissimilartoCivilLawsystemsderivedfromtheRomanlawwhichapplyinalmostallothercountries(andQuebec,ScotlandandLouisiana)
HierarchyofCourts(seepage58incoursebookfordiagram)
SuperiorCourts(mostLLBcoursesfocusonthese)
SupremeCourt CourtofAppeal HighCourt
InferiorCourts(mostcasestakeplaceherebutwithverylittlecontroversy)
TribunalsandAuthorities(holdspecialisedjurisdictions)
SupremeCourtJurisdictionfinalappellatecourt:SupremeCourtAct2003
Purpose:
(1)ToestablishwithinNewZealandanewcourtoffinalappealcomprisingNewZealandjudges
(i)torecognisethatNewZealandisanindependentnationwithitsownhistoryandtraditionsand
(ii)toenableimportantlegalmatters,includinglegalmattersrelatingtotheTreatyofWaitangi,toberesolvedwithanunderstandingofNewZealandconditions,history,andtraditionsand
(iii)toimproveaccesstojustice.
-
(2)NothinginthisActaffectsNewZealandscontinuingcommitmenttotheruleoflawandthesovereigntyofParliament.
JurisdictionofCourts
Authorityofcourtstomakedecisionsconferredbystatute
InherentJurisdiction(HighCourtonlyderivedfromallEnglishcourtjurisdictions)
Originalfirstinstance Appellateonappealtoahighercourt
CriminalprosecutionsbyState Civildecisiononprivatedisputes
Modesoftrialorinquiry Adversarial
Partiesargue,courtdecides.Thenormincommonlawcourts.
Inquisitorial
Tribunals,commissionsmayseekoutinformation
Conciliationormediation
EspeciallyintheFamilyCourt
AlsoRangatahiCourts(NgaKootiRangatahi)
AnalternativetotheYouthCourt LawDeclaredorMade
Declaratorytheoryofcommonlaw
Judgesdeclarewhatthelawus[historical]
StareDecisis Rulesofbindingprecedent
Casesformthepastbindlaterjudges
Roleofjudgestodevelopthelawisnowrecognised
forgedandreforgedbythejudges[ThomasJ]
dutyofthecourtistomakelaw[CookeP]
judgesownconceptsofjusticeandfairness[GaultJ]
TrialbyJudgealone,orbyJudgeandJury Civiltrials
Nojury(exceptrarelyindefamationcases) Summarycriminaltrials
Judgealone
Trialsonindictment(themoreseriouscrimes)inDistrictCourtandHighCourt
JudgeandJury
Juryfindsverdictonevidence,followingdirectionsastolawfromthejudge
Jury
Apeculiarfeatureofcommonlawjurisdictions,traced(somewhatdubiously)
backtotheMagnaCarta1215 Righttotrialbyonespeers
12Peopleselectedatrandomfromtheelectoralrollsofeligiblevoterslivingintheregionofthecourthearing
-
Ordinarypeoplewithoutexpertise,representativesofthecommunity
JuryVerdicts
Judgesaskforunanimousverdict,but
Civilcasesallowforamajorityafter4hours
Section29CJuriesAct
(1)Inthissection,majorityverdictmeans,inrelationtoajurythat,atthe
timeofitsverdict,consistsofacertainnumberofjurors,averdictagreedtobyallbutoneofthem.
(2)Thecourtmayacceptamajorityverdictinacriminalcaseif
(a)thejury,havingretiredtoconsideritsverdict,hasdeliberated
foratleast4hoursand
(b)thejurorshavenotreachedaunanimousverdictand
(c)theforepersonofthejuryhasstatedinopenCourt
(i)thatthereisnoprobabilityofthejuryreachingaunanimousverdictand
(ii)thatthejuryhasreachedamajorityverdictand
(d)theCourtconsidersthatthejuryhashadaperiodoftimefor
deliberationthattheCourtthinksisreasonable,havingregardtothenatureandcomplexityofthetrial.
LectureSeven:SeparationofPowersChecksandBalances
WhatisthebalanceofpowerasbetweentheCourts&theExecutive?
DoesanyonebranchofgovernmentinNZhavesoleultimateauthority?
Roleofcourtsinprotectingindividualrightsandtheruleoflaw
JudicialCheckonexecutivePower EntickvCarrington(1765)
Kingsmessengersusewarranttobreakintohomeofcitizenhoweveritisfoundthatthewarrantwasnotobtainedinaccordancewiththelaw
Executivemustactinaccordancewithlaw
SearchandseizureunderwarrantissuedbySecretaryofState
mustbeauthorisedbyexistinglaw
Argumentbasedonwhatisnecessaryfortheendsof
governmentwasrejectedbyLordCamdenCJ LordCamden,ChiefJustice
Ifitislaw,itwillbefoundinourbooks.Ifitisnottobefoundthere,itisnotlaw.
ProfessorAVDicey(18351922) TwinpillarsoftheEnglishconstitution
ParliamentarySovereigntyan RuleofLaw LawoftheConstitution(1885)
SupremeCourtAct2003 S3(2)
-
NothinginthisActaffectsNewZealandscontinuingcommitmenttotheruleoflawandthesovereigntyofParliament
RobertDavidMuldoon(19211992)
ProminentmemberoftheNationalpartyMPfortheTamakielectorate1960
1991 31stPrimeMinisterofNewZealandfrom1975to1984
NZSuperannuationAct1974 PassedbyLabourGovernment
PromotedbyRogerDouglas(nowACT,thenLabour)
Compulsoryleviesonworkers&employersinvestedintopensions(future
proofingforbabyboomersretirement)
NationalPartyopposedthescheme(roleofgovernmenttosupportitspeople,
Muldoonhimselfgrowingupingovernmenthousing)
MajorissueinNovember1975election
PopularMandatetoabrogatethelawimmediately?
