LAT E X2e: An unofficial reference manual October 2018 https://puszcza.gnu.org.ua/software/latexrefman
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LATEX2e: An unofficial reference manualOctober 2018
https://puszcza.gnu.org.ua/software/latexrefman
This document is an unofficial reference manual for LATEX, a document preparation system,version of October 2018.
This manual was originally translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library.The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston StateUniversity. The LATEX 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The LATEX2e versionwas adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and addi-tions, and gratefully acknowledges using Hypertext Help with LATEX, by Sheldon Green, andLATEX Command Summary (for LATEX 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (publishedby the TEX Users Group as TEXniques number 10), as reference material. We also gratefullyacknowledge additional material appearing in latex2e-reference by Martin Herbert Dietze.(From these references no text was directly copied.)
Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 KarlBerry.Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided thecopyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the con-ditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributedunder the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another lan-guage, under the above conditions for modified versions.
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Short Contents
LATEX2e: An unofficial reference manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 About this document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Overview of LATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Document classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Sectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7 Cross references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
9 Line breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9010 Page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9812 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10313 Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
14 Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
15 Making paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12516 Math formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12917 Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
18 Page styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
19 Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15720 Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
21 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
22 Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
23 Special insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19024 Splitting the input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19825 Front/back matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20226 Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21327 Terminal input/output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21828 Command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220A Document templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
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Table of Contents
LATEX2e: An unofficial reference manual . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 About this document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Overview of LATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.1 Starting and ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.2 Output files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3 TEX engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.4 LATEX command syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.5 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.6 CTAN: the Comprehensive TEX Archive Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Document classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.1 Document class options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.2 Additional packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.3 Class and package construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3.1 Class and package structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.3.2 Class and package commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.1 Font styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.2 Font sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.3 Low-level font commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225.1 \onecolumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225.2 \twocolumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225.3 \flushbottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.4 \raggedbottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.5 Page layout parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.6 Floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6 Sectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306.1 \part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316.2 \chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326.3 \section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.4 \subsection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346.5 \subsubsection, \paragraph, \subparagraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.6 \appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.7 \frontmatter, \mainmatter, \backmatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.8 \@startsection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
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7 Cross references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417.1 \label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417.2 \pageref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427.3 \ref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448.1 abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448.2 array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458.3 center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.3.1 \centering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478.4 description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478.5 displaymath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488.6 document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.6.1 \AtBeginDocument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498.6.2 \AtEndDocument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.7 enumerate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498.8 eqnarray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518.9 equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518.10 figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528.11 filecontents: Write an external file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538.12 flushleft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.12.1 \raggedright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548.13 flushright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.13.1 \raggedleft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558.14 itemize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558.15 letter environment: writing letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568.16 list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.16.1 \item: An entry in a list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618.16.2 trivlist: A restricted form of list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.17 math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628.18 minipage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638.19 picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.19.1 \put . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678.19.2 \multiput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678.19.3 \qbezier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688.19.4 \graphpaper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688.19.5 \line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688.19.6 \linethickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698.19.7 \thinlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698.19.8 \thicklines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698.19.9 \circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698.19.10 \oval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708.19.11 \shortstack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708.19.12 \vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718.19.13 \makebox (picture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718.19.14 \framebox (picture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728.19.15 \frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728.19.16 \dashbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
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8.20 quotation & quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738.21 tabbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738.22 table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768.23 tabular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.23.1 \multicolumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808.23.2 \vline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818.23.3 \cline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818.23.4 \hline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.24 thebibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828.24.1 \bibitem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838.24.2 \cite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848.24.3 \nocite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848.24.4 Using BibTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.25 theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868.26 titlepage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868.27 verbatim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.27.1 \verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878.28 verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9 Line breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909.1 \\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909.2 \obeycr & \restorecr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919.3 \newline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929.4 \- (discretionary hyphen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929.5 \discretionary (generalized hyphenation point) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929.6 \fussy & \sloppy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.6.1 sloppypar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939.7 \hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949.8 \linebreak & \nolinebreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10 Page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9510.1 \clearpage & \cleardoublepage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9510.2 \newpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9610.3 \enlargethispage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9610.4 \pagebreak & \nopagebreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9811.1 \footnote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9811.2 \footnotemark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9911.3 \footnotetext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10011.4 Footnotes in section headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10011.5 Footnotes in a table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10011.6 Footnotes of footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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12 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10312.1 \newcommand & \renewcommand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10312.2 \providecommand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10512.3 \makeatletter & \makeatother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10512.4 \@ifstar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10612.5 \newcounter: Allocating a counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10712.6 \newlength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10712.7 \newsavebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10812.8 \newenvironment & \renewenvironment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10812.9 \newtheorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11012.10 \newfont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11212.11 \protect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11312.12 \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13 Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11613.1 \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman
\fnsymbol: Printing counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11613.2 \usecounter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11713.3 \value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11713.4 \setcounter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11813.5 \addtocounter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11813.6 \refstepcounter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11813.7 \stepcounter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11913.8 \day & \month & \year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
14 Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12014.1 Units of length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12114.2 \setlength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12214.3 \addtolength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12214.4 \settodepth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12314.5 \settoheight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12314.6 \settowidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
15 Making paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12515.1 \par . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12515.2 \indent & \noindent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12615.3 \parindent & \parskip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12715.4 Marginal notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
16 Math formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12916.1 Subscripts & superscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13016.2 Math symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
16.2.1 Blackboard bold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14216.2.2 Calligraphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14216.2.3 \boldmath & \unboldmath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14216.2.4 Dots, horizontal or vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
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16.3 Math functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14416.4 Math accents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14516.5 Over- and Underlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14616.6 Spacing in math mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
16.6.1 \smash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14716.6.2 \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.7 Math miscellany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14916.7.1 Colon character : & \colon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14916.7.2 \* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14916.7.3 \frac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14916.7.4 \left & \right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15016.7.5 \sqrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15016.7.6 \stackrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
17 Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15117.1 \ensuremath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
18 Page styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15318.1 \maketitle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15318.2 \pagenumbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15418.3 \pagestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15518.4 \thispagestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
19 Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15719.1 \enspace & \quad & \qquad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15719.2 \hspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15719.3 \hfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15819.4 \hss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15819.5 \spacefactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
19.5.1 \@ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16019.5.2 \frenchspacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16019.5.3 \normalsfcodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
19.6 Backslash-space, \ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16119.7 ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16119.8 \thinspace & \negthinspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16219.9 \/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16319.10 \hrulefill & \dotfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16319.11 \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16419.12 \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16519.13 \strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16519.14 \vspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16619.15 \vfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16719.16 \addvspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
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20 Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16920.1 \mbox & \makebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16920.2 \fbox & \framebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17020.3 \parbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17120.4 \raisebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17220.5 \sbox & \savebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17320.6 lrbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17420.7 \usebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
21 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17521.1 color package options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17521.2 Color models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17521.3 Commands for color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
21.3.1 Define colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17621.3.2 Colored text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17621.3.3 Colored boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17821.3.4 Colored pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
22 Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17922.1 graphics package options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17922.2 graphics package configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
22.2.1 \graphicspath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18022.2.2 \DeclareGraphicsExtensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18122.2.3 \DeclareGraphicsRule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
22.3 Commands for graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18322.3.1 \includegraphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18322.3.2 \rotatebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18822.3.3 \scalebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18922.3.4 \resizebox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
23 Special insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19023.1 Reserved characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19023.2 Upper and lower case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19023.3 Symbols by font position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19123.4 Text symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19123.5 Accents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19423.6 Additional Latin letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19523.7 \rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19623.8 \today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
24 Splitting the input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19824.1 \endinput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19824.2 \include & \includeonly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19924.3 \input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
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25 Front/back matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20225.1 Table of contents etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
25.1.1 \addcontentsline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20325.1.2 \addtocontents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20425.1.3 \nofiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
25.2 Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20525.2.1 \index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20625.2.2 makeindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20725.2.3 \printindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
25.3 Glossaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21025.3.1 \newglossaryentry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21125.3.2 \gls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
26 Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21326.1 \address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21426.2 \cc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21426.3 \closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21426.4 \encl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21526.5 \location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21526.6 \makelabels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21526.7 \name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21626.8 \opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21626.9 \ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21626.10 \signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21726.11 \telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
27 Terminal input/output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21827.1 \typein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21827.2 \typeout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
28 Command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22028.1 Command line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22028.2 Command line input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22228.3 Recovering from errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Appendix A Document templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224A.1 beamer template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224A.2 article template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224A.3 book template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225A.4 Larger book template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225A.5 tugboat template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
1
LATEX2e: An unofficial reference manual
This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October 2018) for LATEX2e, adocument preparation system.
2
1 About this document
This is an unofficial reference manual for the LATEX2e document preparation system, whichis a macro package for the TEX typesetting program (see Chapter 2 [Overview], page 3).
This document’s home page is https://puszcza.gnu.org.ua/software/latexrefman.There you can get the sources, subscribe to the mailing list or read its archives, see otherinfrastructure, and get the current output in various formats. In particular, the outputcomes in two web formats. Probably the most convenient one, shown at http://latexref.xyz/, has pages for each topic and so is good for a quick lookup; see also the note thereabout easy-to-remember links. The other, shown at http://svn.gnu.org.ua/viewvc/
latexrefman/trunk/latex2e.html?view=co, has all the information on single page.
In this document, we will mostly just use ‘LATEX’ rather than ‘LATEX2e’, since the previousversion of LATEX (2.09) was frozen decades ago.
LATEX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org).The official documentation written by the LATEX project is available from their web site.This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LATEX maintainers.Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, pleasesend all comments to [email protected].
This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information aboutLATEX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions.
http://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr
Two pages of recommended references to LATEX documentation.
http://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc
Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.
http://ctan.org/pkg/usrguide
The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LATEX. Manyother guides by many other people are also available, independent of LATEXitself; one such is the next item:
http://ctan.org/pkg/lshort
A short introduction to LATEX, translated to many languages.
http://tug.org/begin.html
Introduction to the TEX system, including LATEX, with further references.
3
2 Overview of LATEX
LATEX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamportand is now maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). It iswidely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involvingmathematics.
A LATEX user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, forinstance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a setof related commands that interface with Donald E. Knuth’s TEX typesetting program (thetechnical term is that LATEX is a macro package for the TEX engine). The user producesthe output document by giving that input file to the TEX engine.
The term LATEX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document ismarked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LATEX user.
The name LATEX is short for “Lamport TEX”. It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck,or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with \LaTeX. Where use ofthe logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as ‘LaTeX’.
2.1 Starting and ending
LATEX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning and ending. This is asmall example.
\documentclass{article}
\begin{document}
Hello, \LaTeX\ world.
\end{document}
Every LATEX document has a \begin{document} line and an \end{document} line.
Here, the ‘article’ is the document class. It is implemented in a file article.cls. Youcan use any document class on your system. A few document classes are defined by LATEXitself, and vast array of others are widely available. See Chapter 3 [Document classes],page 7.
You can include other LATEX commands between the \documentclass and the\begin{document} commands. This area is called the preamble.
The \begin{document}, \end{document} pair defines an environment; the ‘document’environment (and no others) is required in all LATEX documents (see Section 8.6 [document],page 49). LATEX make available to you many environments that are documented here (seeChapter 8 [Environments], page 44). Many more are available to you from external packages,most importantly those available at CTAN (see Section 2.6 [CTAN], page 6).
The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LATEX inputfile.
2.2 Output files
LATEX produces a main output file and at least two auxiliary files. The main output file’sname ends in either .dvi or .pdf.
.dvi If LATEX is invoked with the system command latex then it produces a DeViceIndependent file, with extension .dvi. You can view this file with a command
Chapter 2: Overview of LATEX 4
such as xdvi, or convert it to a PostScript .ps file with dvips or to a PortableDocument Format .pdf file with dvipdfmx. The contents of the file can bedumped in human-readable form with dvitype. A vast array of other DVIutility programs are available (http://mirror.ctan.org/dviware).
.pdf If LATEX is invoked via the system command pdflatex, among other commands(see Section 2.3 [TEX engines], page 4), then the main output is a PortableDocument Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with allfonts and images included.
LATEX also produces at least two additional files.
.log This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded pack-ages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional informationfor any errors.
.aux Auxiliary information is used by LATEX for things such as cross references. Forexample, the first time that LATEX finds a forward reference—a cross reference tosomething that has not yet appeared in the source—it will appear in the outputas a doubled question mark ??. When the referred-to spot does eventuallyappear in the source then LATEX writes its location information to this .aux
file. On the next invocation, LATEX reads the location information from this fileand uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark withthe remembered location.
LATEX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These includea .lof file that is used to make a list of figures, a .lot file used to make a list of tables,and a .toc file used to make a table of contents (see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.],page 202). A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended.
2.3 TEX engines
LATEX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TEX implementation (seeChapter 2 [Overview], page 3). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs(see also Chapter 28 [Command line], page 220).
latex
pdflatex In TEX Live (http://tug.org/texlive), if LATEX is invoked via either thesystem command latex or pdflatex, then the pdfTEX engine is run (http://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex). When invoked as latex, the main output is a .dvi
file; as pdflatex, the main output is a .pdf file.
pdfTEX incorporates the e-TEX extensions to Knuth’s original program(http://ctan.org/pkg/etex), including additional programming featuresand bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-TEXis available on its own as the system command etex, but this is plain TEX(and produces .dvi).
In other TEX distributions, latex may invoke e-TEX rather than pdfTEX. Inany case, the e-TEX extensions can be assumed to be available in LATEX.
lualatex If LATEX is invoked via the system command lualatex, the LuaTEX engineis run (http://ctan.org/pkg/luatex). This program allows code written
Chapter 2: Overview of LATEX 5
in the scripting language Lua (http://luatex.org) to interact with TEX’stypesetting. LuaTEX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle Open-Type and TrueType fonts, and produces a .pdf file by default. There is alsodvilualatex to produce a .dvi file, but this is rarely used.
xelatex If LATEX is invoked with the system command xelatex, the XeTEX engine isrun (http://tug.org/xetex). Like LuaTEX, XeTEX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation iscompletely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code.XeTEX produces a .pdf file as output; it does not support DVI output.
Internally, XeTEX creates an .xdv file, a variant of DVI, and translates that toPDF using the (x)dvipdfmx program, but this process is automatic. The .xdv
file is only useful for debugging.
Other variants of LATEX and TEX exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japaneseand other languages ([u]pTEX, http://ctan.org/pkg/ptex, http://ctan.org/pkg/
uptex).
2.4 LATEX command syntax
In the LATEX input file, a command name starts with a backslash character, \. The nameitself then consists of either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter.
LATEX commands names are case sensitive so that \pagebreak differs from \Pagebreak
(the latter is not a standard command). Most commands are lowercase, but in any eventyou must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined.
A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These arguments maybe either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, {...}.Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, [...]. Generally, but not universally,if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments.
Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square bracket (]) hide it insidecurly braces, as in \item[closing bracket {]}]. Similarly, if an optional argument comeslast, with no required argument after it, then to make the first character of the followingtext be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces.
Some of LATEX’s commands are a declaration. Such a command changes the value themeaning of some other command or parameter. For instance, the \mainmatter declarationchanges the typesetting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic (see Section 6.7[\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter], page 37).
LATEX has the convention that some commands have a * form that is related to the formwithout a *, such as \chapter and \chapter*. The exact difference in behavior varies fromcommand to command.
This manual describes all accepted options and *-forms for the commands it covers(barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).
2.5 Environment
Synopsis:
\begin{environment name}
Chapter 2: Overview of LATEX 6
...
\end{environment name}
An area of LATEX source, inside of which there is a distinct behavior. For instance, forpoetry in LATEX put the lines between \begin{verse} and \end{verse}.
\begin{verse}
There once was a man from Nantucket \\
...
\end{verse}
See Chapter 8 [Environments], page 44, for a list of environments. Particularly notableis that every LATEX document must have a document environment, a \begin{document}
... \end{document} pair.
The environment name at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. Thisincludes the case where environment name ends in a star (*); both the \begin and \end
texts must include the star.
Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This example pro-duces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes the table to be aligned on its toprow) while the second argument is required (it specifies the formatting of columns).
\begin{tabular}[t]{r|l}
... rows of table ...
\end{tabular}
2.6 CTAN: the Comprehensive TEX Archive Network
The Comprehensive TEX Archive Network, CTAN, is the TEX and LATEX community’srepository of free material. It is a set of Internet sites around the world that offer materialrelated to LATEX for download. Visit CTAN on the web at https://ctan.org.
This material is organized into packages, discrete bundles that typically offer some co-herent functionality and are maintained by one person or a small number of people. Forinstance, many publishers have a package that allows authors to format papers to thatpublisher’s specifications.
In addition to the massive holdings, the web site offers features such as search by nameor by functionality.
CTAN is not a single site, but instead is a set of sites. One of the sites is the core. Thissite actively manages the material, for instance, by accepting uploads of new or updatedpackages. It is hosted by the German TEX group DANTE e.V. Other sites around the worldhelp out by mirroring, that is, automatically syncing their collections with the core site andthen in turn making their copies publicly available. This gives users close to their locationbetter access and relieves the load on the core site. The list of mirrors is at https://ctan.org/mirrors.
7
3 Document classes
The document’s overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the firstcommand in a LATEX source file.
\documentclass[options]{class}
The following document class names are built into LATEX. (Many other document classesare available as separate packages; see Chapter 2 [Overview], page 3.)
article For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use.
book Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, suchas a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (see Chapter 25 [Front/backmatter], page 202).
letter Mail, optionally including mailing labels (see Chapter 26 [Letters], page 213).
report For documents of length between an article and a book, such as technicalreports or theses, which may contain several chapters.
slides For slide presentations—rarely used today. In its place the beamer package isperhaps the most prevalent (see Section A.1 [beamer template], page 224).
Standard options are described in the next section.
3.1 Document class options
You can specify global options or class options to the \documentclass command by en-closing them in square brackets. To specify more than one option, separate them with acomma.
\documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class}
Here is the list of the standard class options.
All of the standard classes except slides accept the following options for selecting thetypeface size (default is 10pt):
10pt 11pt 12pt
All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (these showheight by width):
a4paper 210 by 297 mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches)
a5paper 148 by 210 mm (about 5.8 by 8.3 inches)
b5paper 176 by 250 mm (about 6.9 by 9.8 inches)
executivepaper
7.25 by 10.5 inches
legalpaper
8.5 by 14 inches
letterpaper
8.5 by 11 inches (the default)
Chapter 3: Document classes 8
When using one of the engines pdfLATEX, LuaLATEX, or XeLATEX (see Section 2.3 [TEXengines], page 4), options other than letterpaper set the print area but you must also setthe physical paper size. One way to do that is to put \pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth and\pdfpageheight=\paperheight in your document’s preamble. The geometry packageprovides flexible ways of setting the print area and physical page size.
Miscellaneous other options:
draft
final Mark (draft) or do not mark (final) overfull boxes with a black box in themargin; default is final.
fleqn Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.
landscape
Selects landscape format; default is portrait.
leqno Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side.
openbib Use “open” bibliography format.
titlepage
notitlepage
Specifies whether there is a separate page for the title information and for theabstract also, if there is one. The default for the report class is titlepage,for the other classes it is notitlepage.
The following options are not available with the slides class.
onecolumn
twocolumn
Typeset in one or two columns; default is onecolumn.
oneside
twoside Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is oneside, except that in the book
class the default is twoside.
For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided print-ing, the \evensidemargin (\oddsidemargin) parameter determines the dis-tance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and thetext’s left margin, with \oddsidemargin being 40% of the difference between\paperwidth and \textwidth, and \evensidemargin is the remainder.
openright
openany Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is openrightfor book, and openany for report.
The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time at the bottom of eachnote.
3.2 Additional packages
Load a package pkg, with the package options given in the comma-separated list options,as here.
\usepackage[options]{pkg}.
Chapter 3: Document classes 9
To specify more than one package you can separate them with a comma, as in\usepackage{pkg1,pkg2,...}, or use multiple \usepackage commands.
Any options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown to the selecteddocument class are passed on to the packages loaded with \usepackage.
3.3 Class and package construction
You can create new document classes and new packages. For instance, if your memos mustsatisfy some local requirements, such as a standard header for each page, then you could cre-ate a new class smcmemo.cls and begin your documents with \documentclass{smcmemo}.
What separates a package from a document class is that the commands in a packageare useful across classes while those in a document class are specific to that class. Thus, acommand to set page headers is for a package while a command to make the page headerssay Memo from the SMC Math Department is for a class.
Inside of a class or package file you can use the at-sign @ as a character in commandnames without having to surround the code containing that command with \makeatletter
and \makeatother. See Section 12.3 [\makeatletter & \makeatother], page 105. This allowyou to create commands that users will not accidentally redefine. Another technique isto preface class- or package-specific commands with some string to prevent your class orpackage from interfering with others. For instance, the class smcmemo might have commands\smc@tolist, \smc@fromlist, etc.
3.3.1 Class and package structure
A class file or package file typically has four parts.
1. In the identification part, the file says that it is a LATEX package or class and de-scribes itself, using the \NeedsTeXFormat and \ProvidesClass or \ProvidesPackagecommands.
2. The preliminary declarations part declares some commands and can also load otherfiles. Usually these commands will be those needed for the code used in the next part.For example, an smcmemo class might be called with an option to read in a file with a listof people for the to-head, as \documentclass[mathto]{smcmemo}, and therefore needsto define a command \newcommand{\setto}[1]{\def\@tolist{#1}} used in that file.
3. In the handle options part the class or package declares and processes its options.Class options allow a user to start their document as \documentclass[option
list]{class name}, to modify the behavior of the class. An example is when youdeclare \documentclass[11pt]{article} to set the default document font size.
4. Finally, in the more declarations part the class or package usually does most of itswork: declaring new variables, commands and fonts, and loading other files.
Here is a starting class file, which should be saved as stub.cls where LATEX can find it,for example in the same directory as the .tex file.
\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}
\ProvidesClass{stub}[2017/07/06 stub to start building classes from]
\DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}
\ProcessOptions\relax
\LoadClass{article}
Chapter 3: Document classes 10
It identifies itself, handles the class options via the default of passing them all to the articleclass, and then loads the article class to provide the basis for this class’s code.
For more, see the official guide for class and package writers, the Class Guide, at http://www.latex-project.org/help/documentation/clsguide.pdf (much of the descriptionshere derive from this document), or the tutorial https://www.tug.org/TUGboat/tb26-3/tb84heff.pdf.
3.3.2 Class and package commands
These are the commands designed to help writers of classes or packages.
\AtBeginDvi{specials}
Save in a box register things that are written to the .dvi file at the beginningof the shipout of the first page of the document.
\AtEndOfClass{code}
\AtEndOfPackage{code}
Hook to insert code to be executed when LATEX finishes processing the currentclass or package. You can use these hooks multiple times; the code will beexecuted in the order that you called it. See also Section 8.6.1 [\AtBeginDoc-ument], page 49.
\CheckCommand{cmd}[num][default]{definition}
\CheckCommand*{cmd}[num][default]{definition}
Like \newcommand (see Section 12.1 [\newcommand & \renewcommand],page 103) but does not define cmd; instead it checks that the current definitionof cmd is exactly as given by definition and is or is not long as expected. Along command is a command that accepts \par within an argument. The cmdcommand is expected to be long with the unstarred version of \CheckCommand.Raises an error when the check fails. This allows you to check before youstart redefining cmd yourself that no other package has already redefined thiscommand.