3daysafterbeingsworninasPrimeMinisterMuldoonissuesapressstatement:
Allsuperannuationleviestoceaseimmediately
anewlawwouldretrospectivelyremoverequirementon
workersandemployerstopaylevy
ExcusefrompunishmentanyonewhoreliedonPrimeMinisters
pressreleasenottopaylevy
BoardofSuperCorpdecidednottoenforcepaymentoflevies,though
stillrequiredtodosobytheSuperannuationAct1974
Governmentsaidschemeendedon15December
ithadbeenadvisedthatnocourtactionwouldsucceed
evenifincorrectaretrospectivelawwouldreimburseanylevies
MuldoonrefusedtoadviseGovernorGeneraltocallParliamentintosessionearly
TradeUnionsprosecutionsofemployersforbreachingActwerestayedbyAttorneyGeneralastheLawOfficeroftheCrown
FirzgeraldvMuldoon[1976]NZLR615
Fitzgerald,employeeinEducationDepartmentconductedaonemanprotest
Triedtolevyeachpayday,IRDsaidno
Claimedlossof$14.56&askedCourtfor:
DeclarationthatPrimeMinistersactionswereillegal
InjunctionsorderingPrimeMinistertowithdrawhisannouncement&
reversehisinstructiontonotcollectleviesandnotenforcethelaw
Motionforafixture
Plaintiffsoughturgenthearing
Crownvigorouslyopposed:amatterconcerning$14.56wasnoturgent
Parliamentwouldmeetsoonandpassaretrospectivelaw
-
BeattieJorderedfixtureforimmediatehearingbeforeparliamentarysessionbeganinJune
Proceduralrightsadjectivallawcanbeasimportantassubstantiverights
Mainsubstantiveissue
DidPrimeMinistersactionsbreachArticle1,BillofRights1688:
thepretendedpowerofsuspendingoflawsbyregalauthoritywithoutconsentofParliamentisillegal
JudgementofWildCJ
ThiswasadecisionofwhatisnowtheHighCourtbutatthetimewas
calledtheSupremeCourt(nothingtodowithcurrentsupremecourt)
TwolimbsinCourtjudgement:
BillofRights1688 ContextofBillofRights1688
JamesII(Catholic)soughtreligioustolerationbysuspendingantipapistlawsanddispensingcertaincatholicsfromcomplyingwithActofUniformity
GloriousRevolution1688overthrowsJamesII
William&MaryofOrange(Protestants)accepted
DeclarationcontainingBillofRights
Kingmustnowgovernonlythroughhisministers
inParliament DiceyonTheLawoftheConstitution
Courtsfindings
Wasthe1974ActsuspendedbythePrimeMinisterorjustnot
enforced? PrimeMinisterdidnotinstructSuperannuationBoardor
tellStateServicesCommissiontostopdeductionsbothhadchoices
Buttheydidactbecauseofhispublicannouncement
Ifnoannouncementtheywouldhavekeptonapplying&enforcingthe1974Act
Remedies AdeclarationwasissuedthatthePrimeMinisterspress
statementwasillegal
However,thecourtrefusedtograntaninjunctionthatwould
haveorderedtheSuperannuationSchemesAct1976waspassedbyParliamentandretrospectivelychangedthelaw
NZremainsaconstitutionalmonarchygovernedbytheBillofRights1688TheGovernorGeneralrepresentstheQueenofNewZealand
EnglishBillofRIghts1688isastatutethatisstillinforcetoday
-
EnglishLawsAct1858(from1840) ImperialLawsApplicationAct1988
SeveralrecentNewZealandcasesinterpretingtheBillofRights1688on
Parliamentaryprivilege&thelawofdefamation
[1688BillhasnoconnectionwiththeNZBillofRightsAct1990.The1990Act
dealswithquitedifferentmatters] Timeline:
1974LabourgovernmentenactedSuperannuationAct1974
12December1975Muldoonswornin 15December1975Muldoonmakesstatement
LateMarch1976Proceedingsfiled LateMay1976FixtureaccededbyBeattieJ
31May3June1976Hearing 11June1976WildCJjudgement
LateJune1976Parliamentreconvened
LectureEight:AnotherCourtIntervention
PrivateBodies&PublicInterest
FinniganvNZRugbyUnion(1985) Backgroundto1985CourtCase
ApartheidandSport
NationalPartygovernmentofSouthAfricaformalisedracially
segregativeApartheidLawsafter1948,althoughracialsegregationhadexistedlongprior.
LongstandingNZRFUdecisionwastorespectthesensitivitiesoftheirhostsbynotselectinganyMaoriplayersforSouthAfricantours
NewZealandgovernmentcannotstopNewZealandersfromleavingNewZealandandsoonlydiscouragedthe1985tour.
HoweverthegovernmentcanrefusevisastothoseenteringNewZealandwhichtheLabourgovernmentdecidedtodoin1973formoralreasonsandfearofjeopardisingtheChristchurchCommonwealthgamesin1974
RisingTideofProtest
MaoriplayersareexcludedfromAllBlacktourstoSouthAfricain1928,
1949,1960and1976
1960NoMaorisNoTourcampaignbuttheNZRFUcontinuedpolicy
1960sonUnitedNationssanctionsagainstSouthAfrica
1973GovernmentcalledofSouthAfricatourtoNewZealand(contrary
toLabourelectionpromisein1972)
1976AllBlacktourtoSouthAfricaduringSowetouprising28African
nationsboycottedOlympicGamesinMontrealspecificallyinprotesttoNewZealandspolicies
-
1977CommonwealthGleneaglesAgreement:GovernmentsrequiredtodiscouragesportingcontactswithSouthAfrica
MassProtests:1981SouthAfricaTourofNewZealand
1981NZRFUinvitedSouthAfricatoNewZealand
PrimeMinisterMuldoonformallydiscouragedtour,butemphasised
thattheRugbyUnionhadtherighttodecideforthemselves
LegalchallengebyBishopAshbytostopvisasforSouthAfricateam
failed Country&familiesdivided
Massdisobedience,riots,arrestseverymatchday:300,000protesters
onstreets InvitationforAllBlackstoTourSouthAfricain1985
LabourgovernmentaskedNZRFUtosayno
UnanimousParliamentaryresolutionaskingNZRFUtosayno,butno
lawtostopthetourwasproposed
Churchesandothersspokeoutinopposition
Threatsbyantiapartheidmovementtorepeatmassprotests1981style
inNewZealandoneverymatchdayduringthe1985tour
JudgementsinThisCase,FirstProcedural:ThenaTrial
1.DavidsonCJ(HighCourt)plaintiffshadnostandingtobringacaseagainsttheNZRFU
CourtofAppealreversedChiefJusticeplaintiffsdidhavestandingtosue
2.CaseJ(HighCourt)Agreedtoissueaninteriminjunctiontopreventtourof
SouthAfricaproceedinguntilRNZFUhadconsideredALLoftheobjectivesofitsconstitution.
[Nofinalhearingonaninjunctionevertookplace.AppealonstandingissuetoPrivyCouncilrefused]
LegalStandingIssue
Onlypeoplewithspecialinterestaffectedbyadecisioncanbringcourt
proceedings Plaintiffswere
ActivemembersofAucklandrugbyclubs
Notmerebusybodiesormischiefmakers
HadnocontractwithNZRFUbutlinkedtoUnionbychainofcontracts
HadgenuineinterestinwhetherNZRFUactedagainstitsownobjectsof
promoting,fostering&developinggameofrugby.