\ClassError{class name}{error text}{help text}
\PackageError{package name}{error text}{help text}
\ClassWarning{class name}{warning text}
\PackageWarning{package name}{warning text}
\ClassWarningNoLine{class name}{warning text}
\PackageWarningNoLine{package name}{warning text}
\ClassInfo{class name}{info text}
\PackageInfo{package name}{info text}
\ClassInfoNoLine{class name}{info text}
\PackageInfoNoLine{package name}{info text}
Produce an error message, or warning or informational messages.
For \ClassError and \PackageError the message is error text, followed byTEX’s ? error prompt. If the user then asks for help by typing h, they see thehelp text.
The four warning commands are similar except that they write warning texton the screen with no error prompt. The four info commands write info text
Chapter 3: Document classes 11
only in the transcript file. The NoLine versions do not show the number of theline generating the message, while the other versions do show that number.
To format the messages, including the help text: use \protect to stop a com-mand from expanding, get a line break with \MessageBreak, and get a spacewith \space when a space character does not allow it, like after a command.Note that LATEX appends a period to the messages.
\CurrentOption
Expands to the name of the currently-being-processed option. Can only be usedwithin the code argument of either \DeclareOption or \DeclareOption*.
\DeclareOption{option}{code}
\DeclareOption*{code}
Make an option available to a user to invoke in their \documentclass
command. For example, the smcmemo class could have an option\documentclass[logo]{smcmemo} allowing users to put the institutional logoon the first page. The class file must contain \DeclareOption{logo}{code}
(and later, \ProcessOptions).
If you request an option that has not been declared, by default this willproduce a warning like Unused global option(s): [badoption]. Changethis behaviour with the starred version \DeclareOption*{code}. Forexample, many classes extend an existing class, using a declaration such as\LoadClass{article}, and for passing extra options to the underlying classuse code such as this.
\DeclareOption*{%
\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}%
}
Another example is that the class smcmemo may allow users to keeplists of memo recipients in external files. Then the user could invoke\documentclass[math]{smcmemo} and it will read the file math.memo. Thiscode handles the file if it exists and otherwise passes the option to the article
class.
\DeclareOption*{\InputIfFileExists{\CurrentOption.memo}{}{%
\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}}
\DeclareRobustCommand{cmd}[num][default]{definition}
\DeclareRobustCommand*{cmd}[num][default]{definition}
Like \newcommand and \newcommand* (see Section 12.1 [\newcommand & \re-newcommand], page 103) but these declare a robust command, even if somecode within the definition is fragile. (For a discussion of robust and fragilecommands see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113.) Use this command to de-fine new robust commands or to redefine existing commands and make themrobust. Unlike \newcommand these do not give an error if macro cmd alreadyexists; instead, a log message is put into the transcript file if a command isredefined.
Commands defined this way are a bit less efficient than those defined using\newcommand so unless the command’s data is fragile and the command is usedwithin a moving argument, use \newcommand.
Chapter 3: Document classes 12
The etoolbox package offers the commands \newrobustcmd, \newrobustcmd*,as well as the commands \renewrobustcmd, \renewrobustcmd*, and thecommands \providerobustcmd, and \providerobustcmd*. These aresimilar to \newcommand, \newcommand*, \renewcommand, \renewcommand*,\providecommand, and \providecommand*, but define a robust cmd with twoadvantages as compared to \DeclareRobustCommand:
1. They use the low-level e-TEX protection mechanism rather than the higherlevel LATEX \protect mechanism, so they do not incur the slight loss ofperformance mentioned above, and
2. They make the same distinction between \new..., \renew..., and\provide..., as the standard commands, so they do not just make a logmessage when you redefine cmd that already exists, in that case you needto use either \renew... or \provide... or you get an error.
\IfFileExists{file name}{true code}{false code}
\InputIfFileExists{file name}{true code}{false code}
Execute true code if LATEX finds the file file name or false code otherwise. Inthe first case it executing true code and then inputs the file. Thus the command
\IfFileExists{img.pdf}{%
\includegraphics{img.pdf}}{\typeout{!! img.pdf not found}
will include the graphic img.pdf if it is found and otherwise give a warning.
This command looks for the file in all search paths that LATEX uses, not onlyin the current directory. To look only in the current directory do somethinglike \IfFileExists{./filename}{true code}{false code}. If you ask for afilename without a .tex extension then LATEX will first look for the file by ap-pending the .tex; for more on how LATEX handles file extensions see Section 24.3[\input], page 201.
\LoadClass[options list]{class name}[release date]
\LoadClassWithOptions{class name}[release date]
Load a class, as with \documentclass[options list]{class name}[release
info]. An example is \LoadClass[twoside]{article}.
The options list, if present, is a comma-separated list. The release date isoptional. If present it must have the form YYYY/MM/DD.
If you request a release date and the date of the package installed on yoursystem is earlier, then you get a warning on the screen and in the log like this.
You have requested, on input line 4, version ‘2038/01/19’ of
document class article, but only version ‘2014/09/29 v1.4h
Standard LaTeX document class’ is available.
The command version \LoadClassWithOptions uses the list of optionsfor the current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via\PassOptionsToClass. This is a convenience command that lets you buildclasses on existing ones, such as the standard article class, without havingto track which options were passed.
Chapter 3: Document classes 13
\ExecuteOptions{options-list}
For each option option in the options-list, in order, this command executesthe command \ds@option. If this command is not defined then that option issilently ignored.
It can be used to provide a default option list before \ProcessOptions. Forexample, if in a class file you want the default to be 11pt fonts then you couldspecify \ExecuteOptions{11pt}\ProcessOptions\relax.
\NeedsTeXFormat{format}[format date]
Specifies the format that this class must be run under. Often issued as thefirst line of a class file, and most often used as: \NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}.When a document using that class is processed, the format name given heremust match the format that is actually being run (including that the formatstring is case sensitive). If it does not match then execution stops with an errorlike ‘This file needs format ‘LaTeX2e’ but this is ‘xxx’.’
To specify a version of the format that you know to have certain features,include the optional format date on which those features were implemented. Ifpresent it must be in the form YYYY/MM/DD. If the format version installed onyour system is earlier than format date then you get a warning like this.
You have requested release ‘2038/01/20’ of LaTeX, but only
release ‘2016/02/01’ is available.
\OptionNotUsed
Adds the current option to the list of unused options. Can only be used withinthe code argument of either \DeclareOption or \DeclareOption*.
\PassOptionsToClass{option list}{class name}
\PassOptionsToPackage{option list}{package name}
Adds the options in the comma-separated list option list to the options used byany future \RequirePackage or \usepackage command for package packagename or the class class name.
The reason for these commands is: you may load a package any number oftimes with no options but if you want options then you may only supply themwhen you first load the package. Loading a package with options more thanonce will get you an error like Option clash for package foo. (LATEX throwsan error even if there is no conflict between the options.)
If your own code is bringing in a package twice then you can collapse that toonce, for example replacing the two \RequirePackage[landscape]{geometry}
and \RequirePackage[margins=1in]{geometry} with the single command\RequirePackage[landscape,margins=1in]{geometry}.
However, imagine that you are loading firstpkg and inside that package itloads secondpkg, and you need the second package to be loaded with optiondraft. Then before doing the first package you must queue up the options forthe second package, like this.
\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{secondpkg}
\RequirePackage{firstpkg}
Chapter 3: Document classes 14
(If firstpkg.sty loads an option in conflict with what you want then you mayhave to alter its source.)
These commands are useful for general users as well as class and package writ-ers. For instance, suppose a user wants to load the graphicx package withthe option draft and also wants to use a class foo that loads the graphicx
package, but without that option. The user could start their LATEX file with\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphicx}\documentclass{foo}.
\ProcessOptions
\ProcessOptions*\@options
Execute the code for each option that the user has invoked. Include it in theclass file as \ProcessOptions\relax (because of the existence of the starredcommand).
Options come in two types. Local options have been specified for this partic-ular package in the options argument of \PassOptionsToPackage{options},\usepackage[options], or \RequirePackage[options]. Global options arethose given by the class user in \documentclass[options] (If an option isspecified both locally and globally then it is local.)
When \ProcessOptions is called for a package pkg.sty, the following happens:
1. For each option option so far declared with \DeclareOption, it looks tosee if that option is either a global or a local option for pkg. If so thenit executes the declared code. This is done in the order in which theseoptions were given in pkg.sty.
2. For each remaining local option, it executes the command \ds@option if ithas been defined somewhere (other than by a \DeclareOption); otherwise,it executes the default option code given in \DeclareOption*. If no defaultoption code has been declared then it gives an error message. This is donein the order in which these options were specified.
When \ProcessOptions is called for a class it works in the same way ex-cept that all options are local, and the default code for \DeclareOption* is\OptionNotUsed rather than an error.
The starred version \ProcessOptions* executes the options in the order speci-fied in the calling commands, rather than in the order of declaration in the classor package. For a package this means that the global options are processed first.
\ProvidesClass{class name}[release date brief additional information]
\ProvidesClass{class name}[release date]
\ProvidesPackage{package name}[release date brief additional information]
\ProvidesPackage{package name}[release date]
Identifies the class or package, printing a message to the screen and the log file.
When you load a class or package, for example with \documentclass{smcmemo}
or \usepackage{test}, LATEX inputs a file. If the name of the file does notmatch the class or package name declared in it then you get a warning. Thus, ifyou invoke \documentclass{smcmemo}, and the file smcmemo.cls has the state-ment \ProvidesClass{xxx} then you get a warning like You have requested
document class ‘smcmemo’, but the document class provides ’xxx’. This
Chapter 3: Document classes 15
warning does not prevent LATEX from processing the rest of the class file nor-mally.
If you include the optional argument then you must include a date, before anyspaces, of the form YYYY/MM/DD. The rest of the optional argument is free-form,although it traditionally identifies the class, and is written to the screen duringcompilation and to the log file. Thus, if your file smcmemo.cls contains theline \ProvidesClass{smcmemo}[2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class] and yourdocument’s first line is \documentclass{smcmemo} then you will see Document
Class: smcmemo 2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class.
The date in the optional argument allows class and package users to ask tobe warned if the version of the class or package is earlier than release date.For instance, a user could enter \documentclass{smcmemo}[2018/10/12] or\usepackage{foo}[[2017/07/07]] to require a class or package with certainfeatures by specifying that it must be released no earlier than the given date.(Although, in practice package users only rarely include a date, and class usersalmost never do.)
\ProvidesFile{file name}[additional information]
Declare a file other than the main class and package files, such as configurationfiles or font definition files. Put this command in that file and you get in the log astring like File: test.config 2017/10/12 config file for test.cls for filename equal to ‘test.config’ and additional information equal to ‘2017/10/12config file for test.cls’.
\RequirePackage[option list]{package name}[release date]
\RequirePackageWithOptions{package name}[release date]
Load a package, like the command \usepackage (see Section 3.2 [Additionalpackages], page 8). The LATEX development team strongly recommends use ofthese commands over Plain TEX’s \input; see the Class Guide. An example is\RequirePackage[landscape,margin=1in]{geometry}.
The option list, if present, is a comma-separated list. The release date, ifpresent, must have the form YYYY/MM/DD. If the release date of the pack-age as installed on your system is earlier than release date then you get awarning like You have requested, on input line 9, version ‘2017/07/03’
of package jhtest, but only version ‘2000/01/01’ is available.
The \RequirePackageWithOptions version uses the list of options forthe current class. This means it ignores any options passed to it via\PassOptionsToClass. This is a convenience command to allow easilybuilding classes on existing ones without having to track which options werepassed.
The difference between \usepackage and \RequirePackage is small.The \usepackage command is intended for the document file while\RequirePackage is intended for package and class files. Thus, using\usepackage before the \documentclass command causes LATEX to give errorlike \usepackage before \documentclass, but you can use \RequirePackage
there.
16
4 Fonts
Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size and a style. The LATEXcommands for doing this are described here.
4.1 Font styles
The following type style commands are supported by LATEX.
In the table below the listed commands, the \text... commands, is used with an argu-ment, as in \textit{text}. This is the preferred form. But shown after it, in parenthesis,is the corresponding declaration form, which is sometimes useful. This form takes no argu-ments, as in {\itshape text}. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next typestyle command or the end of the current group. In addition, each has an environment formsuch as \begin{itshape}...\end{itshape}.
These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumula-tive; for instance you can get bold sans serif by saying either of \sffamily\bfseries or\bfseries\sffamily.
One advantage of these commands is that they automatically insert italic corrections ifneeded (see Section 19.9 [\/], page 163). Specifically, they insert the italic correction unlessthe following character is in the list \nocorrlist, which by default consists of a periodand a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use \nocorr at thestart or end of the command argument, such as \textit{\nocorr text} or \textsc{text\nocorr}.
\textrm (\rmfamily)
Roman.
\textit (\itshape)
Italics.
\textmd (\mdseries)
Medium weight (default).
\textbf (\bfseries)
Boldface.
\textup (\upshape)
Upright (default).
\textsl (\slshape)
Slanted.
\textsf (\sffamily)
Sans serif.
\textsc (\scshape)
Small caps.
\texttt (\ttfamily)
Typewriter.
\textnormal (\normalfont)
Main document font.
Chapter 4: Fonts 17
Although it also changes fonts, the \emph{text} command is semantic, for text to beemphasized, and should not be used as a substitute for \textit. For example, \emph{starttext \emph{middle text} end text} will result in the start text and end text in italics,but middle text will be in roman.
LATEX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the givenstyle, that is, are not cumulative. They are used as declarations: {\cmd...} instead of\cmd{...}.
(The unconditional commands below are an older version of font switching. The earliercommands are an improvement in most circumstances. But sometimes an unconditionalfont switch is precisely what you want.)
\bf Switch to bold face.
\cal Switch to calligraphic letters for math.
\it Italics.
\rm Roman.
\sc Small caps.
\sf Sans serif.
\sl Slanted (oblique).
\tt Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).
The \em command is the unconditional version of \emph.
The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not cumulative, so\mathbf{\mathit{symbol}} does not create a boldface and italic symbol; instead, it willjust be in italics. This is because typically math symbols need consistent typographictreatment, regardless of the surrounding environment.
\mathrm Roman, for use in math mode.
\mathbf Boldface, for use in math mode.
\mathsf Sans serif, for use in math mode.
\mathtt Typewriter, for use in math mode.
\mathit
(\mit) Italics, for use in math mode.
\mathnormal
For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration.
\mathcal Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode.
In addition, the command \mathversion{bold} can be used for switching to bold lettersand symbols in formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default.
Finally, the command \oldstylenums{numerals} will typeset so-called “old-style” nu-merals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard“lining” numerals, which all have the same height as uppercase letters. LATEX’s default fontssupport this, and will respect \textbf (but not other styles; there are no italic old-stylenumerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimesthe textcomp package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to makethem the default. FAQ entry: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf.
Chapter 4: Fonts 18
4.2 Font sizes
The following standard type size commands are supported by LATEX. The table shows thecommand name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the ‘10pt’,‘11pt’, and ‘12pt’ document size options, respectively (see Section 3.1 [Document classoptions], page 7).
Command 10pt 11pt 12pt
\tiny 5 6 6\scriptsize 7 8 8\footnotesize 8 9 10\small 9 10 10.95\normalsize (default) 10 10.95 12\large 12 12 14.4\Large 14.4 14.4 17.28\LARGE 17.28 17.28 20.74\huge 20.74 20.74 24.88\Huge 24.88 24.88 24.88
The commands are listed here in declaration forms. You use them by declaring them,as with this example.
\begin{quotation} \small
The Tao that can be named is not the eternal Tao.
\end{quotation}
The scope of the \small lasts until the end of the quotation environment. It would alsoend at the next type style command or the end of the current group, so you could enclose itin extra curly braces {\small We are here, we are here, we are here!}. You can insteaduse the environment form of these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}.
4.3 Low-level font commands
These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commandslisted here are only a subset of the available ones.
\fontencoding{encoding}
Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a large num-ber of valid encodings. The most common are OT1, Knuth’s original encodingfor Computer Modern (the default), and T1, also known as the Cork encoding,which has support for the accented characters used by the most widespreadEuropean languages (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allowsTEX to hyphenate words containing accented letters. For more, see https://
ctan.org/pkg/encguide.
\fontfamily{family}
Select the font family. The web page http://www.tug.dk/FontCatalogue/
provides one way to browse through many of the fonts easily used with LATEX.Here are examples of some common families.
pag Avant Gardefvs Bitstream Vera Sans
Chapter 4: Fonts 19
pbk Bookmanbch Charterccr Computer Concretecmr Computer Moderncmss Computer Modern Sans Serifcmtt Computer Modern Typewriterpcr Courierphv Helveticafi4 Inconsolatalmr Latin Modernlmss Latin Modern Sanslmtt Latin Modern Typewriterpnc New Century Schoolbookppl Palatinoptm Timesuncl Uncialput Utopiapzc Zapf Chancery
\fontseries{series}
Select the font series. A series combines a weight and a width. Typically, afont supports only a few of the possible combinations. Some common combinedseries values include:
m Medium (normal)b Boldc Condensedbc Bold condensedbx Bold extended
The possible values for weight, individually, are:
ul Ultra lightel Extra lightl Lightsl Semi lightm Medium (normal)sb Semi boldb Boldeb Extra boldub Ultra bold
The possible values for width, individually, are (the meaning and relationshipof these terms varies with individual typefaces):
uc Ultra condensedec Extra condensedc Condensedsc Semi condensedm Mediumsx Semi expanded
Chapter 4: Fonts 20
x Expandedex Extra expandedux Ultra expanded
When forming the series string from the weight and width, drop the m thatstands for medium weight or medium width, unless both weight and width arem, in which case use just one (‘m’).
\fontshape{shape}
Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
n Upright (normal)it Italicsl Slanted (oblique)sc Small capsui Upright italicsol Outline
The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and small caps areoften missing as well.
\fontsize{size}{skip}
Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both parameters defaultsto points (pt). The line spacing is the nominal vertical space between lines,baseline to baseline. It is stored in the parameter \baselineskip. The default\baselineskip for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the \fontsize.Changing \baselineskip directly is inadvisable since its value is reset everytime a size change happens; see \baselinestretch, next.
\baselinestretch
LATEX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the \baselinestretch param-eter; the default factor is 1. A change takes effect when \selectfont (see be-low) is called. You can make a line skip change happen for the entire document,for instance doubling it, by doing \renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}
in the preamble.
However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the setspace
package. In addition to offering a number of spacing options, this packagekeeps the line spacing single-spaced in places where that is typically desirable,such as footnotes and figure captions. See the package documentation.
\linespread{factor}
Equivalent to \renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{factor}, and thereforemust be followed by \selectfont to have any effect. Best specified in thepreamble, or use the setspace package, as just described.
\selectfont
The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until\selectfont is called, as in \fontfamily{familyname}\selectfont. It isoften useful to put this in a macro:\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{familyname}\selectfont}
(see Section 12.1 [\newcommand & \renewcommand], page 103).
21
\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}
The same as invoking \fontencoding, \fontfamily, \fontseries and\fontshape with the given parameters, followed by \selectfont. Forexample:
\usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}
22
5 Layout
Commands for controlling the general page layout.
5.1 \onecolumn
Synopsis:
\onecolumn
Start a new page and produce single-column output. If the document is given the classoption onecolumn then this is the default behavior (see Section 3.1 [Document class options],page 7). This command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
5.2 \twocolumn
Synopses:
\twocolumn
\twocolumn[prelim one column text]
Start a new page and produce two-column output. If the document is given the classoption twocolumn then this is the default (see Section 3.1 [Document class options], page 7).This command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
If the optional prelim one column text argument is present, it is typeset in one-columnmode before the two-column typesetting starts.
These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
\columnsep
The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with a commandsuch as \setlength{\columnsep}{40pt} You must change it before the twocolumn environment starts; in the preamble is a good place.
\columnseprule
The width of the rule between columns. The rule appears halfway betweenthe two columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is no rule. Changeit with a command such as \setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}, before thetwo-column environment starts.
\columnwidth
The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to \textwidth.In two-column mode by default LATEX sets the width of each of the two columnsto be half of \textwidth minus \columnsep.
In a two-column document, the starred environments table* and figure* are twocolumns wide, whereas the unstarred environments table and figure take up only onecolumn (see Section 8.10 [figure], page 52, and see Section 8.22 [table], page 76). LATEXplaces starred floats at the top of a page. The following parameters control float behaviorof two-column output.
\dbltopfraction
The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupiedby two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning that the height of a
Chapter 5: Layout 23
table* or figure* environment must not exceed 0.7\textheight . If theheight of your starred float environment exceeds this then you can take one ofthe following actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of thedocument:
• Use the [tp] location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put the bulky floaton a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page.
• Use the [t!] location specifier to override the effect of \dbltopfractionfor this particular float.
• Increase the value of \dbltopfraction to a suitably large number, to avoidgoing to float pages so soon.
You can redefine it, as with \renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}.
\dblfloatpagefraction
For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction thatmust be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space. LATEX’s defaultis 0.5. Change it with \renewcommand.
\dblfloatsep
On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance betweenfloats, at both the top and bottom of the page. The default is 12pt plus2pt
minus2pt for a document set at 10pt or 11pt, and 14pt plus2pt minus4pt fora document set at 12pt.
\dbltextfloatsep
This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottomof a page and the main text. The default is 20pt plus2pt minus4pt.
\dbltopnumber
On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the maximumnumber of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LATEX default is 2.
This example uses \twocolumn’s optional argument of to create a title that spans thetwo-column article:
\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
\newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}}
\begin{document}
\twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text
\centering
\LARGE The Title \\[1.5em]
\large Author One\authormark{1},
Author Two\authormark{2},
Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em]
\normalsize
\begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}}
\authormark{1}Department one &\authormark{2}Department two \\
School one &School two
\end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part
}]
Chapter 5: Layout 24
Two column text here.
5.3 \flushbottom
Make all pages in the documents after this declaration have the same height, by stretchingthe vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. This is most often used when makingtwo-sided documents since the differences in facing pages can be glaring.
If TEX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page then you get a messagelike ‘Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active’. If youget that, one option is to change to \raggedbottom (see Section 5.4 [\raggedbottom],page 24). Alternatively, you can adjust the textheight to make compatible pages,or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}. Your last option is to, in a final editing stage,adjust the height of individual pages (see Section 10.3 [\enlargethispage], page 96).
The \flushbottom state is the default only if you select the twoside document classoption (see Section 3.1 [Document class options], page 7).
5.4 \raggedbottom
Make all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no rubber verticallengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided document the facing pages may be differ-ent heights. This command can go at any point in the document body. See Section 5.3[\flushbottom], page 24.
This is the default unless you select the twoside document class option (see Section 3.1[Document class options], page 7).
5.5 Page layout parameters
\columnsep
\columnseprule
\columnwidth
The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the columns,and the width of the columns, when the document class option twocolumn isin effect (see Section 3.1 [Document class options], page 7). See Section 5.2[\twocolumn], page 22.
\headheight
Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the article,report, and book classes is ‘12pt’, at all type sizes.