WhatElseCourtofAppealConsidered
NZRFUtechnicallyaprivatesportsbodybutitsdecisionshaveanalogieswithpubliclaw
JudgestooljudicialnoticethatsignificantnumberofNewZealanderswerestronglyfor&stronglyagainsttour
DecisionaffectsNewZealand'sinternationalstanding
In1981thecourtsappliedlawimpartiallyagainstprotesters
-
CourtsmustnowimpartiallyassessNZRFUdecisionmakingprocedures
PublicLawAnalogy
HigherobligationonNZRFUthanordinaryprivatebodies
DecisionimportanttorugbyandtoNewZealand
CookePsuggestsspecialareaboundarybetweenpublicandprivateisnot
realistic
UnionmustspecificallyconsiderinterestsofNewZealandrugbyasawhole,
notjustthepromotionofAllBlacktours
RobinBruskillCooke,BaronCookeofThorndon,ONZ,KBE,QC,PC(9May1926
30August2006) NewZealandjudge PresidentofCourtofAppeal
LordofAppealoftheBritishHouseofLords
MemberofJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncil
InterimInjunctionHighCourt(CaseyJ)
Interiminjunctionsareurgentorderstopreservestatusquountilfullhearingfor
injunctioncanbeheard
Balanceofconvenienceandhardshipasbetweenthepartiesaremattersfor
thejudgesdiscretion
ItwasfortheNZRFU(notthecourt)tomakethefinaldecision,butithadtobe
alawfuldecisioninaccordwithitsownconstitution
WhyMighttheTourBreachNZRFUObjects?
NZRFUsaidobjecttopromotegamewasseparatefromobjecttoarrangetours
Courtdisagreed
NZRFUhadexplicitlydisregardedrecenthistoryandappealsfromgovernment
1981tourwasdisasterforcountry
1985tourtoSouthAfricamaybenefitrugbyinNewZealand
NZFRUshouldreconsideritsdecisioninthelightofallitsobjectstomakea
lawfuldecision NZRFUApologyin2010
TheUnionaplogisedformallyforitspolicytorespectSouthAfricansensitivitesanddisallowMaoriplayersfromSouthAfricantoursfrom1920stothe1980sinMay2010
RoleofCourtsinControversialCases
DifferentJudgesreacheddifferentdecisionsoverthestandingofthe
complainantsafterhearingthesamelegalarguments Lawmaybeuncertain
ShouldcourtshaveintervenedwhenGovernmentandParliamentrefused?
Notethatproceduralmattersstandingandbalanceofconveniencein
injunctionsdecidedtheactualoutcomeofthetourbeingcancelled
AretheCourtsthereforeusefulasapartofthechecksandbalancesinour
constitution?
-
LectureNine:ImpactofColonialLegislationonMaori
PassiveresistanceprophetsatParihakainTaranaki
WestCoast(NorthIsland)ActsofParliament
topreservepeaceintheColony ParliamentarySovereigntyagain
ColonialWars18451872
ResistancebysomeMaoritoEuropeanexpansion
SomeMaorifoughtbesidetheCrown
1860sWaikatoWar,2ndTaranakiWar,18,000Imperialtroops
Britishlostsomebattles,butwonthewars
Furtherguerrillawars(TeKootivcolonialmilitias)until1872
Landlossbyconfiscationinafewdistricts
NativeLandCourtalienationsinwholecountry
NewZealandSettlementsAct1863
S.2GovernorinCouncilcandeclareDistrictwhereNativesengagedin
rebellion DelegationofpowerfromLegislativetoExecutive
S.3Setaparteligiblesitesforsettlement
S.4AlldistrictisCrownlandMaorititleextinguished
Raupatu
S.5Compensationgrants,butonlytoindividualswhoprovetheyareloyal
natives
GoingagainstthecommunalownershipandtribalbeliefsofMaori
S.19Proceedsoflandsalestomeetwarandsettlementcosts Parihaka
1870sthrivingTaranakicommunity PropheticleadersTeWhiti&Tohu
Passiveresistance&isolationism
Monthlymeetings,supportfromotheriwi
Demandgovernmentinquireintolandgrievances
Settlersdemandopeningupofland
Maoriliftsurveypegs&ploughlandmorethan200arrested,butnotbrought
tocourttrespassingisnotacrimethen
SomesettlersurgeforexterminationofMaori
MaoriPrisoners MaoriPrisonersActs
Deferredtrialsindefinitely SentprisonerstoSouthIslandgaols
Writofhabeascorpussuspended
Oneofavarietyofwritsthatmaybeissuedtobringapartybeforeacourtorjudge,havingasitsfunctionthereleaseofthepartyfromunlawfulrestraint.Therightofacitizentoobtainsuchawrit.OlderthanMagnaCarta1215
-
WestCoastSettlement(NorthIsland)Act1880
Introducednewoffences(onlyinthenewlyconfiscatedterritory)
Toploughfields Toremovepegs Toerectfences Todiguproads
Toassembleingroups
PrisonersheldnowdeemeddetainedunderthisAct,though
withoutpriortrialorconviction SackingofParihaka,November1881
NativeMinisterBryceandtroopsattackParihaka
Receivedwithflowersbydancingchildren Readriotact
ArrestTeWhiti&Tohu ImprisonTeWhiti&Tohu
SendTeWhiti&TohutoChristchurch Rape,looting,destructionofcrops
Villagerazed
MaorisupportersforcedtoleaveWestCoast&arebannedfromholding
meetings WestCoastPeacePreservationAct1882
TeWhiti&Tohuareheldonseditionchargesbutnevertried
Noneedtopunish,butpreventativedetentionifreleased,prisonerswould
resumemeetings&causeapprehensionforpeaceableinhabitants.NoreleaseexceptbyorderofGovernor
MeetingsatParihakawerestopped.GroupsofMaoricannotassemblepublicly,canbearrested,fined,imprisonediftheydo.
THISLAWAPPLIEDONLYTOMAORILectureTen:TheTreatyandtheCourts
Oldorthodoxypriorto1980s Neworthodoxysince1987
Howsignificantarethechangesintheapproachestakenbyjudgessince
1987? OldOrthodoxy
3PivotalCases R[TheQueen]vSymonds(1847)
Colonisationisguidedandcontrolledbythegovernment.ItdecidesontherightsthatMaorihave.