\headsep Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the maintext. The default in the article and report classes is ‘25pt’. In the book classthe default is: if the document is set at 10pt then it is ‘0.25in’, and at 11ptand 12pt it is ‘0.275in’.
\footskip
Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the pagefooter. The default in the article and report classes is ‘30pt’. In the book
Chapter 5: Layout 25
class the default is: when the type size is 10pt the default is ‘0.35in’, while at11pt it is ‘0.38in’, and at 12pt it is ‘30pt’.
\linewidth
Width of the current line, decreased for each nested list (see Section 8.16 [list],page 57). That is, the nominal value for \linewidth is to equal \textwidthbut for each nested list the \linewidth is decreased by the sum of that list’s\leftmargin and \rightmargin (see Section 8.14 [itemize], page 55).
\marginparpush
\marginsep
\marginparwidth
The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal spacebetween the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal width of thenotes.
Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the declaration\reversemarginpar changes that (and \normalmarginpar changes it back).
The defaults for \marginparpush in both book and article classes are: ‘7pt’if the document is set at 12pt, and ‘5pt’ if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt.
For \marginsep, in article class the default is ‘10pt’ except if the documentis set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the default is ‘11pt’.
For \marginsep in book class the default is ‘10pt’ in two-column mode and‘7pt’ in one-column mode.
For \marginparwidth in both book and article classes, in two-column modethe default is 60% of \paperwidth − \textwidth, while in one-column modeit is 50% of that distance.
\oddsidemargin
\evensidemargin
The \oddsidemargin is the extra distance between the left side of the pageand the text’s left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the document classoption twoside is chosen and on all pages when oneside is in effect. Whentwoside is in effect, on even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left isevensidemargin.
LATEX’s default is that \oddsidemargin is 40% of the difference between\paperwidth and \textwidth, and \evensidemargin is the remainder.
\paperheight
The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area. Normallyset with a document class option, as in \documentclass[a4paper]{article}
(see Section 3.1 [Document class options], page 7).
\paperwidth
The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area. Normallyset with a document class option, as in \documentclass[a4paper]{article}
(see Section 3.1 [Document class options], page 7).
\textheight
The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at anominal type size of 10pt then for an article or report the default is
Chapter 5: Layout 26
‘43\baselineskip’, while for a book it is ‘41\baselineskip’. At a type sizeof 11pt the default is ‘38\baselineskip’ for all document classes. At 12pt itis ‘36\baselineskip’ for all classes.
\textwidth
The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an article or report
document, the default is ‘345pt’ when the chosen type size is 10pt, the defaultis ‘360pt’ at 11pt, and it is ‘390pt’ at 12pt. For a book document, the defaultis ‘4.5in’ at a type size of 10pt, and ‘5in’ at 11pt or 12pt.
In multi-column output, \textwidth remains the width of the entire page body,while \columnwidth is the width of one column (see Section 5.2 [\twocolumn],page 22).
In lists (see Section 8.16 [list], page 57), \textwidth remains the width of theentire page body (and \columnwidth the width of the entire column), while\linewidth may decrease for nested lists.
Inside a minipage (see Section 8.18 [minipage], page 63) or \parbox (seeSection 20.3 [\parbox], page 171), all the width-related parameters are setto the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of theminipage or \parbox.
\hsize This entry is included for completeness: \hsize is the TEX primitive parameterused when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LATEXdocuments.
\topmargin
Space between the top of the TEX page (one inch from the top of the pa-per, by default) and the top of the header. The value is computed based onmany other parameters: \paperheight − 2in − \headheight − \headsep −\textheight − \footskip, and then divided by two.
\topskip Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of thefirst line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the fontsize, e.g., ‘10pt’ at a type size of 10pt.
5.6 Floats
Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken across pages. Theymust be typeset outside of the normal flow of text, for instance floating to the top of a laterpage.
LATEX can have a number of different classes of floating material. The default is thetwo classes, figure (see Section 8.10 [figure], page 52) and table (see Section 8.22 [table],page 76), but you can create a new class with the package float.
Within any one float class LATEX always respects the order, so that the first figure in adocument source must be typeset before the second figure. However, LATEX may mix theclasses, so it can happen that while the first table appears in the source before the firstfigure, it appears in the output after it.
The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that limit the numberof floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the bottom, etc. If so many floats are
Chapter 5: Layout 27
queued that the limits prevent them all from fitting on a page then LATEX places what itcan and defers the rest to the next page. In this way, floats may end up being typeset farfrom their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big may migrate to the end ofthe document. In which event, because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order,every following float in that class also appears at the end.
In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak where the floatplacement algorithm tries to place it by using its placement argument. The possible valuesare a sequence of the letters below. The default for both figure and table, in both article
and book classes, is tbp.
t (Top)—at the top of a text page.
b (Bottom)—at the bottom of a text page. (However, b is not allowed for full-width floats (figure*) with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use thestfloats or dblfloatfix package, but see the discussion at caveats in theFAQ: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat.
h (Here)—at the position in the text where the figure environment appears.However, h is not allowed by itself; t is automatically added.
To absolutely force a float to appear “here”, you can \usepackage{float} anduse the H specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entryat http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere.
p (Page of floats)—on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text,only floats.
! Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LATEX ignores the re-strictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amountsof float and non-float text on the page. The ! specifier does not mean “put thefloat here”; see above.
Note: the order in which letters appear in the placement argument does not change theorder in which LATEX tries to place the float; for instance, btp has the same effect as tbp.All that placement does is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not trythat location. Thus, LATEX’s default of tbp is to try every location except placing the floatwhere it occurs in the source.
To prevent LATEX from moving floats to the end of the document or a chapter you can usea \clearpage command to start a new page and insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak isundesirable then you can use the afterpage package and issue \afterpage{\clearpage}.This will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all outstanding floats.
LATEX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source (although on the sameoutput page) if there is a t specifier in the placement parameter. If this is not desired, anddeleting the t is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the nextpage, then you can prevent it by either using the flafter package or using the command\suppressfloats[t], which causes floats for the top position on this page to moved to thenext page.
Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text (changethem with \renewcommand{parameter}{decimal between 0 and 1}):
Chapter 5: Layout 28
\bottomfraction
The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at thebottom; default ‘.3’.
\floatpagefraction
The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default‘.5’.
\textfraction
Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much spaceto preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The defaultis ‘.2’.
\topfraction
Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats;default ‘.7’.
Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with a command of theform \setlength{parameter}{length expression}):
\floatsep
Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default ‘12pt plus2pt
minus2pt’.
\intextsep
Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default ‘12ptplus2pt minus2pt’ for 10 point and 11 point documents, and ‘14pt plus4pt
minus4pt’ for 12 point documents.
\textfloatsep
Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default ‘20ptplus2pt minus4pt’.
Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with a command ofthe form \setcounter{ctrname}{natural number}):
bottomnumber
Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default1.
dbltopnumber
Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-columnpage; default 2.
topnumber
Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default2.
totalnumber
Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.
The principal TEX FAQ entry relating to floats http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/
texfaq2html?label=floats contains suggestions for relaxing LATEX’s default parametersto reduce the problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explanation of the float
Chapter 5: Layout 29
placement algorithm is in Frank Mittelbach’s article “How to influence the position of floatenvironments like figure and table in LATEX?” (http://latex-project.org/papers/tb111mitt-float.pdf).
30
6 Sectioning
Structure your text into divisions: parts, chapters, sections, etc. All sectioning commandshave the same form, one of:
sectioning-command{title}
sectioning-command*{title}
sectioning-command[toc-title]{title}
For instance, declare the start of a subsection as with \subsection{Motivation}.
The table has each sectioning-command in LATEX. All are available in all of LATEX’s stan-dard document classes book, report, and article, except that \chapter is not availablein article.
Sectioning unit Command LevelPart \part -1 (book, report), 0 (article)Chapter \chapter 0Section \section 1Subsection \subsection 2Subsubsection \subsubsection 3Paragraph \paragraph 4Subparagraph \subparagraph 5
All these commands have a *-form that prints title as usual but is not numbered anddoes not make an entry in the table of contents. An example of using this is for an appendixin an article . The input \appendix\section{Appendix} gives the output ‘A Appendix’(see Section 6.6 [\appendix], page 36). You can lose the numbering ‘A’ by instead entering\section*{Appendix} (articles often omit a table of contents and have simple page headersso the other differences from the \section command may not matter).
The section title title provides the heading in the main text, but it may also appear in thetable of contents and in the running head or foot (see Chapter 18 [Page styles], page 153).You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. All of these commandshave an optional argument toc-title for these other places.
The level number in the table above determines which sectional units are numbered, andwhich appear in the table of contents. If the sectioning command’s level is less than or equalto the value of the counter secnumdepth then the titles for this sectioning command willbe numbered (see [Sectioning/secnumdepth], page 30). And, if level is less than or equalto the value of the counter tocdepth then the table of contents will have an entry for thissectioning unit (see [Sectioning/tocdepth], page 31).
LATEX expects that before you have a \subsection you will have a \section and, in abook, that before a \section you will have a \chapter. Otherwise you can get a somethinglike a subsection numbered ‘3.0.1’.
Two counters relate to the appearance of sectioning commands.
secnumdepth
Controls which sectioning commands are numbered. Suppress numbering ofsectioning at any depth greater than level \setcounter{secnumdepth}{level}(see Section 13.4 [\setcounter], page 118). See the above table for the
Chapter 6: Sectioning 31
level numbers. For instance, if the secnumdepth is 1 in an article
then a \section{Introduction} command will produce output like ‘1Introduction’ while \subsection{Discussion} will produce output like‘Discussion’, without the number. LATEX’s default secnumdepth is 3 inarticle class and 2 in the book and report classes.
tocdepth Controls which sectioning units are listed in the table of contents. The setting\setcounter{tocdepth}{level} makes the sectioning units at level be thesmallest ones listed (see Section 13.4 [\setcounter], page 118). See the abovetable for the level numbers. For instance, if tocdepth is 1 then the table ofcontents will list sections but not subsections. LATEX’s default secnumdepth is 3in article class and 2 in the book and report classes.
6.1 \part
Synopsis, one of:
\part{title}
\part*{title}
\part[toc-title]{title}
Start a document part. The standard LATEX classes book, report, and article, all havethis command.
This produces a document part, in a book.
\part{VOLUME I \\
PERSONAL MEMOIRS OF U.\ S.\ GRANT}
\chapter{ANCESTRY--BIRTH--BOYHOOD.}
My family is American, and has been for generations,
in all its branches, direct and collateral.
In each standard class the \part command outputs a part number such as ‘Part I’,alone on its line, in boldface, and in large type. Then LATEX outputs title, also alone on itsline, in bold and in even larger type. In class book, the LATEX default puts each part aloneon its own page. If the book is two-sided then LATEX will skip a page if needed to have thenew part on an odd-numbered page. In report it is again alone on a page, but LATEX won’tforce it onto an odd-numbered page. In an article LATEX does not put it on a fresh page,but instead outputs the part number and part title onto the main document page.
The * form shows title but it does not show the part number, does not increment thepart counter, and produces no table of contents entry.
The optional argument toc-title will appear as the part title in the table of contents(see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202) and in running headers (see Chapter 18[Page styles], page 153). If it is not present then title will be there. This example puts aline break in title but leaves out the break in the table of contents.
\part[Up from the bottom; my life]{Up from the bottom\\ my life}
For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table ofcontents, the level number of a part is -1 (see [Sectioning/secnumdepth], page 30, and see[Sectioning/tocdepth], page 31).
In the class article, if a paragraph immediately follows the part title then it is notindented. To get an indent you can use the package indentfirst.
Chapter 6: Sectioning 32
One package to change the behavior of \part is titlesec. See its documentation onCTAN.
6.2 \chapter
Synopsis, one of:
\chapter{title}
\chapter*{title}
\chapter[toc-title]{title}
Start a chapter. The standard LATEX classes book and report have this command butarticle does not.
This produces a chapter.
\chapter{Loomings}
Call me Ishmael.
Some years ago---never mind how long precisely---having little or no
money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I
thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of
the world.
The LATEX default starts each chapter on a fresh page, an odd-numbered page if thedocument is two-sided. It produces a chapter number such as ‘Chapter 1’ in large boldfacetype (the size is \huge). It then puts title on a fresh line, in boldface type that is stilllarger (size \Huge). It also increments the chapter counter, adds an entry to the table ofcontents (see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202), and sets the running headerinformation (see Chapter 18 [Page styles], page 153).
The * form shows title on a fresh line, in boldface. But it does not show the chapternumber, does not increment the chapter counter, produces no table of contents entry, anddoes not affect the running header. (If you use the page style headings in a two-sideddocument then the header will be from the prior chapter.) This example illustrates.
\chapter*{Preamble}
The optional argument toc-title will appear as the chapter title in the table of contents(see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202) and in running headers (see Chapter 18[Page styles], page 153). If it is not present then title will be there. This shows the fullname in the chapter title,
\chapter[Weyl]{Hermann Klaus Hugo (Peter) Weyl (1885--1955)}
but only ‘Weyl’ on the contents page. This puts a line break in the title but that doesn’twork well with running headers so it omits the break in the contents
\chapter[Given it all\\ my story]{Given it all\\ my story}
For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table ofcontents, the level number of a chapter is 0 (see [Sectioning/secnumdepth], page 30, andsee [Sectioning/tocdepth], page 31).
The paragraph that follows the chapter title is not indented, as is a standard typograph-ical practice. To get an indent use the package indentfirst.
Chapter 6: Sectioning 33
You can change what is shown for the chapter number. To change it to something like‘Lecture 1’, put in the preamble either \renewcommand{\chaptername}{Lecture} or this(see Section 12.3 [\makeatletter & \makeatother], page 105).
\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\@chapapp}{Lecture}
\makeatother
To make this change because of the primary language for the document, see the packagebabel.
In a two-sided document LATEX puts a chapter on odd-numbered page, if necessaryleaving an even-numbered page that is blank except for any running headers. To make thatpage completely blank, see Section 10.1 [\clearpage & \cleardoublepage], page 95.
To change the behavior of the \chapter command, you can copy its definition from theLATEX format file and make adjustments. But there are also many packages on CTAN thataddress this. One is titlesec. See its documentation, but the example below gives a senseof what it can do.
\usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
\titleformat{\chapter}
{\Huge\bfseries} % format of title
{} % label, such as 1.2 for a subsection
{0pt} % length of separation between label and title
{} % before-code hook
This omits the chapter number ‘Chapter 1’ from the page but unlike \chapter* it keepsthe chapter in the table of contents and the running headers.
6.3 \section
Synopsis, one of:
\section{title}
\section*{title}
\section[toc-title]{title}
Start a section. The standard LATEX classes article, book, and report all have thiscommand.
This produces a section.
In this Part we tend to be more interested in the function,
in the input-output behavior,
than in the details of implementing that behavior.
\section{Turing machines}
Despite this desire to downplay implementation,
we follow the approach of A~Turing that the
first step toward defining the set of computable functions
is to reflect on the details of what mechanisms can do.
For the standard LATEX classes book and report the default output is like ‘1.2 title’(for chapter 1, section 2), alone on its line and flush left, in boldface and a larger type (the
Chapter 6: Sectioning 34
type size is \Large). The same holds in article except that there are no chapters in thatclass so it looks like ‘2 title’.
The * form shows title. But it does not show the section number, does not incrementthe section counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does not affect the runningheader. (If you use the page style headings in a two-sided document then the header willbe from the prior section.)
The optional argument toc-title will appear as the section title in the table of contents(see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202) and in running headers (see Chapter 18[Page styles], page 153). If it is not present then title will be there. This shows the fullname in the title of the section,
\section[Elizabeth~II]{Elizabeth the Second,
by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom,
Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen,
Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.}
but only ‘Elizabeth II’ on the contents page and in the headers. This has a line break intitle but that does not work with headers so it is omitted from the contents and headers.
\section[Truth is, I cheated; my life story]{Truth is,
I cheated\\my life story}
For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table ofcontents, the level number of a section is 1 (see [Sectioning/secnumdepth], page 30, and see[Sectioning/tocdepth], page 31).
The paragraph that follows the section title is not indented, as is a standard typograph-ical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package indentfirst.
In general, to change the behavior of the \section command, there are a number ofoptions. One is the \@startsection command (see Section 6.8 [\@startsection], page 37).There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including titlesec. See thedocumentation but the example below gives a sense of what they can do.
\usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
\titleformat{\section}
{\normalfont\Large\bfseries} % format of title
{\makebox[1pc][r]{\thesection\hspace{1pc}}} % label
{0pt} % length of separation between label and title
{} % before-code hook
\titlespacing*{\section}
{-1pc}{18pt}{10pt}[10pc]
That puts the section number in the margin.
6.4 \subsection
Synopsis, one of:
\subsection{title}
\subsection*{title}
\subsection[toc-title]{title}
Start a subsection. The standard LATEX classes article, book, and report all have thiscommand.
Chapter 6: Sectioning 35
This produces a subsection.
We will show that there are more functions than Turing machines and that
therefore some functions have no associated machine.
\subsection{Cardinality} We will begin with two paradoxes that
dramatize the challenge to our intuition posed by comparing the sizes of
infinite sets.
For the standard LATEX classes book and report the default output is like ‘1.2.3 title’(for chapter 1, section 2, subsection 3), alone on its line and flush left, in boldface and alarger type (the type size is \large). The same holds in article except that there are nochapters in that class so it looks like ‘2.3 title’.
The * form shows title. But it does not show the section number, does not incrementthe section counter, and produces no table of contents entry.
The optional argument toc-title will appear as the section title in the table of contents(see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202). If it is not present then title will bethere. This shows the full name in the title of the section,
\subsection[$\alpha,\beta,\gamma$ paper]{\textit{The Origin of
Chemical Elements} by R.A.~Alpher, H.~Bethe, and G.~Gamow}
but only ‘α,β,γ paper’ on the contents page.
For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table ofcontents, the level number of a subsection is 2 (see [Sectioning/secnumdepth], page 30, andsee [Sectioning/tocdepth], page 31).
The paragraph that follows the subsection title is not indented, as is a standard typo-graphical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package indentfirst.
There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the \subsection command. Oneis the \@startsection command (see Section 6.8 [\@startsection], page 37). There are alsomany packages on CTAN that address this, including titlesec. See the documentationbut the example below gives a sense of what they can do.
\usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
\titleformat{\subsection}[runin]
{\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries} % format of the title
{\thesubsection} % label
{0.6em} % space between label and title
{} % before-code hook
That puts the subsection number and title in the first line of text.
6.5 \subsubsection, \paragraph, \subparagraph
Synopsis, one of:
\subsubsection{title}
\subsubsection*{title}
\subsubsection[toc-title]{title}
or one of:
\paragraph{title}
Chapter 6: Sectioning 36
\paragraph*{title}
\paragraph[toc-title]{title}
or one of:
\subparagraph{title}
\subparagraph*{title}
\subparagraph[toc-title]{title}
Start a subsubsection, paragraph, or subparagraph. The standard LATEX classesarticle, book, and report all have these commands, although they are not commonlyused.
This produces a subsubsection.
\subsubsection{Piston ring compressors: structural performance}
Provide exterior/interior wall cladding assemblies
capable of withstanding the effects of load and stresses from
consumer-grade gasoline engine piston rings.
The default output of each of the three does not change over the standard LATEX classesarticle, book, and report. For \subsubsection the title is alone on its line, in boldfaceand normal size type. For \paragraph the title is inline with the text, not indented, inboldface and normal size type. For \subparagraph the title is inline with the text, with aparagraph indent, in boldface and normal size type (Because an article has no chapters itssubsubsections are numbered and so it looks like ‘1.2.3 title’, for section 1, subsection 2,and subsubsection 3. The other two divisions are not numbered.)
The * form shows title. But it does not increment the associated counter and producesno table of contents entry (and does not show the number for \subsubsection).
The optional argument toc-title will appear as the division title in the table of contents(see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202). If it is not present then title will bethere.
For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in the table ofcontents, the level number of a subsubsection is 3, of a paragraph is 4, and of a subparagraphis 5 (see [Sectioning/secnumdepth], page 30, and see [Sectioning/tocdepth], page 31).
The paragraph that follows the subsubsection title is not indented, as is a standardtypographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the package indentfirst.
There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the these commands. One isthe \@startsection command (see Section 6.8 [\@startsection], page 37). There are alsomany packages on CTAN that address this, including titlesec. See the documentation onCTAN.
6.6 \appendix
Synopsis:
\appendix
This does not directly produce any output. But in a book or report it declares thatsubsequent \chapter commands start an appendix. In an article it does the same, for\section commands. It also resets the chapter and section counters to 0 in a book orreport, and in an article resets the section and subsection counters.
Chapter 6: Sectioning 37
In this book
\chapter{One} ...
\chapter{Two} ...
...
\appendix
\chapter{Three} ...
\chapter{Four} ...
the first two will generate output numbered ‘Chapter 1’ and ‘Chapter 2’. After the\appendix the numbering will be ‘Appendix A’ and ‘Appendix B’. See Section A.4 [Largerbook template], page 225, for another example.
The appendix package adds the command \appendixpage to put a separate‘Appendices’ in the document body before the first appendix, and the command\addappheadtotoc to do the same in the table of contents. You can reset the name‘Appendix’ with a command like \renewcommand{\appendixname}{Specification}, aswell as a number of other features. See the documentation on CTAN.
6.7 \frontmatter, \mainmatter, \backmatter
Synopsis, one of:
\frontmatter
\mainmatter
\backmatter
Format a book class document differently according to which part of the document isbeing produced. All three commands are optional.
Traditionally, a book’s front matter contains such things as the title page, an abstract,a table of contents, a preface, a list of notations, a list of figures, and a list of tables. (Someof these front matter pages, such as the title page, are traditionally not numbered.) Theback matter may contain such things as a glossary, notes, a bibliography, and an index.
The \frontmatter declaration makes the pages numbered in lowercase roman, andmakes chapters not numbered, although each chapter’s title appears in the table of contents;if you use other sectioning commands here, use the *-version (see Chapter 6 [Sectioning],page 30). The \mainmatter changes the behavior back to the expected version, and resetsthe page number. The \backmatter leaves the page numbering alone but switches thechapters back to being not numbered. See Section A.4 [Larger book template], page 225,for an example using the three.
6.8 \@startsection
Synopsis:
\@startsection{name}{level}{indent}{beforeskip}{afterskip}{style}
Used to help redefine the behavior of commands that start sectioning divisions such as\section or \subsection.
Note that the titlesec package makes manipulation of sectioning easier. Further,while most requirements for sectioning commands can be satisfied with \@startsection,some cannot. For instance, in the standard LATEX book and report classes the commands
Chapter 6: Sectioning 38
\chapter and \report are not constructed in this way. To make such a command you maywant to use the \secdef command.
Technically, \@startsection has the form
\@startsection{name}
{level}
{indent}
{beforeskip}
{afterskip}
{style}*[toctitle]{title}
so that issuing
\renewcommand{\section}{\@startsection{name}
{level}
{indent}
{beforeskip}
{afterskip}
{style}}
redefines \section to have the form \section*[toctitle]{title} (here too, the star *
is optional). See Chapter 6 [Sectioning], page 30. This implies that when you write acommand like \renewcommand{section}{...}, the \@startsection{...} must come lastin the definition. See the examples below.
name Name of the counter used to number the sectioning header. This counter mustbe defined separately. Most commonly this is either section, subsection,or paragraph. Although in those cases the counter name is the same as thesectioning command itself, you don’t have to use the same name.