WiParatavBishopofWellington(1877)
Governmentactsofstatearenotexaminablebythecourts
Treatywasasimplenullity
TeHeuHeuTukinovAoteaDistrictMaoriLandBoard(1941)
-
Treatywasacessionofsovereignty,butisnotenforceablelawunlessincorporatedintodomesticlaw
ParamountcyofstatutesinNewZealandlaw
CourtsrefusedtogobehindCrowngrantstolandissuedbytheGovernor[ie
theExecutive]
AllcasesaffirmedlegitimacyofCrownsovereignty,buttookdifferent
approachestothestatusoftheTreatyofWaitangi RvSymonds(1847)
Crownhasexclusiverighttoacquirenewterritory&radicaltitletoallland
Priorcustomary/aboriginaluserightscontinueuntilextinguishedbyCrown
Treaty[Englishtext]confirmsthis
CrownpreemptionCrownhassolerighttoextinguishnativetitle.Settlers
cannotpurchasefromMaori Contrastingperspectives
MorrissviewthattheSupremeCourtin1847tookafavourableviewofthetreatyofWaitangi
HickfordsinformationthatthecourtexplicitlyrejectedargumentsbasedonthewordingofbothtextsoftheTreaty
ParataDecision OnlyCrowncanextinguishnativetitle
CourthasnopowertovoidaCrowngrantactsofstatecannotbequestioned
byjudges
NewZealandacquiredbydiscoveryandoccupation,notacededcolony
Treatywasasimplenullity
Treatyisapolitical/moralobligationonlyand,indealingwithprimitive
semibarbarians,governmentmustbearbiterofitsownjustice
ParatavBishopofWellington(1877)infamousquotations
Maoritribeslackedcapacitytoenterintotreaty:theMaoritribeswereincapableofperformingthedutiesandthereforeassumingtherightsofacivilisedcommunity
Maorihadnolaw:hadanybodyoflaworcustom,capableofbeingunderstoodandadministeredbythecourtsofacivilisedcountry,beenknowntoexist,theBritishgovernmentwouldsurelyhaveprovidedforitsrecognition
TreatyofWaitangi:sofarindeedasthatinstrumentpurportedtocedethesovereigntyitmustberegardedasasimplenullity
TeHeuHeuvAoteaDMLBoard(1941)(PrivyCouncil)
BoardempoweredbyGovernmenttoactinwaysthatmeantNgatiTuwharetoa
lostlandasaresultoffailedbusinessesinDepression
NgatiTuwharetoainvokedTreatyarticle2thatTreatyboundthegovernment
toprotecttheirland PrivyCouncil
Treatywasavalidtreatyofcession,BUTrightsconferredbytreatyofcessioncanbeenforcedonlyifincorporatedintodomesticlawbyanAct
-
ofParliament.TreatydidnothelpandsoNgatiTuwharetoalostthiscase,
1980s:Thetimestheyareachanging
OldprecedentslikeWiParatanowseentobeproblematic
Maoriactivismconfrontedcourtsin1970s&1980s
Challengesfromlawyers&academics
Maorichallenges,especiallyonenvironmentmattersMaoricultural&spiritual
valuesshouldberecognisedinlaw StateOwnedEnterprisesAct1986
GovernmenttotransferCrownownedassetstoStateOwnedEnterprises
MaoriclaimsinWaitangiTribunalcouldonlybeagainstCrownassetsunder
newpowerstoinquireintohistoricalclaims(1985)
LastminuteinclusionofTreatyrelatedsectionsin1986Act
Section9:NothinginthisActshallpermittheCrowntoactinamanner
inconsistentwiththeprinciplesoftheTreatyofWaitangi
NZMaoriCouncilvAG(1987)[SOElandscase]
Maorisaidtransferofassetswouldbreachsection9
CA:Broadlanguageofs9prevailsoverallelseinSOEActitmustbeheldto
meanwhatitsaysCourthadtodefinewhatprinciplesoftheTreatyactuallyare
IssueddeclarationsagainstCrownnoassettransfersuntilsystemofsafeguardsforMaori
[SomenegotiatedsafeguardswereagreedtobetweenCrownandMaoriputintoa1988Act]
ImpactofSOEcase? AgenuinevictoryforMaori
Noretreatnowfrompostcolonialera Inspiredstrokeofajudicialpen
Subtleculturalrepositioning Agenuineseachangeinlegaldiscourse
InanycaseWiParatanowrejectedbyNewZealandcourts
PrinciplesoftheTreatyofWaitangisince1987
PartnershipbetweenCrownandMaoribasedonreasonablenessandgood
faith
Fiduciarydutyoncrown,activelyprotectMaoriintereststofullestextent
practicable RightofredressforTreatybreaches
redressisnotcompensation Maoridutyofloyaltyandcooperation
RightofCrowntogovern
100ActsofParliamentcontainthephraseprinciplesoftheTreatyofWaitangi
NZMaoriCouncilvAttorneyGeneral[BroadcastingAssetscase]
TreatyisofthegreatestconstitutionalimportancetoNewZealandbut
-
TeHeuHeustillremainsacorrectstatementoflaw
Treatyisenforceableonlyifincorporatedintodomesticlawnoconstitutional
constraintonParliamentarysupremacyLectureEleven:Courts,Executive,Parliament&TeTiritioWaitangi
TeRunangaoWharekauriRekohuvAttorneyGeneral(Sealordcase1992)[1993]2NZLR301
RoleofCourts
Holdexecutiveaccountable,ensuringthatthePrimeMinisteractslawfullybut
willleaveittoParliamenttorepeallawsasinFitzgeraldvMuldoon
Holdprivatebodiesaccountable,ensuringtheyactlawfullyintermsoftheir
ownconstitutionbutwillleavefinaldecisionmakingtothemasinFinniganvRNZFU
ShouldthecourtsinterfereinproposalsfromtheExecutivetoParliamenttoconsider,orleavethattoParliamenttodecideupon
Maoriclaimstofisheries
Maoricosmology&tikanga:Tangaroa,atuaofthesea,isoneoftheoriginal
mythicancestors
MaoritextofTiritioWaitangi:sayaHapuretaintotalauthorityoveralltaonga
EnglishtextofTreaty:saysMaoriretainundisturbedexclusivepossessionof
fisheries
Coloniallaw,aboriginaltitle:priorMaorirightstofisheriesapplyuntil
extinguishedbystatute
ColoniallawonTreaties:Maorirightsareenforceableifrecognisedindomestic
law,and
Legislation,s88(2)FisheriesAct1983:nothinginthisActshallaffectanyMaori
fishingrights 1980sMaorifisheriesclaims