Then \thename displays the title number and \namemark is for the page head-ers. See the third example below.
level An integer giving the depth of the sectioning command. See Chapter 6 [Sec-tioning], page 30, for the list of standard level numbers.
If level is less than or equal to the value of the counter secnumdepth then titlesfor this sectioning command will be numbered (see [Sectioning/secnumdepth],page 30). For instance, if secnumdepth is 1 in an article then the command\section{Introduction} will produce output like “1 Introduction” while\subsection{Discussion} will produce output like “Discussion”, without thenumber prefix.
If level is less than or equal to the value of the counter tocdepth then the tableof contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit (see [Sectioning/tocdepth],page 31). For instance, in an article, if tocdepth is 1 then the table of contentswill list sections but not subsections.
indent A length giving the indentation of all of the title lines with respect to the leftmargin. To have the title flush with the margin use 0pt. A negative indentationsuch as -\parindent will move the title into the left margin.
beforeskip The absolute value of this length is the amount of vertical space that is insertedbefore this sectioning unit’s title. This space will be discarded if the sectioning
Chapter 6: Sectioning 39
unit happens to start at the top of a fresh page. If this number is negative thenthe first paragraph following the header is not indented, if it is non-negativethen the first paragraph is indented. (Note that the negative of 1pt plus 2pt
minus 3pt is -1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt.)
For example, if beforeskip is -3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex then to start thenew sectioning unit, LATEX will add about 3.5 times the height of a letter x invertical space, and the first paragraph in the section will not be indented. Usinga rubber length, with plus and minus, is good practice here since it gives LATEXmore flexibility in making up the page (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120).
The full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the line priorto this sectioning unit’s header and the baseline of the header is that it is thesum of the \parskip of the text font, the \baselineskip of the title font, andthe absolute value of the beforeskip. This space is typically rubber so it maystretch or shrink. (If the sectioning unit starts on a fresh page so that thevertical space is discarded then the baseline of the header text will be whereLATEX would put the baseline of the first text line on that page.)
afterskip This is a length. If afterskip is non-negative then this is the vertical spaceinserted after the sectioning unit’s title header. If it is negative then the titleheader becomes a run-in header, so that it becomes part of the next paragraph.In this case the absolute value of the length gives the horizontal space betweenthe end of the title and the beginning of the following paragraph. (Note thatthe negative of 1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt is -1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt.)
As with beforeskip, using a rubber length, with plus and minus components,is good practice here since it gives LATEX more flexibility in putting togetherthe page.
If afterskip is non-negative then the full accounting of the vertical spacebetween the baseline of the sectioning unit’s header and the baseline of the firstline of the following paragraph is that it is the sum of the \parskip of the titlefont, the \baselineskip of the text font, and the value of after. That spaceis typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (Note that because the sign ofafterskip changes the sectioning unit header’s from standalone to run-in, youcannot use a negative afterskip to cancel part of the \parskip.)
style Controls the styling of the title. See the examples below. Typical commands touse here are \centering, \raggedright, \normalfont, \hrule, or \newpage.The last command in style may be one that takes one argument, such as\MakeUppercase or \fbox that takes one argument. The section title willbe supplied as the argument to this command. For instance, setting style to\bfseries\MakeUppercase would produce titles that are bold and uppercase.
These are LATEX’s defaults for the first three sectioning units that are defined with\@startsection, for the article, book, and report classes. For section, the level is 1,the indent is 0 pt, the beforeskip is -3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex, the afterskip is 2.3explus 0.2ex, and the style is \normalfont\Large\bfseries. For subsection, the level is 2,the indent is 0 pt, the beforeskip is -3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex, the afterskip is 1.5explus 0.2ex, and the style is \normalfont\large\bfseries. For subsubsection, the level
Chapter 6: Sectioning 40
is 3, the indent is 0 pt, the beforeskip is -3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex, the afterskip is1.5ex plus 0.2ex, and the style is \normalfont\normalsize\bfseries.
Here are examples. They go either in a package or class file or in the preambleof a LATEX document. If you put them in the preamble they must go between a\makeatletter command and a \makeatother. (Probably the error message You can’t
use ‘\spacefactor’ in vertical mode. means that you forgot this.) See Section 12.3[\makeatletter & \makeatother], page 105.
This will put section titles in large boldface type, centered. It says \renewcommand
because LATEX’s standard classes have already defined a \section. For the same reason itdoes not define a section counter, or the commands \thesection and \l@section.
\renewcommand\section{%
\@startsection{section}% [name], page 38
{1}% [level], page 38
{0pt}% [indent], page 38
{-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -.2ex}% [beforeskip], page 38
{2.3ex plus.2ex}% [afterskip], page 39
{\centering\normalfont\Large\bfseries}% [style], page 39
}
This will put subsection titles in small caps type, inline with the paragraph.
\renewcommand\subsection{%
\@startsection{subsection}% [name], page 38
{2}% [level], page 38
{0em}% [indent], page 38
{-1ex plus 0.1ex minus -0.05ex}% [beforeskip], page 38
{-1em plus 0.2em}% [afterskip], page 39
{\scshape}% [style], page 39
}
The prior examples redefined existing sectional unit title commands. This defines a newone, illustrating the needed counter and macros to display that counter.
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{6}% show counters this far down
\newcounter{subsubparagraph}[subparagraph]% counter for numbering
\renewcommand{\thesubsubparagraph}% how to display
{\thesubparagraph.\@arabic\c@subsubparagraph}% numbering
\newcommand{\subsubparagraph}{\@startsection
{subsubparagraph}%
{6}%
{0em}%
{\baselineskip}%
{0.5\baselineskip}%
{\normalfont\normalsize}}
\newcommand*\l@subsubparagraph{\@dottedtocline{6}{10em}{5em}}% for toc
\newcommand{\subsubparagraphmark}[1]{}% for page headers
41
7 Cross references
We often want something like ‘See Theorem~31’. But by-hand typing the 31 is poor practice.Instead you should write a label such as \label{eq:GreensThm} and then reference it, aswith See equation~\ref{eq:GreensThm}. LATEX will automatically work out the number,put it into the output, and will change that number later if needed.
We will see this with Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm}. % forward reference
...
\begin{theorem} \label{th:GreensThm}
...
\end{theorem}
...
See Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm} on page~\pageref{th:GreensThm}.
LATEX tracks cross reference information in a file having the extension .aux and with thesame base name as the file containing the \label. So if \label is in calculus.tex thenthe information is in calculus.aux. LATEX puts the information in that file every time itruns across a \label.
The behavior described in the prior paragraph results in a quirk that happens when yourdocument has a forward reference, a \ref that appears before the associated \label. If thisis the first time that you are compiling the document then you will get ‘LaTeX Warning:
Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross references right’ and in the outputthe forward reference will appear as two question marks ‘??’, in boldface. A similar thinghappens if you change some things so the references changes; you get the same warning andthe output contains the old reference information. In both cases, resolve this by compilingthe document a second time.
The cleveref package enhances LATEX’s cross referencing features. You can arrangethat if you enter \begin{thm}\label{th:Nerode}...\end{thm} then \cref{th:Nerode}
will output ‘Theorem 3.21’, without you having to enter the “Theorem.”
7.1 \label
Synopsis:
\label{key}
Assign a reference number to key. In ordinary text \label{key} assigns to key thenumber of the current sectional unit. Inside an environment with numbering, such as atable or theorem environment, \label{key} assigns to key the number of that environ-ment. Retrieve the assigned number with the \ref{key} command (see Section 7.3 [\ref],page 42).
A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common punctuation char-acters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual.
A common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated bya colon or period. Thus, \label{fig:Post} is a label for a figure with a portrait of EmilPost. This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, and makesyour source more readable. Some commonly-used prefixes:
ch for chapters
Chapter 7: Cross references 42
sec
subsec for lower-level sectioning commands
fig for figures
tab for tables
eq for equations
In the auxiliary file the reference information is kept as the text of a command ofthe form \newlabel{label}{{currentlabel}{pagenumber}}. Here currentlabel is thecurrent value of the macro \@currentlabel that is usually updated whenever you call\refstepcounter{counter}.
Below, the key sec:test will get the number of the current section and the key fig:test
will get the number of the figure. (Incidentally, put labels after captions in figures andtables.)
\section{section name}
\label{sec:test}
This is Section~\ref{sec:test}.
\begin{figure}
...
\caption{caption text}
\label{fig:test}
\end{figure}
See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.
7.2 \pageref
Synopsis:
\pageref{key}
Produce the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding \label{key}command appears.
If there is no \label{key} then you get something like ‘LaTeX Warning: Reference
‘th:GrensThm’ on page 1 undefined on input line 11.’
Below, the \label{eq:main} is used both for the formula number and for the pagenumber. (Note that the two references are forward references so this document would needto be compiled twice to resolve those.)
The main result is formula~\ref{eq:main} on page~\pageref{eq:main}.
...
\begin{equation} \label{eq:main}
\mathbf{P}=\mathbf{NP}
\end{equation}
7.3 \ref
Synopsis:
\ref{key}
Chapter 7: Cross references 43
Produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, . . . , of the cor-responding \label command (see Section 7.1 [\label], page 41). It does not produce anytext, such as the word ‘Section’ or ‘Figure’, just the bare number itself.
If there is no \label{key} then you get something like ‘LaTeX Warning: Reference
‘th:GrensThm’ on page 1 undefined on input line 11.’
In this example the \ref{popular} produces ‘2’. Note that it is a forward referencesince it comes before \label{popular} so this document would have to be compiled twice.
The most widely-used format is item number~\ref{popular}.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Plain \TeX
\item \label{popular} \LaTeX
\item Con\TeX t
\end{enumerate}
The cleveref package includes text such as ‘Theorem’ in the reference. See the docu-mentation on CTAN.
44
8 Environments
LATEX provides many environments for delimiting certain behavior. An environment beginswith \begin and ends with \end, like this:
\begin{environment-name}
...
\end{environment-name}
The environment-name at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. Forinstance, the input \begin{table*}...\end{table} will cause an error like: ‘! LaTeX
Error: \begin{table*} on input line 5 ended by \end{table}.’
Environments are executed within a group.
8.1 abstract
Synopsis:
\begin{abstract}
...
\end{abstract}
Produce an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. This environment is only definedin the article and report document classes (see Chapter 3 [Document classes], page 7).
Using the example below in the article class produces a displayed paragraph. Docu-ment class option titlepage causes the abstract to be on a separate page (see Section 3.1[Document class options], page 7); this is the default only in the report class.
\begin{abstract}
We compare all known accounts of the proposal made by Porter Alexander
to Robert E Lee at the Appomattox Court House that the army continue
in a guerrilla war, which Lee refused.
\end{abstract}
The next example produces a one column abstract in a two column document (for amore flexible solution, use the package abstract).
\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
...
\begin{document}
\title{Babe Ruth as Cultural Progenitor: a Atavistic Approach}
\author{Smith \\ Jones \\ Robinson\thanks{Railroad tracking grant.}}
\twocolumn[
\begin{@twocolumnfalse}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
Ruth was not just the Sultan of Swat, he was the entire swat
team.
\end{abstract}
\end{@twocolumnfalse}
]
{ % by-hand insert a footnote at page bottom
Chapter 8: Environments 45
\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
\footnotetext[1]{Thanks for all the fish.}
}
8.2 array
Synopsis:
\begin{array}{cols}
column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
...
\end{array}
or:
\begin{array}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
...
\end{array}
Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in math mode,and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment such as equation (seeSection 8.9 [equation], page 51). Inside of each row the column entries are separated byan ampersand, (&). Rows are terminated with double-backslashes (see Section 9.1 [\\],page 90).
This example shows a three by three array.
\begin{equation*}
\chi(x) =
\left| % vertical bar fence
\begin{array}{ccc}
x-a &-b &-c \\
-d &x-e &-f \\
-g &-h &x-i
\end{array}
\right|
\end{equation*}
The required argument cols describes the number of columns, their alignment, and theformatting of the intercolumn regions. For instance, \begin{array}{rcl}...\end{array}gives three columns: the first flush right, the second centered, and the third flush left. SeeSection 8.23 [tabular], page 77, for the complete description of cols and of the other commonfeatures of the two environments, including the optional pos argument.
There are two ways that array diverges from tabular. The first is that array entriesare typeset in math mode, in textstyle (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151) except if thecols definition specifies the column with p{...}, which causes the entry to be typesetin text mode. The second is that, instead of tabular’s parameter \tabcolsep, LATEX’sintercolumn space in an array is governed by \arraycolsep, which gives half the widthbetween columns. The default for this is ‘5pt’ so that between two columns comes 10 pt ofspace.
To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the amsmath package. It comeswith environments pmatrix for an array surrounded by parentheses (...), bmatrix for
Chapter 8: Environments 46
an array surrounded by square brackets [...], Bmatrix for an array surrounded by curlybraces {...}, vmatrix for an array surrounded by vertical bars |...|, and Vmatrix foran array surrounded by double vertical bars ||...||, along with a number of other arrayconstructs.
The next example uses the amsmath package.
\usepackage{amsmath} % in preamble
\begin{equation}
\begin{vmatrix}{cc} % array with vert lines
a &b \\
c &d
\end{vmatrix}=ad-bc
\end{equation}
There are many packages concerning arrays. The array package has many useful exten-sions, including more column types. The dcolumn package adds a column type to center ona decimal point. For both see the documentation on CTAN.
8.3 center
Synopsis:
\begin{center}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{center}
Create a new paragraph consisting of a sequence of lines that are centered within theleft and right margins. Use double-backslash, \\, to get a line break (see Section 9.1 [\\],page 90). If some text is too long to fit on a line then LATEX will insert line breaks thatavoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any interword space.
This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See Section 8.3.1 [\cen-tering], page 47, to avoid such space, for example inside a figure environment.
This example produces three centered lines. There is extra vertical space between thelast two lines.
\begin{center}
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\
of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex]
the School of Environmental Engineering
\end{center}
In this example, depending on the page’s line width, LATEX may choose a line break forthe part before the double backslash. If so, it will center each of the two lines and if not itwill center the single line. Then LATEX will break at the double backslash, and will centerthe ending.
\begin{center}
My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn’t drink
alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\
Chapter 8: Environments 47
I grew up in that belief. --Richard Burton
\end{center}
A double backslash after the final line is optional. If present it doesn’t add any verticalspace.
In a two-column document the text is centered in a column, not in the entire page.
8.3.1 \centering
Synopsis:
{\centering ... }
or
\begin{group}
\centering ...
\end{group}
Center the material in its scope. It is most often used inside an environment such asfigure, or in a parbox.
This example’s \centering declaration causes the graphic to be horizontally centered.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png}
\caption{CTAN Lion} \label{fig:CTANLion}
\end{figure}
The scope of this \centering ends with the \end{figure}.
Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not add vertical spaceabove and below the text. That’s its advantage in the above example; there is not an excessof space.
It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LATEX formats paragraphunits. If ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz is surrounded by blank lines then LATEX will createa paragraph whose first line ‘ww xx’ is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains‘yy zz’. Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a blank lineor the \end command of an environment such as figure or table that ends the paragraphunit. Thus, if {\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz is surrounded by blank lines then it makesa new paragraph with two centered lines ‘xx’ and ‘yy’, followed by a new paragraph with‘zz’ that is formatted as usual.
8.4 description
Synopsis:
\begin{description}
\item[label of first item] text of first item
\item[label of second item] text of second item
...
\end{description}
Environment to make a list of labeled items. Each item’s label is typeset in bold andis flush left, so that long labels continue into the first line of the item text. There must
Chapter 8: Environments 48
be at least one item; having none causes the LATEX error ‘Something’s wrong--perhaps a
missing \item’.
This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions.
\begin{definition}
\item[lama] A priest.
\item[llama] A beast.
\end{definition}
The labels ‘lama’ and ‘llama’ are output in boldface, with the left edge on the left margin.
Start list items with the \item command (see Section 8.16.1 [\item], page 61). Use theoptional labels, as in \item[Main point], because there is no sensible default. Followingthe \item is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs.
Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font change given in argumentstyle (see Section 4.1 [Font styles], page 16) then it will come out bold. For instance, ifthe label text calls for typewriter with \item[\texttt{label text}] then it will appearin bold typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way around this, in this example toget non-bold typewriter, is to use declarative style: \item[{\tt label text}]. Similarly,get the standard roman font with \item[{\rm label text}].
For other major LATEX labelled list environments, see Section 8.14 [itemize], page 55,and Section 8.7 [enumerate], page 49. Unlike those environments, nesting description
environments does not change the default label; it is boldface and flush left at all levels.
For information about list layout parameters, including the default values, and for infor-mation about customizing list layout, see Section 8.16 [list], page 57. The package enumitemis useful for customizing lists.
This example changes the description labels to small caps.
\renewcommand{\descriptionlabel}[1]{%
{\hspace{\labelsep}\textsc{#1}}}
8.5 displaymath
Synopsis:
\begin{displaymath}
mathematical text
\end{displaymath}
Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display style and centered. Tomake the text be flush-left use the global option fleqn; see Section 3.1 [Document classoptions], page 7.
In the displaymath environment no equation number is added to the math text. Oneway to get an equation number is to use the equation environment (see Section 8.9 [equa-tion], page 51).
LATEX will not break the math text across lines.
Note that the amsmath package has significantly more extensive displayed equation facil-ities. For example, there are a number of ways in that package for having math text brokenacross lines.
Chapter 8: Environments 49
The construct \[math text\] is essentially a synonym for \begin{displaymath}math
text\end{displaymath} but the latter is easier to work with in the source file; for instance,searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word displaymath will likelybe unique. (The construct $$math text$$ from Plain TEX is sometimes mistakenly used asa synonym for displaymath. It is not a synonym, because the displaymath environmentchecks that it isn’t started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by thematching environment start, because the displaymath environment has different verticalspacing, and because the displaymath environment honors the fleqn option.)
The output from this example is centered and alone on its line.
\begin{displaymath}
\int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3
\end{displaymath}
Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version \( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \) pro-duces.
8.6 document
The document environment encloses the entire body of a document. It is required in everyLATEX document. See Section 2.1 [Starting and ending], page 3.
8.6.1 \AtBeginDocument
Synopsis:
\AtBeginDocument{code}
Save code and execute it when \begin{document} is executed, at the very end of thepreamble. The code is executed after the font selection tables have been set up, so thenormal font for the document is the current font. However, the code is executed as part ofthe preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it.
You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executedin the order that you gave them.
8.6.2 \AtEndDocument
Synopsis:
\AtEndDocument{code}
Save code and execute it near the end of the document. Specifically, it is executed when\end{document} is executed, before the final page is finished and before any leftover floatingenvironments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed after these twoprocesses then include a \clearpage at the appropriate point in code.
You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executedin the order that you gave them.
8.7 enumerate
Synopsis:
\begin{enumerate}
\item[optional label of first item] text of first item
Chapter 8: Environments 50
\item[optional label of second item] text of second item
...
\end{enumerate}
Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the label numberingdepends on the nesting level of this environment; see below. The default top-level numberingis ‘1.’, ‘2.’, etc. Each enumerate list environment must have at least one item; having nonecauses the LATEX error ‘Something’s wrong--perhaps a missing \item’.
This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon. As a top-levellist the labels would come out as ‘1.’ and ‘2.’.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Johnny Hayes (USA)
\item Charles Hefferon (RSA)
\end{enumerate}
Start list items with the \item command (see Section 8.16.1 [\item], page 61). If you give\item an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in \item[Interstitial
label], then the next item will continue the interrupted sequence (see Section 8.16.1 [\item],page 61). That is, you will get labels like ‘1.’, then ‘Interstitial label’, then ‘2.’.Following the \item is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs.
Enumerations may be nested within other enumerate environments, or within anyparagraph-making environment such as itemize (see Section 8.14 [itemize], page 55), upto four levels deep. This gives LATEX’s default for the format at each nesting level, where 1is the top level, the outermost level.
1. arabic number followed by a period: ‘1.’, ‘2.’, . . .
2. lowercase letter inside parentheses: ‘(a)’, ‘(b)’ . . .
3. lowercase roman numeral followed by a period: ‘i.’, ‘ii.’, . . .
4. uppercase letter followed by a period: ‘A.’, ‘B.’, . . .
The enumerate environment uses the counters \enumi through \enumiv (see Chapter 13[Counters], page 116).
For other major LATEX labeled list environments, see Section 8.4 [description], page 47,and Section 8.14 [itemize], page 55. For information about list layout parameters, includingthe default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see Section 8.16 [list],page 57. The package enumitem is useful for customizing lists.
To change the format of the label use \renewcommand (see Section 12.1 [\newcommand& \renewcommand], page 103) on the commands \labelenumi through \labelenumiv. Forinstance, this first level list will be labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and withouta trailing period.
\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Shows as boldface A
\item Shows as boldface B
\end{enumerate}
For a list of counter-labeling commands see Section 13.1 [\alph \Alph \arabic \roman\Roman \fnsymbol], page 116.
Chapter 8: Environments 51
8.8 eqnarray
The eqnarray environment is obsolete. It has infelicities, including spacing that is in-consistent with other mathematics elements. (See “Avoid eqnarray!” by Lars Madsenhttp://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf). New documents should includethe amsmath package and use the displayed mathematics environments provided there, suchas the align environment. We include a description only for completeness and for workingwith old documents.
Synopsis:
\begin{eqnarray}
first formula left &first formula middle &first formula right \\
...
\end{eqnarray}
or
\begin{eqnarray*}
first formula left &first formula middle &first formula right \\
...
\end{eqnarray*}
Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right sides are typeset indisplay mode, while the middle is typeset in text mode.
It is similar to a three-column array environment, with items within a row separatedby an ampersand (&), and with rows separated by double backslash \\). The starred formof line break (\\*) can also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page breakthere (see Section 9.1 [\\], page 90).
The unstarred form eqnarray places an equation number on every line (using theequation counter), unless that line contains a \nonumber command. The starred formeqnarray* omits equation numbering, while otherwise being the same.
The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets itsargument in display style flush left in a box of zero width.
This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an inequality, while the thirdline has not entry on the left side.
\begin{eqnarray*}
\lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n} \\
&\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n \\
&= &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n
\end{eqnarray*}
8.9 equation
Synopsis:
\begin{equation}
mathematical text
\end{equation}
The same as a displaymath environment (see Section 8.5 [displaymath], page 48) exceptthat LATEX puts an equation number flush to the right margin. The equation number isgenerated using the equation counter.
Chapter 8: Environments 52
You should have no blank lines between \begin{equation} and \begin{equation}, orLATEX will tell you that there is a missing dollar sign.
The package amsmath package has extensive displayed equation facilities. New docu-ments should include this package.
8.10 figure
Synopsis:
\begin{figure}[placement]
figure body
\caption[loftitle]{title} % optional
\label{label} % optional
\end{figure}
or:
\begin{figure*}[placement]
figure body
\caption[loftitle]{title} % optional
\label{label} % optional
\end{figure*}
Figures are for material that is not part of the normal text. An example is material thatyou cannot have split between two pages, such as a graphic. Because of this, LATEX doesnot typeset figures in sequence with normal text but instead “floats” them to a convenientplace, such as the top of a following page (see Section 5.6 [Floats], page 26).
The figure body can consist of imported graphics (see Chapter 22 [Graphics], page 179),or text, LATEX commands, etc. It is typeset in a parbox of width \textwidth.
The possible values of placement are h for ‘here’, t for ‘top’, b for ‘bottom’, and p
for ‘on a separate page of floats’. For the effect of these options on the float placementalgorithm, see Section 5.6 [Floats], page 26.
The starred form figure* is used when a document is in double-column mode (seeSection 5.2 [\twocolumn], page 22). It produces a figure that spans both columns, at thetop of the page. To add the possibility of placing at a page bottom see the discussion ofplacement b in Section 5.6 [Floats], page 26.
The label is optional; it is used for cross references (see Chapter 7 [Cross references],page 41). The optional \caption command specifies caption text for the figure. By defaultit is numbered. If loftitle is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of title (seeSection 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202).
This example makes a figure out of a graphic. LATEX will place that graphic and itscaption at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the document, on a page offloats.
\usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble
...
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png}
\caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby}
Chapter 8: Environments 53
\end{figure}
8.11 filecontents: Write an external file
Synopsis:
\begin{filecontents}{filename}
text
\end{filecontents}
or
\begin{filecontents*}{filename}
text
\end{filecontents*}
Create a file named filename and fill it with text. The unstarred version of the environ-ment filecontents prefixes the content of the created file with a header; see the examplebelow. The starred version filecontents* does not include the header.
This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often appearsbefore the \documentclass command. It is typically used when a source file requiresa nonstandard style or class file. The environment will write that file to the directorycontaining the source and thus make the source file self-contained. Another use is to includebib references in the file, again to make it self-contained.
The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and if so, does not doanything. There is a filecontents package that redefines the filecontents environmentso that instead of doing nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file.
For example, this document
\documentclass{article}
\begin{filecontents}{JH.sty}
\newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
\end{filecontents}
\usepackage{JH}
\begin{document}
Article by \myname.
\end{document}
produces this file JH.sty.
%% LaTeX2e file ‘JH.sty’
%% generated by the ‘filecontents’ environment
%% from source ‘test’ on 2015/10/12.
%%
\newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
8.12 flushleft
Synopsis:
\begin{flushleft}
line1 \\
line2 \\
Chapter 8: Environments 54
...
\end{flushleft}
An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the left-hand margin,and ragged right. If you have lines that are too long then LATEX will linebreak them in away that avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking spaces. To force a new line use adouble backslash, \\. For the declaration form see Section 8.12.1 [\raggedright], page 54.
This creates a box of text that is at most 3 inches wide, with the text flush left andragged right.
\noindent\begin{minipage}{3in}
\begin{flushleft}
A long sentence that will be broken by \LaTeX{}
at a convenient spot. \\
And, a fresh line forced by the double backslash.
\end{flushleft}
\end{minipage}
8.12.1 \raggedright
Synopses:
{\raggedright ... }
or
\begin{environment} \raggedright
...
\end{environment}
A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the left margin and ragged right. It canbe used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. For the environment formsee Section 8.12 [flushleft], page 53.
Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command does not start a newparagraph; it only changes how LATEX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’sformat, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command that endsthe paragraph unit.
Here \raggedright in each second column keeps LATEX from doing very awkward type-setting to fit the text into the narrow column. Note that \raggedright is inside the curlybraces {...} to delimit its effect.
\begin{tabular}{rp{2in}}
Team alpha &{\raggedright This team does all the real work.} \\
Team beta &{\raggedright This team ensures that the water
cooler is never empty.} \\
\end{tabular}
8.13 flushright
\begin{flushright}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
Chapter 8: Environments 55
\end{flushright}
An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the right-hand marginand ragged left. If you have lines that are too long to fit the margins then LATEX willlinebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking spaces. Toforce a new line use a double backslash, \\. For the declaration form see Section 8.13.1[\raggedleft], page 55.
For an example related to this environment, see Section 8.12 [flushleft], page 53.
8.13.1 \raggedleft
Synopses:
{\raggedleft ... }
or
\begin{environment} \raggedleft
...
\end{environment}
A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the right margin and ragged left. It canbe used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. For the environment formsee Section 8.13 [flushright], page 54.
Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command does not start a newparagraph; it only changes how LATEX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’sformat, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command that endsthe paragraph unit.
For an example related to this environment, see Section 8.12.1 [\raggedright], page 54.
8.14 itemize
Synopsis:
\begin{itemize}
\item[optional label of first item] text of first item
\item[optional label of second item] text of second item
...
\end{itemize}
Produce a list that is unordered, sometimes called a bullet list. The environment musthave at least one \item; having none causes the LATEX error ‘Something’s wrong--perhaps
a missing \item’.
This gives a two-item list.
\begin{itemize}
\item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra
\item Rice portrait
\end{itemize}
As a top-level list each label would come out as a bullet, •. The format of the labelingdepends on the nesting level; see below.
Start list items with the \item command (see Section 8.16.1 [\item], page 61). If yougive \item an optional argument by following it with square brackets, as in \item[Optional
Chapter 8: Environments 56
label], then by default it will appear in bold and be flush right, so it could extend intothe left margin. For labels that are flush left see the Section 8.4 [description], page 47,environment. Following the \item is optional text, which may contain multiple paragraphs.
Itemized lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also benested within other paragraph-making environments, such as enumerate (see Section 8.7[enumerate], page 49). The itemize environment uses the commands \labelitemi through\labelitemiv to produce the default label (this also uses the convention of lowercase romannumerals at the end of the command names that signify the nesting level). These are thedefault marks at each level.
1. • (bullet, from \textbullet)
2. -- (bold en-dash, from \normalfont\bfseries\textendash)
3. * (asterisk, from \textasteriskcentered)
4. · (centered dot, from \textperiodcentered)
Change the labels with \renewcommand. For instance, this makes the first level usediamonds.
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin ofthe itemize list is determined by the parameters \leftmargini through \leftmarginvi.(Note the convention of using lowercase roman numerals a the end of the command nameto denote the nesting level.) The defaults are: 2.5em in level 1 (2em in two-column mode),2.2em in level 2, 1.87em in level 3, and 1.7em in level 4, with smaller values for more deeplynested levels.
For other major LATEX labeled list environments, see Section 8.4 [description], page 47,and Section 8.7 [enumerate], page 49. For information about list layout parameters, includ-ing the default values, and for information about customizing list layout, see Section 8.16[list], page 57. The package enumitem is useful for customizing lists.
This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized lists.
\setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items.Here is an example defining an itemize* environment with no extra spacing between items,or between paragraphs within a single item (\parskip is not list-specific, see Section 15.3[\parindent & \parskip], page 127):
\newenvironment{itemize*}%
{\begin{itemize}%
\setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
\setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
{\end{itemize}}
8.15 letter environment: writing letters
This environment is used for creating letters. See Chapter 26 [Letters], page 213.
Chapter 8: Environments 57
8.16 list
Synopsis:
\begin{list}{labeling}{spacing}
\item[optional label of first item] text of first item
\item[optional label of second item] text of second item
...
\end{list}
An environment for constructing lists.
Note that this environment does not typically appear in the document body. Most listscreated by LATEX authors are the ones that come standard: the description, enumerate,and itemize environments (see Section 8.4 [description], page 47, Section 8.7 [enumerate],page 49, and Section 8.14 [itemize], page 55).
Instead, the list environment is most often used in macros. For example, many standardLATEX environments that do not immediately appear to be lists are in fact constructedusing list, including quotation, quote, and center (see Section 8.20 [quotation & quote],page 73, see Section 8.3 [center], page 46).
This uses the list environment to define a new custom environment.
\newcounter{namedlistcounter} % number the items
\newenvironment{named}
{\begin{list}
{Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling
{\usecounter{namedlistcounter} % set counter
\setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % set spacing
}
{\end{list}}
\begin{named}
\item Shows as ‘‘Item~I.’’
\item[Special label.] Shows as ‘‘Special label.’’
\item Shows as ‘‘Item~II.’’
\end{named}
The mandatory first argument labeling specifies the default labeling of list items.It can contain text and LATEX commands, as above where it contains both ‘Item’ and‘\Roman{...}’. LATEX forms the label by putting the labeling argument in a box of width\labelwidth. If the label is wider than that, the additional material extends to the right.When making an instance of a list you can override the default labeling by giving \item anoptional argument by including square braces and the text, as in the above \item[Special
label.]; see Section 8.16.1 [\item], page 61.
The mandatory second argument spacing has a list of commands. This list can beempty. A command that can go in here is \usecounter{countername} (see Section 13.2[\usecounter], page 117). Use this to tell LATEX to number the items using the given counter.The counter will be reset to zero each time LATEX enters the environment, and the counteris incremented by one each time LATEX encounters an \item that does not have an optionalargument.
Chapter 8: Environments 58
Another command that can go in spacing is \makelabel, which constructs the la-bel box. By default it puts the contents flush right. Its only argument is the label,which it typesets in LR mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151). One example ofchanging its definition is that to the above named example, before the definition of theenvironment add \newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}, and between the\setlength command and the parenthesis that closes the spacing argument also add\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel. Then the items will be typeset in small caps. Sim-ilarly, changing the second code line to \let\makelabel\fbox puts the labels inside aframed box. Another example of the \makelabel command is below, in the definition ofthe redlabel environment.
Also often in spacing are commands to redefine the spacing for the list. Below are thespacing parameters with their default values. (Default values for derived environments suchas itemize can be different than the values shown here.) See also the figure that follows thelist. Each is a length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). The vertical spaces are normallyrubber lengths, with plus and minus components, to give TEX flexibility in setting the page.Change each with a command such as \setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}. Forsome effects these lengths should be zero or negative.
\itemindent
Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond leftmargin, of the first line eachitem. Its default value is 0pt.
\itemsep Vertical space between items, beyond the \parsep. The defaults for the firstthree levels in LATEX’s ‘article’, ‘book’, and ‘report’ classes at 10 pointsize are: 4pt plus2pt minus1pt, \parsep (that is, 2pt plus1pt minus1pt),and \topsep (that is, 2pt plus1pt minus1pt). The defaults at 11 pointare: 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt, \parsep (that is, 2pt plus1pt minus1pt),and topsep (that is, 2pt plus1pt minus1pt). The defaults at 12 point are:5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt, \parsep (that is, 2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt), and\topsep (that is, 2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt).
\labelsep
Horizontal space between the label and text of an item. The default for LATEX’s‘article’, ‘book’, and ‘report’ classes is 0.5em.
\labelwidth
Horizontal width. The box containing the label is nominally this wide. If\makelabel returns text that is wider than this then the first line of the itemwill be indented to make room for this extra material. If \makelabel returnstext of width less than or equal to \labelwidth then LATEX’s default is thatthe label is typeset flush right in a box of this width.
The left edge of the label box is \leftmargin+\itemindent-\labelsep-\labelwidth from the left margin of the enclosing environment.
The default for LATEX’s ‘article’, ‘book’, and ‘report’ classes at the top levelis \leftmargini-\labelsep, (which is 2em in one column mode and 1.5em intwo column mode). At the second level it is \leftmarginii-\labelsep, andat the third level it is \leftmarginiii-\labelsep. These definitions make thelabel’s left edge coincide with the left margin of the enclosing environment.
Chapter 8: Environments 59
\leftmargin
Horizontal space between the left margin of the enclosing environment (or theleft margin of the page if this is a top-level list), and the left margin of this list.It must be non-negative.
In the standard LATEX document classes, a top-level list has this set to thevalue of \leftmargini, while a list that is nested inside a top-level list hasthis margin set to \leftmarginii. More deeply nested lists get the valuesof \leftmarginiii through \leftmarginvi. (Nesting greater than level fivegenerates the error message ‘Too deeply nested’.)
The defaults for the first three levels in LATEX’s ‘article’, ‘book’, and ‘report’classes are: \leftmargini is 2.5em (in two column mode, 2em), \leftmarginiiis 2.2em, and \leftmarginiii is 1.87em.
\listparindent
Horizontal space of additional line indentation, beyond \leftmargin, for secondand subsequent paragraphs within a list item. A negative value makes this an“outdent”. Its default value is 0pt.
\parsep Vertical space between paragraphs within an item. In the ‘book’ and ‘article’classes The defaults for the first three levels in LATEX’s ‘article’, ‘book’, and‘report’ classes at 10 point size are: 4pt plus2pt minus1pt, 2pt plus1pt
minus1pt, and 0pt. The defaults at 11 point size are: 4.5pt plus2pt
minus1pt, 2pt plus1pt minus1pt, and 0pt. The defaults at 12 point size are:5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt, 2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt, and 0pt.
\partopsep
Vertical space added, beyond \topsep+\parskip, to the top and bottom of theentire environment if the list instance is preceded by a blank line. (A blank linein the LATEX source before the list changes spacing at both the top and bottomof the list; whether the line following the list is blank does not matter.)
The defaults for the first three levels in LATEX’s ‘article’, ‘book’, and ‘report’classes at 10 point size are: 2pt plus1 minus1pt, 2pt plus1pt minus1pt, and1pt plus0pt minus1pt. The defaults at 11 point are: 3pt plus1pt minus1pt,3pt plus1pt minus1pt, and 1pt plus0pt minus1pt). The defaults at 12point are: 3pt plus2pt minus3pt, 3pt plus2pt minus2pt, and 1pt plus0pt
minus1pt.
\rightmargin
Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right margin ofthe enclosing environment. Its default value is 0pt. It must be non-negative.
\topsep Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in addition to\parskip (see Section 15.3 [\parindent & \parskip], page 127). The defaultsfor the first three levels in LATEX’s ‘article’, ‘book’, and ‘report’ classes at10 point size are: 8pt plus2pt minus4pt, 4pt plus2pt minus1pt, and 2pt
plus1pt minus1pt. The defaults at 11 point are: 9pt plus3pt minus5pt,4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt, and 2pt plus1pt minus1pt. The defaults at 12point are: 10pt plus4pt minus6pt, 5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt, and 2.5pt
plus1pt minus1pt.
Chapter 8: Environments 60
This shows the horizontal and vertical distances.
Surrounding environment, preceding material
Label First item
First item, second paragraph
Label Second item
Surrounding environment, following material
v0
v1
v2
v3
h0 h1
h2
h3 h4 h5
The lengths shown are listed below. The key relationship is that the right edge of thebracket for h1 equals the right edge of the bracket for h4, so that the left edge of the labelbox is at h3+h4-(h0+h1).
v0 \topsep + \parskip if the list environment does not start a new paragraph,and \topsep+\parskip+\partopsep if it does
v1 \parsep
v2 \itemsep+\parsep
v3 Same as v0. (This space is affected by whether a blank line appears in the sourceabove the environment; whether a blank line appears in the source below theenvironment does not matter.)
h0 \labelwidth
h1 \labelsep
h2 \listparindent
h3 \leftmargin
h4 \itemindent
h5 \rightmargin
The list’s left and right margins, shown above as h3 and h5, are with respect to theones provided by the surrounding environment, or with respect to the page margins fora top-level list. The line width used for typesetting the list items is \linewidth (seeSection 5.5 [Page layout parameters], page 24). For instance, set the list’s left margin to beone quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the enclosing environmentwith \setlength{\leftmargin}{0.25\linewidth}.
Page breaking in a list structure is controlled by the three parameters below. For each,the LATEX default is -\@lowpenalty, that is, -51. Because it is negative, it somewhat
Chapter 8: Environments 61
encourages a page break at each spot. Change it with, e.g., \@beginparpenalty=9999; avalue of 10000 prohibits a page break.
\@beginparpenalty
The page breaking penalty for breaking before the list (default -51).
\@itempenalty
The page breaking penalty for breaking before a list item (default -51).
\@endparpenalty
The page breaking penalty for breaking after a list (default -51).
The package enumitem is useful for customizing lists.
This example has the labels in red. They are numbered, and the left edge of the labellines up with the left edge of the item text. See Section 13.2 [\usecounter], page 117.
\usepackage{color}
\newcounter{cnt}
\newcommand{\makeredlabel}[1]{\textcolor{red}{#1.}}
\newenvironment{redlabel}
{\begin{list}
{\arabic{cnt}}
{\usecounter{cnt}
\setlength{\labelwidth}{0em}
\setlength{\labelsep}{0.5em}
\setlength{\leftmargin}{1.5em}
\setlength{\itemindent}{0.5em} % equals \labelwidth+\labelsep
\let\makelabel=\makeredlabel
}
}
{\end{list} }
8.16.1 \item: An entry in a list
Synopsis:
\item text of item
or
\item[optional-label] text of item
An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default depends on the listtype.
Because the optional label is surrounded by square brackets ‘[...]’, if you have an itemwhose text starts with ‘[’, you have to hide the bracket inside curly braces, as in: \item {[}
is an open square bracket; otherwise, LATEX will think it marks the start of an optionallabel.
Similarly, if the item does have the optional label and you need a close square bracketinside that label, you must hide it in the same way: \item[Close square bracket, {]}].See Section 2.4 [LATEX command syntax], page 5.
In this example the enumerate list has two items that use the default label and one thatuses the optional label.
\begin{enumerate}
Chapter 8: Environments 62
\item Moe
\item[sometimes] Shemp
\item Larry
\end{enumerate}
The first item is labelled ‘1.’, the second item is labelled ‘sometimes’, and the thirditem is labelled ‘2.’. Because of the optional label in the second item, the third item is notlabelled ‘3.’.
8.16.2 trivlist: A restricted form of list
Synopsis:
\begin{trivlist}
...
\end{trivlist}
A restricted version of the list environment, in which margins are not indented and an\item without an optional argument produces no text. It is most often used in macros, todefine an environment where the \item command as part of the environment’s definition.For instance, the center environment is defined essentially like this:
\newenvironment{center}
{\begin{trivlist}\centering\item\relax}
{\end{trivlist}}
Using trivlist in this way allows the macro to inherit some common code: combin-ing vertical space of two adjacent environments; detecting whether the text following theenvironment should be considered a new paragraph or a continuation of the previous one;adjusting the left and right margins for possible nested list environments.
Specifically, trivlist uses the current values of the list parameters (see Section 8.16[list], page 57), except that \parsep is set to the value of \parskip, and \leftmargin,\labelwidth, and \itemindent are set to zero.
This example outputs the items as two paragraphs, except that (by default) they haveno paragraph indent and are vertically separated.
\begin{trivlist}
\item The \textit{Surprise} is not old; no one would call her old.
\item She has a bluff bow, lovely lines.
\end{trivlist}
8.17 math
Synopsis:
\begin{math}
math
\end{math}
The math environment inserts given math material within the running text. \(...\)
and $...$ are synonyms. See Chapter 16 [Math formulas], page 129.
Chapter 8: Environments 63
8.18 minipage
Synopses:
\begin{minipage}{width}
contents
\end{minipage}
or
\begin{minipage}[position][height][inner-pos]{width}
contents
\end{minipage}
Put contents into a box that is width wide. This is like a small version of a page; it cancontain its own footnotes, itemized lists, etc. (There are some restrictions, including thatit cannot have floats.) This box will not be broken across pages. So minipage is similar to\parbox (see Section 20.3 [\parbox], page 171) but here you can have paragraphs.
This example will be 3 inches wide, and has two paragraphs.
\begin{minipage}{3in}
Stephen Kleene was a founder of the Theory of Computation.
He was a student of Church, wrote three influential texts,
was President of the Association for Symbolic Logic,
and won the National Medal of Science.
\end{minipage}
See below for a discussion of the paragraph indent inside a minipage.
The required argument width is a rigid length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). Itgives the width of the box into which contents are typeset.
There are three optional arguments, position, height, and inner-pos. You neednot include all three. For example, get the default position and set the height with\begin{minipage}[c][2.54cm] contents \end{minipage}. (Get the natural height withan empty argument, [].)
The optional argument position governs how the minipage vertically aligns with thesurrounding material.
c (synonym m) Default. Positions the minipage so its vertical center lines up withthe center of the adjacent text line (what Plain TEX calls \vcenter).
t Match the top line in the minipage with the baseline of the surrounding text(Plain TEX’s \vtop.
b Match the bottom line in the minipage with the baseline of the surroundingtext (Plain TEX’s \vbox.
To see the effects of these, contrast running this
---\begin{minipage}[c]{0.25in}
first\\ second\\ third
\end{minipage}
with the results of changing c to b or t.
Chapter 8: Environments 64
The optional argument height is a rigid length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). Itsets the height of the minipage. You can enter any value larger than, or equal to, or smallerthan the minipage’s natural height and LATEX will not give an error or warning. You canalso set it to a height of zero or a negative value.
The final optional argument inner-pos controls the placement of content inside the box.These are the possible values are (the default is the value of position).
t Place content at the top of the box.
c Place it in the vertical center.
b Place it at the box bottom.
s Stretch contents out vertically; it must contain vertically stretchable space.
The inner-pos argument makes sense when the height option is set to a value larger thanthe minipage’s natural height. To see the effect of the options, run this example with thevarious choices in place of b.
Text before
\begin{center}
---\begin{minipage}[c][3in][b]{0.25\textwidth}
first\\ second\\ third
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
Text after
By default paragraphs are not indented in a minipage. Change that with a commandsuch as \setlength{\parindent}{1pc} at the start of contents.
Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is particularly usefulfor putting footnotes in figures or tables. A \footnote or \footnotetext command putsthe footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and ituses the \mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary footnote counter (see Chapter 13[Counters], page 116).
This puts the footnote at the bottom of the table, not the bottom of the page.
\begin{center} % center the minipage on the line
\begin{minipage}{2.5in}
\begin{center} % center the table inside the minipage
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\textsc{Monarch} &\textsc{Reign} \\ \hline
Elizabeth II &63 years\footnote{to date} \\
Victoria &63 years \\
George III &59 years
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
If you nest minipages then there is an oddness when using footnotes. Footnotes appearat the bottom of the text ended by the next \end{minipage} which may not be their logicalplace.
Chapter 8: Environments 65
This puts a table containing data side by side with a map graphic. They are verticallycentered.
\newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
...
\begin{center}
\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{nyc.png}}
\hspace{0.1\textwidth}
\begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
\begin{tabular}{r|l}
\multicolumn{1}{r}{Borough} &Pop (million) \\ \hline
The Bronx &$1.5$ \\
Brooklyn &$2.6$ \\
Manhattan &$1.6$ \\
Queens &$2.3$ \\
Staten Island &$0.5$
\end{tabular}
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
8.19 picture
Synopses:
\begin{picture}(width,height)
picture commands
\end{picture}
or
\begin{picture}(width,height)(xoffset,yoffset)
picture commands
\end{picture}
An environment to create simple pictures containing lines, arrows, boxes, circles, andtext. Note that while this environment is not obsolete, new documents typically use muchmore powerful graphics creation systems, such as TikZ, PSTricks, MetaPost, or Asymptote.These are not covered in this document; see CTAN.
This shows the parallelogram law for adding vectors.
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(6,6) % picture box will be 6cm wide by 6cm tall
\put(0,0){\vector(2,1){4}} % for every 2 over this vector goes 1 up
\put(2,1){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ first leg}}
\put(4,2){\vector(1,2){2}}
\put(5,4){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ second leg}}
\put(0,0){\line(1,1){6}}
\put(3,3){\makebox(0,0)[r]{sum\ }}
\end{picture}
You can also use this environment to place arbitrary material at an exact location.