QuotaManagementSystem[QMS]1986creatednewexclusiveprivatepropertyrightstocatchfishforcommercialpurposes
MaoriopposedQMSbecause ManysmallscaleMaorifisherswereexcluded
Quotasbreachedtheirexistinglegallyguaranteedpropertyrights
19881992:WaitangiTribunalreports,HighCourt,andCourtofAppealcasesallaffirmedcontinuingMaorifishingrightsandpreventedfurtherextensionofQMSunlesstheseMaorilegalrightshadbeendealtwith
PreludetoSealordsDeed
MaoriFisheriesAct1989interimsettlementfollowingMuriwhenuaFishing
ClaimReport1988
Transfer10%ofquotatoMaoriFisheriesCommissionover4years
CrownappointsMFCCommissioners
Litigationsuspendedfor4yearsuntil1993
1992WaitangiTribunalNgaiTahuSeaFisheriesReportagainupheldextensiveMaoriclaimstoseafisheries
-
1992SharesinSealordLtdaprivatefishingcompanyputupforsale(itheld26%ofNewZealandfishingquota),entirelycoincidentally
TermsofSealordDeed
Crown/Maori/BrierleysInvestmentsLtdjointventuretoacquireSealordLtd
CrowntopayMaori$150milliontodevelopfisheries,includingSealord
Crowntopasslawstoensure20%ofquotasinnewquotaspeciestogoto
Maori
Newlawswillregulatenoncommercialfishingtorecognisetraditionalfishing
practices CrownwillreconstituteFisheriesCommission
ObjectionsfromsomeMaori
ToacceptquotaassettlementafterchallengingtheQuotaManagement
Systemisseenasacontradiction
MaoriNegotiatorschosenarbitrarilybasedonwhowereplaintiffsin1980s
courtcases
Consultations&huimanipulatedforaquickresultinfavourofMaorinegotiators
Manyiwi/hapudidnotagreetotheDeedhowevertheirrightswouldalsobe
extinguished,withoutconsent CourtofAppealdecision
Deedchallengedbyplaintiffsfrom13nonsigningiwi[tribes]
CourtofAppeal:
Publicpolicyrequiresthatcourtsdonotinterferewithparliamentaryprocesses.WhetheraMinistershouldintroduceaBilltoParliamentwerepoliticalquestionsforpoliticaljudgement.Curialnonintervention=ThiswasnottheCourtsbusiness.
Maoricanchallengelawonlyafterenactment
Manydidsoandthereweremanycourtchallenges.Itwasnotuntilthe
MaoriFisheriesAct2004thatthe1992settlementwasfinallyimplemented
WaitangiTribunalhearing DeedchallengedasbreachofTreatyofWaitangi
TribunalcriticisedpovertyofspiritofDeedandlackofproperprovisionfor
noncommercialMaorifisheries,butoverallaccepteditasfairinthecircumstances:TheCrownhasdonewellinourtime
RejectedviewthatMaoriwereentitledto100%offisheries[exclusiverightsasinTreaty]andthatMaoriseeking50%wasareasonablecompromise
TreatyofWaitangi(FisheriesClaims)SettlementAct1992
Full&finalsettlementofallMaoriclaimstocommercialfisheries
Section9:allcommercialfisheriesclaimsbyMaori,current&future,however
sourced,havebeenacknowledgedandfinallysettled
FisheriesActsection88(2)isrepealed
CourtsnolongerhavejurisdictiontoconsidervalidityofMaorifisheriesclaims,
orvalidityoftheSealordDeedofSettlementitself
-
Crown,notCourts,decidesonCrownsdutiestoMaori
Anationcannotcastitselfadriftfromitsownfoundations.TheTreatystands.
BUT Fiduciary[trustlike]dutyofCrowntoMaoriBUT
ManyMaoriwerehappywiththedealwhilemanywerenot.TheGovernment
decidedthatenoughMaorisupportedthedeal
Fortheplaintiffs,theSealordsCaseoutcomewasnotallthatdifferenttothe
ParatacasetheTreatyisanunenforceablenullity
CourtsdonotassesstheCrownscompliancewiththeTreatyParliament
doesthat
PartB:ConceptsofLawLectureTwelve:NaturalLawTheories
Whatmakeslawlaw? Morality?
Whosemorality? Isimmorallawtrulylaw?
Isthelawdifferentfromvaluesorconventionsetc?
Shouldlawbejudgedbyexternalcriteria?
NaturalLawTheorists Aristotle
384322BC Athens,Greece Properlawispartofthenaturalorder
StThomasAquinas 12251274 Sicily,Naples,Paris,Rome
Thatwhichisnotjustisnotlaw
JohnFinnis 1940 Adelaide,Australia&Oxford,England
Lawmustcomplywithfundamentalprinciples
Conservativeand/orradical? PHarris,2007
NaturalLawisoftenusedtojustifyexistingsocialandlegalorder
NaturalLawisalsooftenusedtojustifyoverthrowingoropposing
existingsocialandlegalorderLectureThirteen:LegalPositivistTheories
LegalPositivistTheorists JohnAustin
Lawcomprisesthecommandsfromanuncommandedcommander HansKelsen
-
Puretheoryoflawnotatallconcernedwiththelegitimacyormoralcontentoflaw
HLAHart
Ruleofrecognitionacceptedbyofficialsdetermineswhichrulesare
lawandwhicharenotlaw Differencesofapproachbutcloselyaligned
LegalPositivismisaproductof19thand20thcenturylawandlegalphilosophy
Theeraofthenationstate
Whiledifferentlyexpressedbythetheoriststhereisagreementamongst
positivists Verydifferenttonaturallaw
AmoralLegalPositivism
DespitetheoftenabhorrentnatureofsomelawsthestanceofLegalPositivism
stillacknowledgesthemaslawLectureFourteen:TikangaMaoriPerspectivesonLaw
LegalPositivismTikangaisnotlaw
ColonialLawdeniedthevalidityoftikangaasreallaw WiParata(1877)
RejectsNativeCustomaslawevenifmentionedinanAct
AboriginaltitleisnotTikanga
Assumptionsaboutlaw
Allsocietiesandtheirlawsarereflectiveoftheirunique
Values Philosophies Worldviews
Eachsocietyseesitssystemasnormalandothersasunorthodox
Butareothersystemsnotlaworjustdifferent?
NaturalLaw/HumanRightsandTikanga
Westernhumanrightslookattheindividualasopposedtothecollective
DoUNselfdeterminationprinciplesincludethecollectiverightsofindigenous
peoples?
UNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples2007hadonly4
dissenters,includingNewZealand,allofwhichnowagree.
StartingpointsforcustomaryrightsinAotearoa(accordingtoAniMikaere)
Inherentstatusastangatawhenua
AffirmedinDeclarationofIndependence,1835
GuaranteedagaininTeTiritioWaitangi,1840
TikangaMaorifirstlawoftheland NgatikangaMaori
Therightandproperways
Commonlyunderstoodrulesaimingtokeepfollowingwellbeingsin
balance: Spiritual
-
Environmental Physical Social
Tikangaisdistinctfromture.
TurearelawsoftheBible,Parliament,andCourts
AndrewEruetisCoreConceptsofTikanga Utu
Balancemustberestored Mana
Spiritualpowerandauthority Whakapapa
Ancestral,genealogicallinkagesbondsbetweenpeople,ancestorsandthewholeenvironment
Whanaungatanga Relationshipsbasedonfamilykinshiplinkages
ComparewithwesternideasofJustice,Fairness,andEqualitybeforethelawasfundamentalvalues
Whanaungatanga,Utu
Anyonepersonswrongdoingreflectsontheirwhanauandisashared
responsibility
Anywrongapersonissubjectedtoreflectsontheirwhanauandisashared
responsibility
Remedialactionissoughttoberestorativetorestorethebalanceand
wellbeingofthewhanau GeneralisedComparisons
EnglishLaw TikangaMaori
Individual Collective
IndividualResponsibility
Whanaungatanga
ChristianSources MaoriCosmology
HumansSuperior HumansInterconnected
Abstracted Contextual
Written Oral
FormalPrecedents Whakapapa
Legislative/Judiciary Hui,Wananga
Right,WrongorDifferent?
-
DiscussionofTikangaincourseisnottodeterminethebestoronlylawinAotearoaNewZealand
Theimportanceistheexistenceofmultipleconceptsoflawinasingleterritoryornation
ManynationsrecogniseadiversesetoflegalsystemsegUSAandUKLectureFifteen:LegalRealism&CriticalLegalStudies
ImportantQuestions
Whatcanwelearnaboutlawinactionfromgrandtheory?
Dosocietieshaveagenerallyacceptedsharedmorality?
Areanyvaluesuniversalorarethereagreeddefinitionsofnatural?
Doeslawrepresentcommunityvaluesorisitimposedbytherulers?
ImageryofJustice
Womanbalancingthescales(Themis,Iustitia/Justitia)
Oddchoiceoffemaleiconographyconsideringthehistoricalroleofwomenassomewhatrelegatedfiguresintheeyesofthelaw.
Blindfoldrepresentssocialorderabstractedfromthesocialcontext
Corereferencepointofthereasonableman
LawinContext:Realism Rejectionofformalismandgrandtheories
Impatiencewiththeoryoverobservablefact
theviewofourfriendthebadmanOliverWendellHolmes,SupremeCourtJustice19021932
ThepropheciesofwhatthecourtswilldoinfactarewhatImeanbythelaw
KarlLlewellynrulesceptic
ProfessoratColumbiaLawSchoolinNewYork,19251951principal
drafteroftheUniformCommercialCode
9headingsofarealistsmanifesto
Lawinflux(change/judgemadelaw)
Lawasameanstosocialends,notanendwithinitself
Societyinfluxfasterthanlaw
Temporarydivorceofisandoughtforthepurposeofstudy
Distrustoftraditionallegalrulesandconceptsastrueinpractice
Distrustintheideathattraditionalpracticesarethemainfactorin
courtdecisions
Beliefingroupingcasesandlegalsituationsintonarrower
categories(subjectivitybeingkey)
Insistenceinevaluatingthelawbyitseffects
Insistenceonsustainedandprogrammaticattackonthe
problemsoflaw CriticalLegalStudiesCLS
MuchmoreradicalcritiqueoflawthantheRealistsfocusonjudges&discretion
-
Fromthe1970s
InfluentialintheUSAacademiccirclesegHarvardLawSchool
RocksuccessortoRealismsJazzjurisprudence
CLSoffshootsincludeFeministLegalTheoryandCriticalRaceTheory
Chambliss&Seidman Rejectionoffavouritemyths
Oursisagovernmentoflaws,notofmen equalitybeforethelaw
ThestateisNOTvalueneutral,iustitiaasasymbolisasham
InfluenceofMarxism,thenpostmodernism
Controlofthestateisthepoliticalprizesoughtbythemostpowerfultoprotecttheirinterests
Conflictmodelsofsocietynoticeinequitiesanddisparitiesbasedongender,class,ethnicityetc.
ConflictorConsensus
Naturallaw,Positivism,TikangaMaori(&Realism)allassumeasocial
consensuslawreflectingthis.
Doesthestateequitablyrepresenttheinterestsofall?
IsCLSjustoutofdateleftistposturing? Hascapitalismtriumphed?\
LectureSixteen:CriticalPerspectivesFeministLegalTheory,ThirdWorldApproachestoInternationalLaw,&CriticalRaceTheory
FeministLegalTheory Deepseatedgenderbiasinlaw
Blindfoldedwomanbalancingthescales
Assumesajustsocialorderabstractedfromsocialcontext
HOWEVER,NaffinenotesthatLawsconceptionofthereasonable
personistypicallyamoniededucatedmiddleclassMALE.
Naffine:Phasesoffeministjurisprudence
Phase1:Malemonopolyoverlaw Phase2:Lawprivilegesmensworldview
Phase3:Lawservesasatoolofsocialreformandofrepressionfor
women Goals&Outcomes
Formalequalityofwomen&menunderthelaw?
Differentrulesforwomen?
Underminegenderednotionsofobjectivity/rationality?