\usepackage{color,graphicx} % in preamble
Chapter 8: Environments 66
...
\begin{center}
\setlength{\unitlength}{\textwidth}
\begin{picture}(1,1) % leave space, \textwidth wide and tall
\put(0,0){\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{desertedisland.jpg}}
\put(0.25,0.35){\textcolor{red}{X Treasure here}}
\end{picture}
\end{center}
The red X will be precisely a quarter of the \linewidth from the left margin, and0.35\linewidth up from the bottom. Another example of this usage is to put similarcode in the page header to get repeat material on each of a document’s pages.
The picture environment has one required argument, a pair of numbers (width,height).Multiply these by the value \unitlength to get the nominal size of the output, the spacethat LATEX reserves on the output page. This nominal size need not be how large the picturereally is; LATEX will draw things from the picture outside the picture’s box.
This environment also has an optional argument (xoffset,yoffset). It is used to shift theorigin. Unlike most optional arguments, this one is not contained in square brackets. Aswith the required argument, it consists of two real numbers. Multiply these by \unitlength
to get the point at the lower-left corner of the picture.
For example, if \unitlength has been set to 1mm, the command
\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
produces a box of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters. The picture’s originis the point (10mm,20mm) and so the lower-left corner is there, and the upper-right corneris at (110mm,220mm). When you first draw a picture you typically omit the optionalargument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify yourpicture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument.
Each picture command tells LATEX where to put something by naming its position. Aposition is a pair such as (2.4,-5) giving the x- and y-coordinates. A coordinate is a nota length, it is a real number (it may have a decimal point or a minus sign). It specifies alength in multiples of the unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm,then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.
LATEX’s default for \unitlength is 1pt. it is a rigid length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths],page 120). Change it with the \setlength command (see Section 14.2 [\setlength],page 122). Make this change only outside of a picture environment.
Coordinates are given with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left cornerof the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, as with \put(1,2){...},it is not enclosed in braces since the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. Also, unlikein some computer graphics systems, larger y-coordinates are further up the page.
There are four ways to put things in a picture: \put, \multiput, \qbezier, and\graphpaper. The most often used is \put. This
\put(11.3,-0.3){...}
places the object with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,−0.3). The reference pointsfor various objects will be described below. The \put command creates an LR box (seeChapter 17 [Modes], page 151). Anything that can go in an \mbox (see Section 20.1 [\mbox
Chapter 8: Environments 67
& \makebox], page 169) can go in the text argument of the \put command. The referencepoint will be the lower left corner of the box. In this picture
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
...\begin{picture}(1,1)
\put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}}
\put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}}
\end{picture}
the three dots are just slightly left of the point of the angle formed by the two lines. (Also,\line(1,1){1} does not call for a line of length one; rather the line has a change in the xcoordinate of 1.)
The \multiput, qbezier, and graphpaper commands are described below.
This draws a rectangle with a wavy top, using \qbezier for that curve.
\begin{picture}(3,1.5)
\put(0,0){\vector(1,0){8}} % x axis
\put(0,0){\vector(0,1){4}} % y axis
\put(2,0){\line(0,1){3}} % left side rectangle
\put(4,0){\line(0,1){3.5}} % right side
\qbezier(2,3)(2.5,2.9)(3,3.25)
\qbezier(3,3.25)(3.5,3.6)(4,3.5)
\thicklines % below here, lines are twice as thick
\put(2,3){\line(4,1){2}}
\put(4.5,2.5){\framebox{Trapezoidal Rule}}
\end{picture}
8.19.1 \put
Synopsis:
\put(xcoord,ycoord){content}
Place content at the coordinate (xcoord,ycoord). See the discussion of coordinates and\unitlength in Section 8.19 [picture], page 65. The content is processed in LR mode (seeChapter 17 [Modes], page 151) so it cannot contain line breaks.
This includes the text into the picture.
\put(4.5,2.5){Apply the \textit{unpoke} move}
The reference point, the location (4.5,2.5), is the lower left of the text, at the bottomleft of the ‘A’.
8.19.2 \multiput
Synopsis:
\multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){num-copies}{obj}
Copy obj a total of num-copies times, with an increment of delta x,delta y. The objfirst appears at position (x, y), then at (x+ δx, y + δy), and so on.
This draws a simple grid with every fifth line in bold (see also Section 8.19.4 [\graphpa-per], page 68).
\begin{picture}(10,10)
Chapter 8: Environments 68
\linethickness{0.05mm}
\multiput(0,0)(1,0){10}{\line(0,1){10}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,1){10}{\line(1,0){10}}
\linethickness{0.5mm}
\multiput(0,0)(5,0){3}{\line(0,1){10}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,5){3}{\line(1,0){10}}
\end{picture}
8.19.3 \qbezier
Synopsis:
\qbezier(x1,y1)(x2,y2)(x3,y3)
\qbezier[num](x1,y1)(x2,y2)(x3,y3)
Draw a quadratic Bezier curve whose control points are given by the three requiredarguments (x1,y1), (x2,y2), and (x3,y3). That is, the curve runs from (x1,y1) to (x3,y3),is quadratic, and is such that the tangent line at (x1,y1) passes through (x2,y2), as doesthe tangent line at (x3,y3).
This draws a curve from the coordinate (1,1) to (1,0).
\qbezier(1,1)(1.25,0.75)(1,0)
The curve’s tangent line at (1,1) contains (1.25,0.75), as does the curve’s tangent line at(1,0).
The optional argument num gives the number of calculated intermediate points. Thedefault is to draw a smooth curve whose maximum number of points is \qbeziermax (changethis value with \renewcommand).
8.19.4 \graphpaper
Synopsis:
\graphpaper(x_init,y_init)(x_dimen,y_dimen)
\graphpaper[spacing](x_init,y_init)(x_dimen,y_dimen)
Draw a coordinate grid. Requires the graphpap package. The grid’s origin is (x_init,y_init). Grid lines come every spacing units (the default is 10). The grid extends x dimenunits to the right and y dimen units up. All arguments must be positive integers.
This make a grid with seven vertical lines and eleven horizontal lines.
\usepackage{graphpap} % in preamble
...
\begin{picture}(6,20) % in document body
\graphpaper[2](0,0)(12,20)
\end{picture}
The lines are numbered every ten units.
8.19.5 \line
Synopsis:
\line(x_run,y_rise){travel}
Draw a line. It slopes such that it vertically rises y rise for every horizontal x run. Thetravel is the total horizontal change — it is not the length of the vector, it is the change
Chapter 8: Environments 69
in x. In the special case of vertical lines, where (x run,y rise)=(0,1), the travel gives thechange in y.
This draws a line starting at coordinates (1,3).
\put(1,3){\line(2,5){4}}
For every over 2, this line will go up 5. Because travel specifies that this goes over 4, it mustgo up 10. Thus its endpoint is (1, 3) + (4, 10) = (5, 13). In particular, note that travel = 4is not the length of the line, it is the change in x.
The arguments x run and y rise are integers that can be positive, negative, or zero.(If both are 0 then LATEX treats the second as 1.) With \put(x_init,y_init){\line(x_
run,y_rise){travel}}, if x run is negative then the line’s ending point has a first coordi-nate that is less than x init. If y rise is negative then the line’s ending point has a secondcoordinate that is less than y init.
If travel is negative then you get LaTeX Error: Bad \line or \vector argument.
Standard LATEX can only draw lines with a limited range of slopes because these lines aremade by putting together line segments from pre-made fonts. The two numbers x run andy rise must have integer values from −6 through 6. Also, they must be relatively prime,so that (x run,y rise) can be (2,1) but not (4,2) (if you choose the latter then instead oflines you get sequences of arrowheads; the solution is to switch to the former). To get linesof arbitrary slope and plenty of other shapes in a system like picture, see the packagepict2e on CTAN. Another solution is to use a full-featured graphics system such as TikZ,or PSTricks, or MetaPost, or Asymptote
8.19.6 \linethickness
Synopsis:
\linethickness{dim}
Declares the thickness of subsequent horizontal and vertical lines in a picture to bedim, which must be a positive length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). It differs from\thinlines and \thicklines in that it does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles,or ovals.
8.19.7 \thinlines
Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals in a picture environ-ment to be 0.4 pt. This is the default thickness, so this command is unnecessary unlessthe thickness has been changed with either Section 8.19.6 [\linethickness], page 69, orSection 8.19.8 [\thicklines], page 69.
8.19.8 \thicklines
Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals in a picture envi-ronment to be 0.8 pt. See also Section 8.19.6 [\linethickness], page 69, and Section 8.19.7[\thinlines], page 69. This command is illustrated in the Trapezoidal Rule example ofSection 8.19 [picture], page 65.
8.19.9 \circle
Synopsis:
\circle{diameter}
Chapter 8: Environments 70
\circle*{diameter}
Produces a circle with a diameter as close as possible to the specified one. The * formproduces a filled-in circle.
This draws a circle of radius 6, centered at (5,7).
\put(5,7){\circle{6}}
The available radii for circle are, in points, the even numbers from 2 to 20, inclusive.For circle* they are all the integers from 1 to 15.
8.19.10 \oval
Synopsis:
\oval(width,height)
\oval(width,height)[portion]
Produce a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument portion allows you toproduce only half or a quarter of the oval. For half an oval take portion to be one of these.
t top half
b bottom half
r right half
l left half
Produce only one quarter of the oval by setting portion to tr, br, bl, or tl.
This draws the top half of an oval that is 3 wide and 7 tall.
\put(5,7){\oval(3,7)[t]}
The (5,7) is the center of the entire oval, not just the center of the top half.
These shapes are not ellipses. They are rectangles whose corners are made with quartercircles. These circles have a maximum radius of 20 pt (see Section 8.19.9 [\circle], page 69,for the sizes). Thus large ovals are just boxes with a small amount of corner rounding.
8.19.11 \shortstack
Synopsis:
\shortstack[position]{line 1 \\ ... }
Produce a vertical stack of objects.
This labels the y axis.
\put(0,0){\vector(1,0){4}} % x axis
\put(0,0){\vector(0,1){2}} % y
\put(-0.25,2){\makebox[0][r]{\shortstack[r]{$y$\\ axis}}}
For a short stack, the reference point is the lower left of the stack. In the above examplethe Section 20.1 [\mbox & \makebox], page 169, puts the stack flush right in a zero widthbox so in total the short stack sits slightly to the left of the y axis.
The valid positions are:
r Make objects flush right
l Make objects flush left
Chapter 8: Environments 71
c Center objects (default)
Separate objects into lines with \\. These stacks are short in that, unlike in a tabular
or array environment, here the rows are not spaced out to be of even heights. Thus, in\shortstack{X\\o\\o\\X} the first and last rows are taller than the middle two. You canadjust row heights either by putting in the usual interline spacing with \shortstack{X\\
\strut o\\o\\X}, or by hand, via an explicit zero-width box \shortstack{X \\
\rule{0pt}{12pt} o\\o\\X} or by using \\’s optional argument \shortstack{X\\[2pt]
o\\o\\X}.
The \shortstack command is also available outside the picture environment.
8.19.12 \vector
Synopsis:
\vector(x_run,y_rise){travel}
Draw a line ending in an arrow. The slope of that line is: it vertically rises y rise forevery horizontal x run. The travel is the total horizontal change — it is not the length of thevector, it is the change in x. In the special case of vertical vectors, if (x run,y rise)=(0,1),then travel gives the change in y.
For an example see Section 8.19 [picture], page 65.
For elaboration on x run and y rise see Section 8.19.5 [\line], page 68. As there, thevalues of x run and y rise are limited. For \vector you must chooses integers between −4and 4, inclusive. Also, the two you choose must be relatively prime. Thus, \vector(2,1){4}is acceptable but \vector(4,2){4} is not (if you use the latter then you get a sequence ofarrowheads).
8.19.13 \makebox (picture)
Synopsis:
\makebox(rec-width,rec-height){text}
\makebox(rec-width,rec-height)[position]{text}
Make a box to hold text. This command fits with the picture environment, althoughyou can use it outside of there, because rec-width and rec-height are numbers specifyingdistances in terms of the \unitlength (see Section 8.19 [picture], page 65). This command issimilar to the normal \makebox command (see Section 20.1 [\mbox & \makebox], page 169)except here that you must specify the width and height. This command is fragile (seeSection 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
This makes a box of length 3.5 times \unitlength and height 4 times \unitlength.
\put(1,2){\makebox(3.5,4){...}}
The optional argument position specifies where in the box the text appears. Thedefault is to center it, both horizontally and vertically. To place it somewhere else, use astring with one or two of these letters.
t Puts text the top of the box.
b Put text at the bottom.
l Put text on the left.
r Put text on the right.
Chapter 8: Environments 72
8.19.14 \framebox (picture)
Synopsis:
\framebox(rec-width,rec-height){text}
\framebox(rec-width,rec-height)[position]{text}
This is the same as Section 8.19.13 [\makebox (picture)], page 71, except that it putsa frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The reference point is the bottomleft corner of the frame. This command fits with the picture environment, although youcan use it outside of there, because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in termsof the \unitlength (see Section 8.19 [picture], page 65). This command is fragile (seeSection 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
This example creates a frame 2.5 inches by 3 inches and puts the text in the center.
\setlength{\unitlength}{1in}
\framebox(2.5,3){test text}
The required arguments are that the rectangle has overall width rect-width units andheight rect-height units.
The optional argument position specifies the position of text; see Section 8.19.13 [\make-box (picture)], page 71, for the values that it can take.
The rule has thickness \fboxrule and there is a blank space \fboxsep between theframe and the contents of the box.
For this command, you must specify the width and height. If you want to just put aframe around some contents whose dimension is determined in some other way then eitheruse \fbox (see Section 20.2 [\fbox & \framebox], page 170) or \frame (see Section 8.19.15[\frame], page 72).
8.19.15 \frame
Synopsis:
\frame{contents}
Puts a rectangular frame around contents. The reference point is the bottom left cornerof the frame. In contrast to \framebox (see Section 8.19.14 [\framebox (picture)], page 72),this command puts no extra space is put between the frame and the object. It is fragile(see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
8.19.16 \dashbox
Synopsis:
\dashbox{dash-len}(rect-width,rect-height){text}
\dashbox{dash-len}(rect-width,rect-height)[position]{text}
Create a dashed rectangle around text. This command fits with the picture environ-ment, although you can use it outside of there, because lengths are numbers specifying thedistance in terms of the \unitlength (see Section 8.19 [picture], page 65).
The required arguments are: dashes are dash-len units long, with the same length gap,and the rectangle has overall width rect-width units and height rect-height units.
The optional argument position specifies the position of text; see Section 8.19.13 [\make-box (picture)], page 71, for the values that it can take.
Chapter 8: Environments 73
This shows that you can use non-integer value for dash-len.
\put(0,0){\dashbox{0.1}(5,0.5){My hovercraft is full of eels.}}
Each dash will be 0.1\unitlength long, the box’s width is 5\unitlength and its height is0.5\unitlength.
As in that example, a dashed box looks best when rect-width and rect-height are mul-tiples of the dash-len.
8.20 quotation & quote
Synopsis:
\begin{quotation}
text
\end{quotation}
or
\begin{quote}
text
\end{quote}
Include a quotation. Both environments indent margins on both sides by \leftmargin
and the text is right-justified.
They differ in how they treat paragraphs. In the quotation environment, paragraphs areindented by 1.5 em and the space between paragraphs is small, 0pt plus 1pt. In the quote
environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space between paragraphs(it is the rubber length \parsep).
\begin{quotation} \small\it
Four score and seven years ago
... shall not perish from the earth.
\hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln
\end{quotation}
8.21 tabbing
Synopsis:
\begin{tabbing}
row1col1 \= row1col2 ... \\
row2col1 \> row2col2 ... \\
...
\end{tabbing}
Align text in columns, by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was doneon a typewriter. This is less often used than the environments tabular (see Section 8.23[tabular], page 77) or array (see Section 8.2 [array], page 45) because in those the width ofeach column need not be constant and need not be known in advance.
This example has a first line where the tab stops are set to explicit widths, ended by a\kill command (which is described below):
\begin{tabbing}
\hspace{0.75in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \= \hspace{0.40in} \kill
Chapter 8: Environments 74
Ship \> Guns \> Year \\
\textit{Sophie} \> 14 \> 1800 \\
\textit{Polychrest} \> 24 \> 1803 \\
\textit{Lively} \> 38 \> 1804 \\
\textit{Surprise} \> 28 \> 1805 \\
\end{tabbing}
Both the tabbing environment and the more widely-used tabular environment puttext in columns. The most important distinction is that in tabular the width of columns isdetermined automatically by LATEX, while in tabbing the user sets the tab stops. Anotherdistinction is that tabular generates a box, but tabbing can be broken across pages.Finally, while tabular can be used in any mode, tabbing can be used only in paragraphmode and it starts a new paragraph.
A tabbing environment always starts a new paragraph, without indentation. Moreover,as shown in the example above, there is no need to use the starred form of the \hspace
command at the beginning of a tabbed row. The right margin of the tabbing environmentis the end of line, so that the width of the environment is \linewidth.
The tabbing environment contains a sequence of tabbed rows. The first tabbed rowbegins immediately after \begin{tabbing} and each row ends with \\ or \kill. The lastrow may omit the \\ and end with just \end{tabbing}.
At any point the tabbing environment has a current tab stop pattern, a sequence ofn > 0 tab stops, numbered 0, 1, etc. These create n corresponding columns. Tab stop 0 isalways the left margin, defined by the enclosing environment. Tab stop number i is set ifit is assigned a horizontal position on the page. Tab stop number i can only be set if allthe stops 0, . . . , i− 1 have already been set; normally later stops are to the right of earlierones.
By default any text typeset in a tabbing environment is typeset ragged right and left-aligned on the current tab stop. Typesetting is done in LR mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes],page 151).
The following commands can be used inside a tabbing environment. They are all fragile(see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
\\ (tabbing)End a tabbed line and typeset it.
\= (tabbing)Sets a tab stop at the current position.
\> (tabbing)Advances to the next tab stop.
\< Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin).Can only be used at the start of the line.
\+ Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stopto the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
\- Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stopto the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.
Chapter 8: Environments 75
\’ (tabbing)Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e., every-thing from the most recent \>, \<, \’, \\, or \kill command, to the previouscolumn and aligned to the right, flush against the current column’s tab stop.
\‘ (tabbing)Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0.However, it can’t move text to the right of the last column because there’s notab stop there. The \‘ command moves all the text that follows it, up to the\\ or \end{tabbing} command that ends the line, to the right margin of thetabbing environment. There must be no \> or \’ command between the \‘
and the \\ or \end{tabbing} command that ends the line.
\a (tabbing)In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \’ and \‘ do not produce accentsas usual (see Section 23.5 [Accents], page 194). Instead, use the commands \a=,\a’ and \a‘.
\kill Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\ except that it throwsaway the current line instead of producing output for it. Any \=, \+ or \-
commands in that line remain in effect.
\poptabs Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs.
\pushtabs
Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stoppositions in the middle of a tabbing environment.
\tabbingsep
Distance of the text moved by \’ to left of current tab stop.
This example typesets a Pascal function:
\begin{tabbing}
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
\> begin \= \+ \\
\> if \= n > 1 then \+ \\
fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
else \+ \\
fact := 1; \-\- \\
end;\\
\end{tabbing}
The output looks like this.
function fact(n : integer) : integer;
begin
if n > 1 then
fact := n * fact(n-1);
else
fact := 1;
end;
Chapter 8: Environments 76
This example is just for illustration of the environment. To actually typeset computercode in typewriter like this, a verbatim environment (see Section 8.27 [verbatim], page 87)would normally be best. For pretty-printed code, there are quite a few packages, includingalgorithm2e, fancyvrb, listings, and minted.
8.22 table
Synopsis:
\begin{table}[placement]
table body
\caption[loftitle]{title} % optional
\label{label} % also optional
\end{table}
A class of floats (see Section 5.6 [Floats], page 26). They cannot be split across pagesand so they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are floated to aconvenient place, such as the top of a following page.
This example table environment contains a tabular
\begin{table}
\centering\small
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Author}}
&\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Piece}} \\ \hline
Bach &Cello Suite Number 1 \\
Beethoven &Cello Sonata Number 3 \\
Brahms &Cello Sonata Number 1
\end{tabular}
\caption{Top cello pieces}
\label{tab:cello}
\end{table}
but you can put many different kinds of content in a table, including text, LATEX commands,etc.
For the possible values of placement and their effect on the float placement algorithm,see Section 5.6 [Floats], page 26.
The table body is typeset in a parbox of width \textwidth. It can contain text, com-mands, graphics, etc.
The label is optional; it is used for cross references (see Chapter 7 [Cross references],page 41). The \caption command is also optional. It specifies caption text for the table.By default it is numbered. If its optional lottitle is present then that text is used in the listof tables instead of title (see Section 25.1 [Table of contents etc.], page 202).
In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page, unless it ispushed to a float page at the end.
\begin{table}[b]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline
One &The loneliest number \\
Chapter 8: Environments 77
Two &Can be as sad as one.
It’s the loneliest number since the number one.
\end{tabular}
\caption{Cardinal virtues}
\label{tab:CardinalVirtues}
\end{table}
8.23 tabular
Synopsis:
\begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
...
\end{tabular}
or
\begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
...
\end{tabular*}
Produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows. Each row consists ofitems that are aligned vertically in columns. This illustrates many of the features.
\begin{tabular}{l|l}
\textit{Player name} &\textit{Career home runs} \\
\hline
Hank Aaron &755 \\
Babe Ruth &714
\end{tabular}
The output will have two left-aligned columns with a vertical bar between them. This isspecified in tabular’s argument {l|l}. Put the entries into different columns by separatingthem with an ampersand, &. The end of each row is marked with a double backslash, \\.Put a horizontal rule below a row, after a double backslash, with \hline. After the lastrow the \\ is optional, unless an \hline command follows to put a rule below the table.
The required and optional arguments to tabular consist of:
pos Optional. Specifies the table’s vertical position. The default is to align thetable so its vertical center matches the baseline of the surrounding text. Thereare two other possible alignments: t aligns the table so its top row matches thebaseline of the surrounding text, and b aligns on the bottom row.
This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case of a tabular
alone in a center environment this option makes no difference.
cols Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a sequence ofthe following specifiers, corresponding to the types of column and intercolumnmaterial.
l A column of left-aligned items.
r A column of right-aligned items.
Chapter 8: Environments 78
c A column of centered items.
| A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
@{text or space}
Insert text or space at this location in every row. The text orspace material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile (seeSection 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
If between two columns there is no @-expression then LATEX’s book,article, and report classes will put on either side of each columna space of length \tabcolsep, which by default is 6 pt. That is, bydefault adjacent columns are separated by 12 pt (so \tabcolsep ismisleadingly named since it is only half of the separation betweentabular columns). In addition, a space of 6 pt also comes before thefirst column and after the final column, unless you put a @{...} or| there.
If you override the default and use an @-expression then LATEXdoes not insert \tabcolsep so you must insert any desired spaceyourself, as in @{\hspace{1em}}.
An empty expression @{} will eliminate the space. In particular,sometimes you want to eliminate the space before the first columnor after the last one, as in the example below where the tabularlines need to lie on the left margin.
\begin{flushleft}
\begin{tabular}{@{}l}
...
\end{tabular}
\end{flushleft}
The next example shows text, a decimal point between the columns,arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on it.
\begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l}
$3$ &$14$ \\
$9$ &$80665$
\end{tabular}
An \extracolsep{wd} command in an @-expression causes anextra space of width wd to appear to the left of all subsequentcolumns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep. Unlikeordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed byan @-expression. An \extracolsep command can be used onlyin an @-expression in the cols argument. Below, LATEX insertsthe right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4inches wide.
\begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\extracolsep{\fill}}l}
Seven times down, eight times up \ldots
&such is life!
\end{tabular*}
Chapter 8: Environments 79
To insert commands that are automatically executed before a givencolumn, load the array package and use the >{...} specifier.
p{wd} Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width wd, as ifit were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd}{...} command.
A line break double backslash \\ may not appear in the item,except inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular,or inside an explicit \parbox, or in the scope of a \centering,\raggedright, or \raggedleft declaration (when used in a p-column element these declarations must appear inside braces, aswith {\centering .. \\ ..}). Otherwise LATEX will misinterpretthe double backslash as ending the row. Instead, to get a line breakin there use \newline (see Section 9.3 [\newline], page 92).
*{num}{cols}
Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is a positiveinteger and cols is a list of specifiers. Thus the specifier\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|} is equivalent to the specifier\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}. Note that cols may containanother *-expression.
width Required for tabular*, not allowed for tabular. Specifies the width of thetabular* environment. The space between columns should be rubber, as with@{\extracolsep{\fill}}, to allow the table to stretch or shrink to make thespecified width, or else you are likely to get the Underfull \hbox (badness
10000) in alignment ... warning.
Parameters that control formatting:
\arrayrulewidth
A length that is the thickness of the rule created by |, \hline, and \vline inthe tabular and array environments. The default is ‘.4pt’. Change it as in\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}.
\arraystretch
A factor by which the spacing between rows in the tabular and array en-vironments is multiplied. The default is ‘1’, for no scaling. Change it as\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}.
\doublerulesep
A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the ||
specifier. The default is ‘2pt’.
\tabcolsep
A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is ‘6pt’. Changeit with \setlength.
The following commands can be used inside the body of a tabular environment, thefirst two inside an entry and the second two between lines:
Chapter 8: Environments 80
8.23.1 \multicolumn
Synopsis:
\multicolumn{numcols}{cols}{text}
Make an array or tabular entry that spans several columns. The first argument numcolsgives the number of columns to span. The second argument cols specifies the formatting ofthe entry, with c for centered, l for flush left, or r for flush right. The third argument textgives the contents of that entry.
In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by the singleheading ‘Name’.
\begin{tabular}{lccl}
\textit{ID} &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\
\hline
978-0-393-03701-2 &O’Brian &Patrick &55 \\
...
\end{tabular}
What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the array or tabular
environment is broken into parts, where each part (except the first) begins with l, c, r,or p. So from \begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|} the parts are |r|, c, c, and p{1.5in}|.
The cols argument overrides the array or tabular environment’s intercolumn area de-fault adjoining this multicolumn entry. To affect that area, this argument can containvertical bars | indicating the placement of vertical rules, and @{...} expressions. Thus ifcols is ‘|c|’ then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come inthe intercolumn area before it and after it. This table details the exact behavior.
\begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|}
\multicolumn{1}{r}{w} % entry one
&\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x} % entry two
&\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y} % entry three
&z % entry four
\end{tabular}
Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because the \multicolumn hasthe cols specifier ‘r’ with no initial vertical bar. Between entry one and entry two there willbe a vertical rule; although the first cols does not have an ending vertical bar, the secondcols does have a starting one. Between entry two and entry three there is a single verticalrule; despite that the cols in both of the surrounding multicolumn’s call for a vertical rule,you only get one rule. Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; thedefault calls for one but the cols in the entry three \multicolumn leaves it out, and thattakes precedence. Finally, following entry four there is a vertical rule because of the default.
The number of spanned columns numcols can be 1. Besides giving the ability to changethe horizontal alignment, this also is useful to override for one row the tabular definition’sdefault intercolumn area specification, including the placement of vertical rules.
In the example below, in the tabular definition the first column is speci-fied to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is centered with\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}. Also in the first row, the second and third
Chapter 8: Environments 81
columns are spanned by a single entry with \multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}},overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page range en-dash.
\begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l}
\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}
&multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline
Baroque &1600 &1760 \\
Classical &1730 &1820 \\
Romantic &1780 &1910 \\
Impressionistic &1875 &1925
\end{tabular}
Although the tabular specification by default puts a vertical rule between the first andsecond columns, no such vertical rule appears in the first row here. That’s because there isno vertical bar in the cols part of the first row’s first \multicolumn command.
8.23.2 \vline
Draw a vertical line in a tabular or array environment extending the full height and depthof an entry’s row. Can also be used in an @-expression, although its synonym verticalbar | is more common. This command is rarely used in the body of a table; typically atable’s vertical lines are specified in tabular’s cols argument and overridden as needed with\multicolumn (see Section 8.23 [tabular], page 77).
The example below illustrates some pitfalls. In the first row’s second entry the \hfill
moves the \vline to the left edge of the cell. But that is different than putting it halfwaybetween the two columns, so between the first and second columns there are two verti-cal rules, with the one from the {c|cc} specifier coming before the one produced by the\vline\hfill. In contrast, the first row’s third entry shows the usual way to put a verticalbar between two columns. In the second row, the ghi is the widest entry in its column soin the \vline\hfill the \hfill has no effect and the vertical line in that entry appearsimmediately next to the g, with no whitespace.
\begin{tabular}{c|cc}
x &\vline\hfill y &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ % row 1
abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi % row 2
\end{tabular}
8.23.3 \cline
Synopsis:
\cline{i-j}
In an array or tabular environment, draw a horizontal rule beginning in column i andending in column j. The dash, -, must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a singlecolumn use the number twice, as with \cline{2-2}.
This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second rows, one line inthe first column only, and the other spanning the third and fourth columns. The two linesare side-by-side, at the same height.
\begin{tabular}{llrr}
a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4}
e &f &g &h
Chapter 8: Environments 82
\end{tabular}
8.23.4 \hline
Draw a horizontal line the width of the enclosing tabular or array environment. It’s mostcommonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.
In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above the other,that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a single rule spanning both columns.Because of the \hline, the tabular second row’s line ending double backslash \\ is required.
\begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline
Baseball &Red Sox \\
Basketball &Celtics \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
8.24 thebibliography
Synopsis:
\begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
...
\end{thebibliography}
Produce a bibliography or reference list. There are two ways to produce bibliographiclists. This environment is suitable when you have only a few references and can maintainthe list by hand. See Section 8.24.4 [Using BibTeX], page 85, for a more sophisticatedapproach.
This shows the environment with two entries.
This work is based on \cite{latexdps}.
Together they are \cite{latexdps, texbook}.
...
\begin{thebibliography}{9}
\bibitem{latexdps}
Leslie Lamport.
\textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
\bibitem{texbook}
Donald Ervin Knuth.
\textit{The \TeX book}.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
This styles the first reference as ‘[1] Leslie ...’, and so that \cite{latexdps} producesthe matching ‘... based on [1]’. The second \cite produces ‘[1, 2]’. You must compilethe document twice to resolve these references.
The mandatory argument widest-label is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widestitem label produced by the \bibitem commands. The tradition is to use 9 for bibliographieswith less than 10 references, 99 for ones with less than 100, etc.
Chapter 8: Environments 83
The bibliographic list is headed by a title such as ‘Bibliography’. To change itthere are two cases. In the book and report classes, where the top level sectioning is\chapter and the default title is ‘Bibliography’, that title is in the macro \bibname.For article, where the class’s top level sectioning is \section and the default is‘References’, the title is in macro \refname. Change it by redefining the command, aswith \renewcommand{\refname}{Cited references} after \begin{document}.
Language support packages such as babel will automatically redefine \refname or\bibname to fit the selected language.
8.24.1 \bibitem
Synopsis:
\bibitem{cite_key}
or
\bibitem[label]{cite_key}
Generate an entry labeled by label. The default is for LATEX to generates a numberusing the enumi counter. The citation key cite key is a string of letters, numbers, andpunctuation symbols (but not comma).
See Section 8.24 [thebibliography], page 82, for an example.
The optional label changes the default label from an integer to the given string. Withthis
\begin{thebibliography}
\bibitem[Lamport 1993]{latexdps}
Leslie Lamport.
\textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
\bibitem{texbook}
Donald Ervin Knuth.
\textit{The \TeX book}.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
the first entry will be styled as ‘[Lamport 1993] Leslie ...’ (The amount of horizon-tal space that LATEX leaves for the label depends on the widest-label argument of thethebibliography environment; see Section 8.24 [thebibliography], page 82.) Similarly, ...based on \cite{latexdps} will produce ‘... based on [Lamport 1994]’.
If you mix \bibitem entries having a label with those that do not then LATEX will numberthe unlabelled ones sequentially. In the example above the texbook entry will appear as‘[1] Donald ...’, despite that it is the second entry.
If you use the same cite key twice then you get ‘LaTeX Warning: There were
multiply-defined labels’.
Under the hood, LATEX remembers the cite key and label information because \bibitemwrites it to the auxiliary file filename.aux. For instance, the above example causes\bibcite{latexdps}{Lamport, 1993} and \bibcite{texbook}{1} to appear in that file.The .aux file is read by the \begin{document} command and then the information is
Chapter 8: Environments 84
available for \cite commands. This explains why you need to run LATEX twice to resolvereferences: once to write it out and once to read it in.
Because of this two-pass algorithm, when you add a \bibitem or change its cite key youmay get ‘LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross-references
right’. Fix it by recompiling.
8.24.2 \cite
Synopsis:
\cite{keys}
or
\cite[subcite]{keys}
Generate as output a citation to the references associated with keys. The mandatory keysis a citation key, or a comma-separated list of citation keys (see Section 8.24.1 [\bibitem],page 83).
This
The ultimate source is \cite{texbook}.
...
\begin{thebibliography}
\bibitem{texbook}
Donald Ervin Knuth.
\textit{The \TeX book}.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
produces output like ‘... source is [1]’. (You can change the appearance of the citationwith bibliography styles. More is in Section 8.24.4 [Using BibTeX], page 85.)
The optional argument subcite is appended to the citation. For example, See 14.3 in
\cite[p.~314]{texbook} might produce ‘See 14.3 in [1, p. 314]’.
In addition to what appears in the output, \cite writes information to the auxiliaryfile filename.aux. For instance, \cite{latexdps} writes ‘\citation{latexdps}’ to thatfile. This information is used by BibTEX to include in your reference list only those worksthat you have actually cited; see Section 8.24.3 [\nocite], page 84, also.
If keys is not in your bibliography information then you get ‘LaTeX Warning: There were
undefined references’, and in the output the citation shows as a boldface question markbetween square brackets. There are two possible causes. If you have mistyped something,as in \cite{texbok} then you need to correct the spelling. On the other hand, if youhave just added or modified the bibliographic information and so changed the .aux file (seeSection 8.24.1 [\bibitem], page 83) then the fix may be to run LATEX again.
8.24.3 \nocite
Synopsis:
\nocite{keys}
Produces no output but writes keys to the auxiliary file doc-filename.aux.
The mandatory argument keys is a comma-separated list of one or more citation keys(see Section 8.24.1 [\bibitem], page 83). This information is used by BibTEX to include
Chapter 8: Environments 85
these works in your reference list even though you have not cited them (see Section 8.24.2[\cite], page 84).
8.24.4 Using BibTEX
As described in thebibliography (see Section 8.24 [thebibliography], page 82), a sophis-ticated approach to managing bibliographies is provided by the BibTEX program. This isonly an introduction; see the full documentation on CTAN.
With BibTEX, you don’t use thebibliography (see Section 8.24 [thebibliography],page 82). Instead, include these lines.
\bibliographystyle{bibstyle}
\bibliography{bibfile1, bibfile2, ...}
The bibstyle refers to a file bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look. Thestandard bibstyle’s distributed with BibTEX are:
alpha Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. The biblio-graphic items are sorted alphabetically.
plain Labels are integers. Sort the bibliographic items alphabetically.
unsrt Like plain, but entries are in order of citation.
abbrv Like plain, but more compact labels.
Many, many other BibTEX style files exist, tailored to the demands of various publications.See CTAN’s listing http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib.
The \bibliography command is what actually produces the bibliography. Its argumentis a comma-separated list, referring to files named bibfile1.bib, bibfile2.bib, . . . Thesecontain your database in BibTEX format. This shows a typical couple of entries in thatformat.
@book{texbook,
title = {The {{\TeX}}book},
author = {D.E. Knuth},
isbn = {0201134489},
series = {Computers \& typesetting},
year = {1983},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley}
}
@book{sexbook,
author = {W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson},
title = {Human Sexual Response},
year = {1966},
publisher = {Bantam Books}
}
Only the bibliographic entries referred to via \cite and \nocite will be listed in thedocument’s bibliography. Thus you can keep all your sources together in one file, or a smallnumber of files, and rely on BibTEX to include in this document only those that you used.
Chapter 8: Environments 86
8.25 theorem
Synopsis:
\begin{theorem}
theorem body
\end{theorem}
Produces ‘Theorem n’ in boldface followed by theorem body in italics. The number-ing possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem (see Section 12.9 [\newtheorem],page 110).
\newtheorem{lem}{Lemma} % in preamble
\newtheorem{thm}{Theorem}
...
\begin{lem} % in document body
text of lemma
\end{lem}
The next result follows immediately.
\begin{thm}[Gauss] % put ‘Gauss’ in parens after theorem head
text of theorem
\end{thm}
Most new documents use the packages amsthm and amsmath from the American Mathe-matical Society. Among other things these packages include a large number of options fortheorem environments, such as styling options.
8.26 titlepage
Synopsis:
\begin{titlepage}
... text and spacing ...
\end{titlepage}
Create a title page, a page with no printed page number or heading and with succeedingpages numbered starting with page one.
In this example all formatting, including vertical spacing, is left to the author.
\begin{titlepage}
\vspace*{\stretch{1}}
\begin{center}
{\huge\bfseries Thesis \\[1ex]
title} \\[6.5ex]
{\large\bfseries Author name} \\
\vspace{4ex}
Thesis submitted to \\[5pt]
\textit{University name} \\[2cm]
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of \\[2cm]
\textsc{\Large Doctor of Philosophy} \\[2ex]
\textsc{\large Mathematics} \\[12ex]
\vfill
Chapter 8: Environments 87
Department of Mathematics \\
Address \\
\vfill
\today
\end{center}
\vspace{\stretch{2}}
\end{titlepage}
To instead produce a standard title page without a titlepage environment, use\maketitle (see Section 18.1 [\maketitle], page 153).
8.27 verbatim
Synopsis:
\begin{verbatim}
literal-text
\end{verbatim}
A paragraph-making environment in which LATEX produces as output exactly what youtype as input. For instance inside literal-text the backslash \ character does not startcommands, it produces a printed ‘\’, and carriage returns and blanks are taken literally.The output appears in a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt).
\begin{verbatim}
Symbol swearing: %&$#?!.
\end{verbatim}
The only restriction on literal-text is that it cannot include the string\end{verbatim}.
You cannot use the verbatim environment in the argument to macros, for instance in theargument to a \section. This is not the same as commands being fragile (see Section 12.11[\protect], page 113), instead it just cannot appear there. (But the cprotect package canhelp with this.)
One common use of verbatim input is to typeset computer code. There are packagesthat are an improvement the verbatim environment. For instance, one improvement is toallow the verbatim inclusion of external files, or parts of those files. Such packages includelistings, and minted.
A package that provides many more options for verbatim environments is fancyvrb.Another is verbatimbox.
For a list of all the relevant packages, see CTAN.
8.27.1 \verb
Synopsis:
\verb char literal-text char
\verb* char literal-text char
Typeset literal-text as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using thetypewriter (\tt) font.
This example shows two different invocations of \verb.
This is \verb!literally! the biggest pumpkin ever.
Chapter 8: Environments 88
And this is the best squash, \verb+literally!+
The first \verb has its literal-text surrounded with exclamation point, !. The secondinstead uses plus, +, because the exclamation point is part of literal-text.
The single-character delimiter char surrounds literal-text — it must be the same charac-ter before and after. No spaces come between \verb or \verb* and char, or between charand literal-text, or between literal-text and the second occurrence of char (the synopsisshows a space only to distinguish one component from the other). The delimiter must notappear in literal-text. The literal-text cannot include a line break.
The *-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a visible space character. (Namely,␣.)
The output from this will include a character showing the spaces.
The commands’s first argument is \verb*!filename with extension! and ...
For typesetting Internet addresses, urls, the package url provides an option that is betterthan the \verb command, since it allows line breaks.
For computer code there are many packages with advantages over \verb. One islistings, another is minted.
You cannot use \verb in the argument to a macro, for instance in the argument to a\section. It is not a question of \verb being fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113),instead it just cannot appear there. (But the cprotect package can help with this.)
8.28 verse
Synopsis:
\begin{verse}
line1 \\
line2 \\
...
\end{verse}
An environment for poetry.
Here are two lines from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.
Then plainly know my heart’s dear love is set \\
On the fair daughter of rich Capulet.
Separate the lines of each stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to separatethe stanzas.
\begin{verse}
\makebox[\linewidth][c]{\textit{Shut Not Your Doors} ---Walt Whitman}
\\[1\baselineskip]
Shut not your doors to me proud libraries, \\
For that which was lacking on all your well-fill’d shelves, \\
\qquad yet needed most, I bring, \\
Forth from the war emerging, a book I have made, \\
The words of my book nothing, the drift of it every thing, \\
A book separate, not link’d with the rest nor felt by the intellect, \\
But you ye untold latencies will thrill to every page.
89
\end{verse}
The output has margins indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented,and the text is not right-justified.
90
9 Line breaking
The first thing LATEX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file intoa sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must bebroken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages).
LATEX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for you but in someenvironments you manually force line breaks.
A common workflow is to get a final version of the document content before taking afinal pass through and considering line breaks (and page breaks). This differs from wordprocessing, where you are formatting text as you input it. Putting these off until the endprevents a lot of fiddling with breaks that will change anyway.
9.1 \\
Synopsis, one of:
\\
\\[morespace]
or one of:
\\*
\\*[morespace]
End the current line. The optional argument morespace specifies extra vertical space tobe inserted before the next line. This is a rubber length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120)and can be negative. The text before the line break is set at its normal length, that is,it is not stretched to fill out the line width. This command is fragile (see Section 12.11[\protect], page 113).
The starred form, \\*, tells LATEX not to start a new page between the two lines, byissuing a \nobreak.
\title{My story: \\[0.25in]
a tale of woe}
Explicit line breaks in the main text body are unusual in LATEX. In particular, don’tstart new paragraphs with \\. Instead leave a blank line between the two paragraphs.And don’t put in a sequence of \\’s to make vertical space. Instead use \vspace{length},or \leavevmode\vspace{length}, or \vspace*{length} if you want the space to not bethrown out at the top of a new page (see Section 19.14 [\vspace], page 166).
The \\ command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a tabular
or array environment or in an equation environment.
The \\ command is a synonym for \newline (see Section 9.3 [\newline], page 92) underordinary circumstances (an example of an exception is the p{...} column in a tabular
environment; see Section 8.23 [tabular], page 77).
The \\ command is a macro, and its definition changes by context so that its definitionin normal text, a center environment, a flushleft environment, and a tabular are alldifferent. In normal text when it forces a linebreak it is essentially a shorthand for \newline.It does not end horizontal mode or end the paragraph, it just inserts some glue and penaltiesso that when the paragraph does end a linebreak will occur at that point, with the shortline padded with white space.
Chapter 9: Line breaking 91
You get ‘LaTeX Error: There’s no line here to end’ if you use \\ to ask for a newline, rather than to end the current line. An example is if you have \begin{document}\\
or, more likely, something like this.
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
\\
In that vertical space put your mark.
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
Fix it by replacing the double backslash with something like \vspace{\baselineskip}.
9.2 \obeycr & \restorecr
The \obeycr command makes a return in the input file (‘^^M’, internally) the same as \\,followed by \relax. So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output.The \restorecr command restores normal line-breaking behavior.
This is not the way to show verbatim text or computer code. See Section 8.27 [verbatim],page 87, instead.
With LATEX’s usual defaults, this
aaa
bbb
\obeycr
ccc
ddd
eee
\restorecr
fff
ggg
hhh
iii
produces output like this.
aaa bbb
ccc
ddd
eee
fff ggg
hhh iii
The indents are paragraph indents.
Chapter 9: Line breaking 92
9.3 \newline
In ordinary text, this ends a line in a way that does not right-justify the line, so the priortext is not stretched. That is, in paragraph mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151), the\newline command is equivalent to double-backslash (see Section 9.1 [\\], page 90). Thiscommand is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
However, the two commands are different inside a tabular or array environment. Ina column with a specifier producing a paragraph box such as typically p{...}, \newlinewill insert a line end inside of the column; that is, it does not break the entire tabular row.To break the entire row use \\ or its equivalent \tabularnewline.
This will print ‘Name:’ and ‘Address:’ as two lines in a single cell of the table.
\begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}}
Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
The ‘Date:’ will be baseline-aligned with ‘Name:’.
9.4 \- (discretionary hyphen)
Tell LATEX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. When you insert \- commands ina word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenationpoints that LATEX might otherwise have chosen. This command is robust (see Section 12.11[\protect], page 113).
LATEX is good at hyphenating and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points,while almost never using an incorrect one. The \- command is for exceptional cases.
For example, LATEX does not ordinarily hyphenate words containing a hyphen. Below,the long and hyphenated word means LATEX has to put in unacceptably large spaces to setthe narrow column.
\begin{tabular}{rp{1.75in}}
Isaac Asimov &The strain of
anti-intellectualism
% an\-ti-in\-tel\-lec\-tu\-al\-ism
has been a constant thread winding its way through our
political and cultural life, nurtured by
the false notion that democracy means that
‘my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge’.
\end{tabular}
Commenting out the third line and uncommenting the fourth makes a much better fit.
The \- command only allows LATEX to break there, it does not require that it breakthere. You can insist on a split with something like Hef-\linebreak feron. Of course,if you later change the text then this forced break may look very odd, so this approachrequires care.
9.5 \discretionary (generalized hyphenation point)
Synopsis:
\discretionary{pre-break}{post-break}{no-break}
Chapter 9: Line breaking 93
Handle word changes around hyphens. This command is not often used in LATEX docu-ments.
If a line break occurs at the point where \discretionary appears then TEX puts pre-break at the end of the current line and puts post-break at the start of the next line. Ifthere is no line break here then TEX puts no-break
In ‘difficult’ the three letters ffi form a ligature. But TEX can nonetheless breakbetween the two f’s with this.
di\discretionary{f-}{fi}{ffi}cult
Note that users do not have to do this. It is typically handled automatically by TEX’shyphenation algorithm.
9.6 \fussy & \sloppy
Declarations to make TEX more picky or less picky about line breaking. Declaring \fussy
usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.Conversely, \sloppy avoids overfull boxes while suffering loose interword spacing.
The default is \fussy. Line breaking in a paragraph is controlled by whichever decla-ration is current at the blank line, or \par, or displayed equation ending that paragraph.So to affect the line breaks, include that paragraph-ending material in the scope of thecommand.
9.6.1 sloppypar
Synopsis:
\begin{sloppypar}
... paragraphs ...