HistoryofWomeninAngloCentricLaws Exclusionfrompublicaffairs
TheQueenvHarrald(EnglishCourtofAppeal,1872)
Rightofwomentovoteinmunicipalelections
1869Statute
-
wordwhichimportthemasculinegendershallbeheldtoincludefemales
CourtofAppeal ThisprovisiondoesNOTincludemarried
women marriageisatcommonlawatotal
disqualificationandamarriedwoman,therefore,couldnotvote,herexistencebeingmergedinthatofherhusband.[MellorJ]
EdwardsvAttorneyGeneral(Canada,1930)
A.C.124thePersonsCaseonmembershipofthe
CanadianSenate Doesthewordpersonsinsection24ofThe
BritishNorthAmericaAct,1867,includefemalepersons
In1867,No SupremeCourt(Canada):StillNoin1928
unanimousdecision PrivyCouncil:Exclusionofwomenisarelicof
daysmorebarbarousthanours.SupremeCourtreversed
DomesticViolence
Genderneutrallanguageinlawdoesnotmeanthatsocialrealitiesand
lawsoperationsaregenderneutral,butchangeispossible
Abolitionin2009ofprovocationasadefencetoamurdercharge
ThirdWorldApproachestoInternationalLaw(TWAIL)
Acriticalapproachtointernationallawnotamethodinthestrict
senseofquestioningwhatthelawis
Anapproachthatdrawsonthehistoryoftheencounterbetween
internationallawandcolonisedpeoples MakauMatua,Kenya/USA
TWAILisaconflicttheoryconflict,ratherthanconsensus,isafeatureofinternationalrelations
Decolonisationandpoliticalindependencefrom1947didnoteliminateconflictsandinequity
InternationallawreinforceWesternhegemonybothintheoryandpractice
EnforcementofWesterndominanceisessentiallyneocolonialism
TWAILchallengestheassumeduniversalismofinternationallaw
WesternHegemony VetopowersonSecurityCouncilofUnitedNations
-
WorldBank,InternationalMonetaryFund,WorldTradeOrganization,GeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade
Whyshouldfreetrade,privatepropertyvaluestrumpotherhumanvalues?
PartC:TheConceptofPropertyLectureSeventeen:PrivateProperty
LegalconceptslikepropertyareoftentakenforgrantedascommonsensebutPartCasks:
WhatisdefinedasProperty? Whohasrightstowhat? Whataresuchrights?
Howdosuchrightsaffectothers? Howandwhyweretheserightscreated?
Definitionofproperty
Themeaningofpropertydiffersaccordingtotime,place,culture,&who
definesit
Propertyimplieslegalrightsandrelationshipsintermsofparticularthings
protectedbythelaw
Tangible,observablethingsegland,house,car,gold,design
Intangible,abstractthingseginventions,ideas,sounds
Definitionsarenotconstantegslaveryastherighttoownpeople
Historyofslavery
Oncejustifiedasanaturalright,formostofhumanhistory
ArgumentsbothforANDagainstitinvokednaturallawtheory,religiousvalues,andinherentrights
SlavetradebutnotslaverywasbannedbytheUKin1807 Abolition
BritishEmpire Emancipationin1833
TikangaMaori Slaveryceasedin18351845
UnitedNations ConventionsfortheSuppressionoftheTrafficin
Personsin1949 USA
13thAmendmenttoUSConstitutionin1865
slaveryandinvoluntaryservitudeisnot
toexistwithintheUnitedStatesoranyplacesubjecttotheirjurisdiction.unlessasapunishmentforcrimeifthepersonhasbeendulyconvicted
-
CivilRightsAct1866 14thAmendmenttoUSConstitutionin1868
GrantedcitizenshiptoallpersonsbornornaturalisedintheUnitedStates,includingformerslavesrecentlyfreed.
Forbidsstatesfromdenyinganypersonlife,libertyorproperty,withouttheprocessoflaw
Forbidsdenyinganyonewithinitsjurisdictiontheequalprotectionofthelaws.
Moderndayoutcomesofslavery RacerelationsintheUS
PatriciaJWilliamspositsthatmanywhiteAmericans,whileabhorredbyslavery,remaintoenvisageblackAmericansascriminalsintheLockeansense(aspeoplewhowantsomethingfornothingandfailtoconsidertheresponsibilityofproperty)andunconsciouslyorsymbolicallyexcludethemfrompropertyrights.
LockeandtheNaturalLawOriginsofPrivateProperty
Godgavetheworldtomenincommonfortheiruse
Nothoweverwithoutresponsibility,theywerecommandedtosubdueandcultivatetheearthnottoleaveitcommonanduncultivated
Propertyisthereforederivedfromlabourandwork
Commonsenclosedandannexedasproperty
Fruitsoftheearthforthebenefitofindustriousandrationalpeople
Propertyengagedtheideasofprogress
Mainfocusofpropertywaslandownership
LockeanTheoryappliedinNewZealand
In1846instructionsweregiventoGovernorgreytocoloniseNew
Zealandfaster,howevertheTreatyhadgrantedallownershipoflandtotheMaoriinarticle2
TotaketheMaorissocalledWasteLandswithouttheconsentoftheownerswouldleadtooutrageandpossiblywar.
BothMaoriandmissionariesrejectedLockeantheory
GovernorGreydecidedin1857tousethepreemptionclauseto
purchasethelandatludicrouslylowrates.
CriticalTheoristsrejectionofLockeanideology
Chambliss&SeidmanUSscholarsofcriticallegalstudies
Propertyrulesreflectandcreatepower
Corporatepowerhasrisenundercapitalism
-
Moderncapitalismpreventsfruitsoflabourfromgoingtolabourers(asLockestheorywouldassume)buttoshareholderswhoriskmoneybutdonotprovidelabour
Lockesjustificationisnolongervalidyetstillcontinuestobeprotectedbylaw
LectureEighteen:MaoriApproachestoProperty
PartialIncorporationofTikangaMaoriintotheStateLegalSystem
TikangaMaoriPerceptions
ManaWhenuaisadifferentconcepttolandasproperty
Nokuteneiwhenua(peopleoftheland)NOTNakuteneiwhenua(landofthe
people) Maoriaremembersoftheenvironmentasopposedtoitsmasters
Whenuatranslatestobothlandandplacenta,whichisburiedinthelandto
signifythespiritualbond MythandLegend
Nottobeseenashistoricallyaccurate
MataurangaMaoriasacorpusoffundamentalknowledge
Holisticviewoftheuniverse
Tangaroa,asanexampe,requiresrespectfortheseaanditscreaturesand
thusrequiredprotocolforusingit
QuestionsonIncorporatingTikangainLaw
CanMaoriconceptsbefittinglyrelevantinEnglishlanguagelaws?
HowtobalanceMaoriconceptsinNewZealandlaws?
eg,kaitiakitangaisverymuchunlikepropertyright
Doestrueequalitybeforethelawrequirereformlaws?
Rangatira/PartnershipAndreaTunks TinoRangatirasitsuponcrowntitle
LesserpowerthanCrownsovereignty
CourtsandCrownpreferthe(fiduciary)principlesofthetreaty
Partnership ActiveProtection GoodFaith
Consultationrightsonlyshallhaveregardto NovetopowerforMaori
ResourceManagementAct1991
ExplicitrecognitionofMaorivaluesinNewZealandkaw
Mattersofnationalimportancesection6(e)
IncorporationofKaitiakitangasection7
DefinitionofKaitiakitangasourcedinspiritualinterconnectedbondsofhuman
&naturalworld
Howdoesthiscomparetothenotionsofstewardshipor
guardianship?
-
Newsection2definitionnowmentionstangatawhenuaandtikangaMaori,butremainstobedefinedandappliedbyEnvironmentCourtjudges
Tribunalrecommendations
TheCrownmustactivelyprotectthecontinuingobligationsofkaitiakitanga
Balancethesewithotherlegitimateinterests
InsomeinstancesallowcontrolbyMaoriofimportanttaonga
Orpartnershipindecisionmaking
Oreffectiveinfluenceinenvironmentalinfluence
EnhancedIwimanagementplansgreateruseofnationalpolicystatementsLectureNineteen:PrivateProperty,Power&theCriminalLaw
Capitalpunishmentastheprimaryinstrumentofthecriminallawtoprotectprivateproperty
ProtectingPropertybytheCriminalLawtheBloodyCode
Between1688(followingtheGloriousRevolutionandsubsequentBillof
Rights)to1820thenumberofcapitalstatutesincreasedfrom50to200
FollowingtherevolutiononlypropertiedmencouldvotefororsitinParliament
andgenerallyonlylookedoutfortheirowninterests
Governmenthasnootherendbutthepreservationofproperty.
JohnLocke
Nopoliceforceuntil1829duetoWhigfearsofitasastandingarmy,
rememberingthethedevastationofEnglandintheEnglishCivilWar,1640s
IntheUSAconstitutionthereferencetotherighttobeararmsisdueto
exactlythis,thenotionofdefendingoneselfandonesproperty
Whigs&Tories
Tories
Dominanteliteinthe17thcentury(1600s)whosupportedtheStuart
KingsroyalistsWhigswonin1688
King&HouseofLordslostpowertotheHouseofCommons
Constitutionalmonarchy
Protectionofpropertyforlandedgentryandforemergingindustries
HouseofCommons England&Waleshad272constituencies
In1700itwasestimatedthat70,000to200,000peoplewereeligibletovotefor
theHouseofCommons
TotalpopulationoftheBritishIslesin1700wasestimatedtobe8.2million
EvenaftertheReformAct1832,only1in6malesnowomenhadtherightto
vote CapitalCrimestoProtectPropertyInterests
PublicHangingsbeforelargecrowds
Deathpenaltyforforgery,foodrioting,stealingshipwreckedgoods,stealing
linen,damagingWestminsterbridgeetc
-
AlmostallexecutionswereforpropertyoffencesegLondon1785:95executions,1formurder,74forburglary/housebreaking
18outof20hangedwereunder21 Legitimiation
Criminallawbasedondeterrence&fear
Threatofhanging&gibbeting(butnotalwayscarriedout)
Threemainfocuses:
Majesty Pomp&ceremonytoexaltjustice
Justice Someideaofrelationorcauseforpunishment
Mercy Togivehumanitytothejusticesystem
PropertyCrimesActtoday
CrimesAct1961containsalonglistofpropertyoffences
Vastmajorityofcrimescommittedarestillpropertyoffencesbutfinesand
imprisonmentaretheusualpunishmentsnow
Propertyrightsoftherichandcriminalityofthepoorremaintopicalpolitical
issues SensibleSentencing
DoubleStandardsondeviancy Taxavoidancevtaxevasion
LectureTwenty:WomenasProperty
JohnStuartMill,TheSubjectionofWomen(1869)
thelegalpositionofwomenwasonalevelwithslavery
Keyideas
HowhaswomensplaceinEnglishsocietybeenshapedbytheirhistoricalplaceinEnglishlaw?
WhatimpactdidEnglishlawstreatmentofwomenhaveonMaoriwomen?
SirWilliamBlackstone
17231780 FirstProfessorofEnglishLaw,OxfordUniversity,1758
CommentariesontheLawsofEngland(Published17651769)
Criticised,notablybyJeremyBentham,forhiscomplacencyinEnglishLaw
beingbeyondimprovement Womeninhiswritings:
MarriedWomen(FemmeCovert)
Inmarriageorcovertureawomansindividuallegalexistenceis
halted,herhusbandbecomingherlord
Shecannotsueorbesued,herhusbandactsonher
behalfinlegalproceedings
-
Shecannotgiveevidenceagainstherhusband
ModerateCorrection
Husbandisentitledtorestrainawifeofherlibertyand
administermoderatecorrection Asgoeswithchildrenorapprentices
NomentionofthereverseinBlackstoneswritings
PersonCases Demonstrateslawinflux
Redefiningmeaningsofwordsinlaw
Personoriginallyexcludedwomenandisnowgenderinclusive
HistoryofPersoncases
QueenvCrosthwaite
Exclusionofwomenfromlawduetothedelicacyandmodesty
oftheirgender
Refusalofapplicationsbywomentobeadmittedaslawyers
Illinois(USA)1872 NewBrunswick(Canada)1905
EthelBenjamin(18751943) NewZealandsfirstfemalelawyer
GraduatedfromtheUniversityofOtagoin1897achieving
outstandingmarks
AdmittedasabarristerandsolicitoroftheSupremeCourtof
NewZealandinMay1897followingthepassingoftheFemaleLawPractitionersActin1896
SecondwomanintheBritishEmpiretobeadmittedasabarristerandsolicitor,twomonthsafterClaraBrettMartinofCanada
EdwardsvAttorneyGeneralforCanada
CanadasSupremeCourtdeclaredin1928thatwomendidnot
fillthecriteriaofqualifiedpersonstobeappointedasSenatorsafteragroupof5womenbroughtacaseforit
ThisdecisionwasthenreversedbythePrivyCouncilofEnglandactingasahighercourt
Thisshowsusthatevenaconstitutionisorganicandmustbereadinabroadandliberalmannersoastoadaptittochangingtimes
TortofEnticement1980 DukevSymonds
Genderneutrallanguagein1975ActallowedDuketosueSymondsfordamagescausedbyDukeslossofservices,lossofconsortium,andinjurytofeelingsandhonourafterDukeswifelefthimforSymonds
JuryawardedDuke$26,000indamages
-
Previouscaseshadonlybeen$750to$3000
RoperJ,thejudgeinthecase,foundthisamounttobe
excessiveandorderedanewtrialbutdamagesstillavailableforDuke
ActionabolishedbyDomesticProceedingsAct1980
CameintoforceJanuary1981