\end{sloppypar}
Typeset the paragraphs with \sloppy in effect (see Section 9.6 [\fussy & \sloppy],page 93). Use this to locally adjust line breaking, to avoid ‘Overfull box’ or ‘Underfullbox’ errors.
The example is simple.
\begin{sloppypar}
Her plan for the morning thus settled, she sat quietly down to her
book after breakfast, resolving to remain in the same place and the
same employment till the clock struck one; and from habitude very
little incommoded by the remarks and ejaculations of Mrs.\ Allen,
whose vacancy of mind and incapacity for thinking were such, that
as she never talked a great deal, so she could never be entirely
silent; and, therefore, while she sat at her work, if she lost her
needle or broke her thread, if she heard a carriage in the street,
or saw a speck upon her gown, she must observe it aloud, whether
there were anyone at leisure to answer her or not.
\end{sloppypar}
Chapter 9: Line breaking 94
9.7 \hyphenation
Synopsis:
\hyphenation{word1 ...}
Declares allowed hyphenation points within the words in the list. The words in that listare separated by spaces. Show permitted points for hyphenation with a dash character, -.
Here is an example:
\hyphenation{hat-er il-lit-e-ra-ti tru-th-i-ness}
Use lowercase letters. TEX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly. Multiple\hyphenation commands accumulate.
9.8 \linebreak & \nolinebreak
Synopses, one of:
\linebreak
\linebreak[zero-to-four]
or one of these.
\nolinebreak
\nolinebreak[zero-to-four]
Encourage or discourage a line break. The optional zero-to-four is an integer that allowsyou to soften the instruction. The default is 4, so that without the optional argument thesecommands entirely force or prevent the break. But for instance, \nolinebreak[1] is asuggestion that another place may be better. The higher the number, the more insistentthe request. Both commands are fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
Here we tell LATEX that a good place to put a linebreak is after the standard legal text.
\boilerplatelegal{} \linebreak[2]
We especially encourage applications from members of traditionally
underrepresented groups.
When you issue \linebreak, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extendsto the right margin. See Section 9.1 [\\], page 90, and Section 9.3 [\newline], page 92, tohave the spaces not stretched out.
95
10 Page breaking
Ordinarily LATEX automatically takes care of breaking output into pages with its usualaplomb. But if you are writing commands, or tweaking the final version of a document,then you may need to understand how to influence its actions.
LATEX’s algorithm for splitting a document into pages is more complex than just waitinguntil there is enough material to fill a page and outputting the result. Instead, LATEXtypesets more material than would fit on the page and then chooses a break that is optimalin some way (it has the smallest badness). An example of the advantage of this approachis that if the page has some vertical space that can be stretched or shrunk, such as withrubber lengths between paragraphs, then LATEX can use that to avoid widow lines (where anew page starts with the last line of a paragraph; LATEX can squeeze the extra line onto thefirst page) and orphans (where the first line of paragraph is at the end of a page; LATEX canstretch the material of the first page so the extra line falls on the second page). Anotherexample is where LATEX uses available vertical shrinkage to fit on a page not just the headerfor a new section but also the first two lines of that section.
But LATEX does not optimize over the entire document’s set of page breaks. So it canhappen that the first page break is great but the second one is lousy; to break the currentpage LATEX doesn’t look as far ahead as the next page break. So occasionally you may wantto influence page breaks while preparing a final version of a document.
See Chapter 5 [Layout], page 22, for more material that is relevant to page breaking.
10.1 \clearpage & \cleardoublepage
Synopsis:
\clearpage
or
\cleardoublepage
End the current page and output all of the pending floating figures and tables (seeSection 5.6 [Floats], page 26). If there are too many floats to fit on the page then LATEXwill put in extra pages containing only floats. In two-sided printing, \cleardoublepagealso makes the next page of content a right-hand page, an odd-numbered page, if necessaryinserting a blank page. The \clearpage command is robust while \cleardoublepage isfragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
LATEX’s page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a documentbody to polish the final version, or inside commands.
The \cleardoublepage command will put in a blank page, but it will have the runningheaders and footers. To get a really blank page, use this command.
\let\origdoublepage\cleardoublepage
\newcommand{\clearemptydoublepage}{%
\clearpage
{\pagestyle{empty}\origdoublepage}%
}
If you want LATEX’s standard \chapter command to do this then add the line\let\cleardoublepage\clearemptydoublepage.
Chapter 10: Page breaking 96
The command \newpage (see Section 10.2 [\newpage], page 96) also ends the currentpage, but without clearing pending floats. And, if LATEX is in two-column mode then\newpage ends the current column while \clearpage and \cleardoublepage end the cur-rent page.
10.2 \newpage
Synopsis:
\newpage
End the current page. This command is robust (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
LATEX’s page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a documentbody to polish the final version, or inside commands.
While the commands \clearpage and \cleardoublepage also end the current page,in addition they clear pending floats (see Section 10.1 [\clearpage & \cleardoublepage],page 95). And, if LATEX is in two-column mode then \clearpage and \cleardoublepage
end the current page, possibly leaving an empty column, while \newpage only ends thecurrent column.
In contrast with \pagebreak (see Section 10.4 [\pagebreak & \nopagebreak], page 97),the \newpage command will cause the new page to start right where requested. This
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent,
\newpage
\noindent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal.
makes a new page start after ‘continent,’ and the cut-off line is not right justified. Inaddition, \newpage does not vertically stretch out the page, as \pagebreak does.
10.3 \enlargethispage
Synopsis, one of:
\enlargethispage{size}
\enlargethispage*{size}
Enlarge the \textheight for the current page. The required argument size must be arigid length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). It may be positive or negative. Thiscommand is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
A common strategy is to wait until you have the final text of a document, and then passthrough it tweaking line and page breaks. This command allows you some page size leeway.
This will allow one extra line on the current page.
\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}
The starred form \enlargesthispage* tries to squeeze the material together on thepage as much as possible, for the common use case of getting one more line on the page.This is often used together with an explicit \pagebreak.
Chapter 10: Page breaking 97
10.4 \pagebreak & \nopagebreak
Synopses:
\pagebreak
\pagebreak[zero-to-four]
or
\nopagebreak
\nopagebreak[zero-to-four]
Encourage or discourage a page break. The optional zero-to-four is an integer that allowsyou to soften the request. The default is 4, so that without the optional argument thesecommands entirely force or prevent the break. But for instance \nopagebreak[1] suggeststo LATEX that another spot might be preferable. The higher the number, the more insistentthe request. Both commands are fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
LATEX’s page endings are optimized so ordinarily you only use this command in a docu-ment body to polish the final version, or inside commands.
If you use these inside a paragraph, they apply to the point following the line in whichthey appear. So this
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent,
\pagebreak
a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition
that all men are created equal.
does not give a page break at ‘continent,’ but instead at ‘nation,’ since that is whereLATEX breaks that line. In addition, with \pagebreak the vertical space on the page isstretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin. This canlook strange, and if \flushbottom is in effect this can cause you to get ‘Underfull \vbox
(badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active’. See Section 10.2 [\newpage],page 96, for a command that does not have these effects.
98
11 Footnotes
Place a footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here.
Noel Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having
to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making
love.\footnote{%
I wouldn’t know, I don’t read footnotes.}
You can put multiple footnotes on a page. If the footnote text becomes too long then itwill flow to the next page.
You can also produce footnotes by combining the \footnotemark and the\footnotetext commands, which is useful in special circumstances.
To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to include a biblio-graphic style with that behavior (see Section 8.24.4 [Using BibTeX], page 85).
11.1 \footnote
Synopsis, one of:
\footnote{text}
\footnote[number]{text}
Place a footnote text at the bottom of the current page.
There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon’s
\textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{%
After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained,
‘‘One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method
of printing the Book’’ and suggested that they ‘‘only to be printed
at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.’’}
The optional argument number allows you to specify the number of the footnote. If youuse this then LATEX does not increment the footnote counter.
By default, LATEX uses arabic numbers as footnote markers. Change this with some-thing like \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}, which uses a sequenceof symbols (see Section 13.1 [\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol], page 116).To make this change global put that in the preamble. If you make the change local thenyou may want to reset the counter with \setcounter{footnote}{0}.
LATEX determines the spacing of footnotes with two parameters.
\footnoterule
Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page’s foot-notes. Default dimensions in the standard document classes (except slides,where it does not appear) is: vertical thickness of 0.4pt, and horizontal size of0.4\columnwidth long. Change the rule with something like this.
\renewcommand{\footnoterule}{% Kerns avoid vertical space
\kern -3pt % This -3 is negative
\hrule width \textwidth height 1pt % of the sum of this 1
\kern 2pt} % and this 2
Chapter 11: Footnotes 99
\footnotesep
The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote (see Section 19.13[\strut], page 165). By default, this is set to the normal strut for \footnotesizefonts (see Section 4.2 [Font sizes], page 18), therefore there is no extra spacebetween footnotes. This is ‘6.65pt’ for ‘10pt’, ‘7.7pt’ for ‘11pt’, and ‘8.4pt’for ‘12pt’. Change it as with \setlength{\footnotesep}{11pt}.
The \footnote command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
LATEX’s default puts many restrictions on where you can use a \footnote; for instance,you cannot use it in an argument to a sectioning command such as \chapter (it can onlybe used in outer paragraph mode; see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151). There are someworkarounds; see following sections.
In a minipage environment the \footnote command uses the mpfootnote counter in-stead of the footnote counter, so they are numbered independently. They are shown atthe bottom of the environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they areshown alphabetically. See Section 8.18 [minipage], page 63, and Section 11.5 [Footnotes ina table], page 100.
11.2 \footnotemark
Synopsis, one of:
\footnotemark
\footnotemark[number]
Put the current footnote mark in the text. To specify associated text for the footnotesee Section 11.3 [\footnotetext], page 100. The optional argument number causes thecommand to use that number to determine the footnote mark. This command can be usedin inner paragraph mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151).
If you use \footnotemark without the optional argument then it increments the footnotecounter but if you use the optional number then it does not. The next example producesseveral consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote.
The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.}
and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
If there are intervening footnotes then you must remember the value of the commonmark. This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the first and thirdauthors (\thanks is a version of footnote), by-hand giving the number of the footnote.
\title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem}
\author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds}
\and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University}
\and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
This uses a counter to remember the footnote number. The third sentence is followedby the same footnote marker as the first.
\newcounter{footnoteValueSaver}
Chapter 11: Footnotes 100
All babies are illogical.\footnote{%
Lewis Carroll.}\setcounter{footnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}}
Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.\footnote{%
Captain Hook.}
Illogical persons are despised.\footnotemark[\value{footnoteValueSaver}]
Therefore, anyone who can manage a crocodile is not a baby.
This example accomplishes the same by using the package cleveref.
\usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15] % in preamble
\crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3}
...
The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker, Evers, 1994.}
The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers, Chance, 1990.}
But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE}
It will work with the package hyperref.
11.3 \footnotetext
Synopsis, one of:
\footnotetext{text}
\footnotetext[number]{text}
Place text at the bottom of the page as a footnote. It pairs with \footnotemark (seeSection 11.2 [\footnotemark], page 99) and can come anywhere after that command, butmust appear in outer paragraph mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151). The optionalargument number changes the number of the footnote mark.
See Section 11.2 [\footnotemark], page 99, and Section 11.5 [Footnotes in a table],page 100, for usage examples.
11.4 Footnotes in section headings
Putting a footnote in a section heading, as in:
\section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material due to ...}}
causes the footnote to appear at the bottom of the page where the section starts, as usual,but also at the bottom of the table of contents, where it is not likely to be desired. Thesimplest way to have it not appear on the table of contents is to use the optional argumentto \section
\section[Please]{Please\footnote{%
Don’t footnote in chapter and section headers!}}
No \protect is needed in front of \footnote here because what gets moved to the table ofcontents is the optional argument.
11.5 Footnotes in a table
Inside a tabular or array environment the \footnote command does not work; there is afootnote mark in the table cell but the footnote text does not appear. The solution is touse a minipage environment as here (see Section 8.18 [minipage], page 63).
\begin{center}
Chapter 11: Footnotes 101
\begin{minipage}{\textwidth} \centering
\begin{tabular}{l|l}
\textsc{Ship} &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline
\textit{HMS Sophie} &Master and Commander \\
\textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain \\
\textit{HMS Lively} &Post Captain \\
\textit{HMS Surprise} &A number of books\footnote{%
Starting with HMS Surprise.}
\end{tabular}
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
Inside a minipage, footnote marks are lowercase letters. Change that with something like\renewcommand{\thempfootnote}{\arabic{mpfootnote}} (see Section 13.1 [\alph \Alph\arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol], page 116).
The footnotes in the prior example appear at the bottom of the minipage. To havethem appear at the bottom of the main page, as part of the regular footnote sequence, usethe \footnotemark and \footnotetext pair and make a new counter.
\newcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{\textwidth}
\setcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}} \centering
\begin{tabular}{l|l}
\textsc{Woman} &\textsc{Relationship} \\ \hline
Mona &Attached\footnotemark \\
Diana Villiers &Eventual wife \\
Christine Hatherleigh Wood &Fiance\footnotemark
\end{tabular}
\end{minipage}% percent sign keeps footnote text close to minipage
\stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}%
\footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{%
Little is known other than her death.}%
\stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}%
\footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{%
Relationship is unresolved in XXI.}
\end{center}
For a floating table environment (see Section 8.22 [table], page 76), use thetablefootnote package.
\usepackage{tablefootnote} % in preamble
...
\begin{table}
\centering
\begin{tabular}{l|l}
\textsc{Date} &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline
1862 &Fort Donelson \\
1863 &Vicksburg \\
1865 &Army of Northern Virginia\tablefootnote{%
Chapter 11: Footnotes 102
Ending the war.}
\end{tabular}
\caption{Forces captured by US Grant}
\end{table}
The footnote appears at the page bottom and is numbered in sequence with other footnotes.
11.6 Footnotes of footnotes
Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of footnotes, includinghaving footnotes of footnotes. The package bigfoot extends LATEX’s default footnote mech-anism in many ways, including allow these two, as in this example.
\usepackage{bigfoot} % in preamble
\DeclareNewFootnote{Default}
\DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph] % create class \footnotefrom{}
...
The third theorem is a partial converse of the
second.\footnotefrom{%
First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}}
103
12 Definitions
LATEX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
12.1 \newcommand & \renewcommand
Synopses, one of:
\newcommand{\cmd}{defn}
\newcommand{\cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\newcommand{\cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
\newcommand*{\cmd}{defn}
\newcommand*{\cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\newcommand*{\cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
or one of these.
\renewcommand{\cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\renewcommand{\cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\renewcommand{\cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
\renewcommand*{\cmd}{defn}
\renewcommand*{\cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\renewcommand*{\cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
Define or redefine a command. See also the discussion of \DeclareRobustCommand inSection 3.3.2 [Class and package commands], page 10. The starred form of these two requiresthat the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (in plain TEX terms that it notbe \long).
These are the parameters:
cmd
Required; the command name. It must begin with a backslash, \, and mustnot begin with the four letter string \end. For \newcommand, it must not bealready defined. For \renewcommand, this name must already be defined.
nargs Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments that thecommand takes, including any optional argument. Omitting this argument isthe same as specifying 0, meaning that the command has no arguments. If youredefine a command, the new version can have a different number of argumentsthan the old version.
optargdefaultOptional; if this argument is present then the first argument of \cmd is optional,with default value optargdefault (which may be the empty string). If thisargument is not present then \cmd does not take an optional argument.
That is, if \cmd is used with square brackets, as in \cmd[optval]{...}..., thenwithin defn the parameter #1 is set to the value of optval. On the other hand,if \cmd is called without the square brackets then within defn the parameter#1 is set to the value of optargdefault. In either case, the required argumentsstart with #2.
Chapter 12: Definitions 104
Omitting [optargdefault] is different from having the square brackets withno contents, as in []. The former sets #1 to the value of optargdefault; thelatter sets #1 to the empty string.
defn Required; the text to be substituted for every occurrence of \cmd. The param-eters #1, #2, ... #nargs are replaced by the values that you supply when youcall the command (or by the default value if there is an optional argument andyou don’t exercise the option).
TEX ignores spaces in the source following an alphabetic control sequence, as in ‘\cmd ’.If you actually want a space there, one solution is to type {} after the command (‘\cmd{}’, and another solution is to use an explicit control space (‘\cmd\ ’).
A simple example of defining a new command: \newcommand{\RS}{Robin Smith} resultsin \RS being replaced by the longer text. Redefining an existing command is similar:\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}.
If you try to define a command and the name has already been used then youget something like ‘LaTeX Error: Command \fred already defined. Or name \end...
illegal, see p.192 of the manual’. If you try to redefine a command and the name hasnot yet been used then you get something like ‘LaTeX Error: \hank undefined’.
Here the first command definition has no arguments, and the second has one requiredargument.
\newcommand{\student}{Ms~O’Leary}
\newcommand{\defref}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}
Use the first as in I highly recommend \student{} to you. The second has a variable,so that \defref{def:basis} expands to Definition~\ref{def:basis}, which ultimatelyexpands to something like ‘Definition~3.14’.
Similarly, but with two required arguments: \newcommand{\nbym}[2]{$#1 \times #2$}
is invoked as \nbym{2}{k}.
This example has an optional argument.
\newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}
Then \salutation gives ‘Dear Sir or Madam:’ while \salutation[John] gives ‘DearJohn:’. And \salutation[] gives ‘Dear :’.
This example has an optional argument and two required arguments.
\newcommand{\lawyers}[3][company]{#2, #3, and~#1}
I employ \lawyers[Howe]{Dewey}{Cheatem}.
The output is ‘I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and Howe’. The optional argument, the Howe, isassociated with #1, while Dewey and Cheatem are associated with #2 and #3. Because ofthe optional argument, \lawyers{Dewey}{Cheatem} will give the output ‘I employ Dewey,
Cheatem, and company’.
The braces around defn do not define a group, that is, they do not delimit the scope ofthe result of expanding defn. For example, with \newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}, inthis sentence,
The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Merrimac}.
the words ‘met the’ would incorrectly be in italics. The solution is to put another pair ofbraces inside the definition: \newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}.
Chapter 12: Definitions 105
12.2 \providecommand
Synopses, one of:
\providecommand{cmd}{defn}
\providecommand{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\providecommand{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
\providecommand*{cmd}{defn}
\providecommand*{cmd}[nargs]{defn}
\providecommand*{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists. If no commandof this name already exists then this has the same effect as \newcommand. If a command ofthis name already exists then this definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in afile that may be loaded more than once, such as a style file. See Section 12.1 [\newcommand& \renewcommand], page 103, for the description of the arguments.
This example
\providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael’s College}
\providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael’s College}
From \myaffiliation.
outputs ‘From Saint Michael’s College’. Unlike \newcommand, the repeated use of\providecommand does not give an error.
12.3 \makeatletter & \makeatother
Synopsis:
\makeatletter
... definition of commands with @ in their name ..
\makeatother
Use this pair when you redefine LATEX commands that are named with an at-sign charac-ter ‘@’. The \makeatletter declaration makes the at-sign character have the category codeof a letter, code 11. The \makeatother declaration sets the category code of the at-sign tocode 12, its default value.
As TEX reads characters, it assigns each one a category code, or catcode. For instance, itassigns the backslash character ‘\’ the catcode 0. Command names consist of a category 0character, ordinarily backslash, followed by letters, category 11 characters (except that acommand name can also consist of a category 0 character followed by a single non-lettersymbol).
LATEX’s source code has the convention that some commands use @ in their name. Thesecommands are mainly intended for package or class writers. The convention prevents au-thors who are just using a package or class from accidentally replacing such a commandwith one of their own, because by default the at-sign has catcode 12.
The pair \makeatletter and \makeatother changes the default code and then changesit back. Use them inside a .tex file, in the preamble, when you are defining or redefiningcommands named with @, by having them surround your definition. Don’t use these inside.sty or .cls files since the \usepackage and \documentclass commands already arrangethat the at-sign has the character code of a letter, catcode 11.
Chapter 12: Definitions 106
For a comprehensive list of macros with an at-sign in their names see http://ctan.
org/pkg/macros2e.
In this example the class file has a command \thesis@universityname that the userwants to change. These three lines should go in the preamble, before the \begin{document}.
\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\thesis@universityname}{Saint Michael’s College}
\makeatother
12.4 \@ifstar
Synopsis:
\newcommand{\mycmd}{\@ifstar{\mycmd@star}{\mycmd@nostar}}
\newcommand{\mycmd@nostar}[nostar-num-args]{nostar-body}
\newcommand{\mycmd@star}[star-num-args]{star-body}
Many standard LATEX environments or commands have a variant with the same namebut ending with a star character *, an asterisk. Examples are the table and table*
environments and the \section and \section* commands.
When defining environments, following this pattern is straightforward because\newenvironment and \renewenvironment allow the environment name to contain a star.For commands the situation is more complex. As in the synopsis above, there will be auser-called command, given above as \mycmd, which peeks ahead to see if it is followedby a star. For instance, LATEX does not really have a \section* command; instead, the\section command peeks ahead. This command does not accept arguments but insteadexpands to one of two commands that do accept arguments. In the synopsis these two are\mycmd@nostar and \mycmd@star. They could take the same number of arguments or adifferent number, or no arguments at all. As always, in a LATEX document a commandusing at-sign @ must be enclosed inside a \makeatletter ... \makeatother block (seeSection 12.3 [\makeatletter & \makeatother], page 105).
This example of \@ifstar defines the command \ciel and a variant \ciel*. Bothhave one required argument. A call to \ciel{night} will return "starry night sky" while\ciel*{blue} will return "starry not blue sky".
\newcommand*{\ciel@unstarred}[1]{starry #1 sky}
\newcommand*{\ciel@starred}[1]{starry not #1 sky}
\newcommand*{\ciel}{\@ifstar{\ciel@starred}{\ciel@unstarred}}
In the next example, the starred variant takes a different number of arguments thanthe unstarred one. With this definition, Agent 007’s ‘‘My name is \agentsecret*{Bond},
\agentsecret{James}{Bond}.’’ is equivalent to entering the commands ‘‘My name is
\textsc{Bond}, \textit{James} textsc{Bond}.’’
\newcommand*{\agentsecret@unstarred}[2]{\textit{#1} \textsc{#2}}
\newcommand*{\agentsecret@starred}[1]{\textsc{#1}}
\newcommand*{\agentsecret}{%
\@ifstar{\agentsecret@starred}{\agentsecret@unstarred}}
There are two sometimes more convenient ways to accomplish the work of \@ifstar.The suffix package allows the construct \newcommand\mycommand{unstarred version}
Chapter 12: Definitions 107
followed by \WithSuffix\newcommand\mycommand*{starred version}. And LATEX3 hasthe xparse package that allows this code.
\NewDocumentCommand\foo{s}{\IfBooleanTF#1
{starred version}%
{unstarred version}%
}
12.5 \newcounter: Allocating a counter
Synopsis, one of:
\newcounter{countername}
\newcounter{countername}[supercounter]
Globally defines a new counter named countername and initialize it to zero (seeChapter 13 [Counters], page 116).
The name countername must consist of letters only. It does not begin with a backslash.This name must not already be in use by another counter.
When you use the optional argument [supercounter] then the counter counternamewill be reset to zero whenever supercounter is incremented. For example, ordinarilysubsection is numbered within section so that any time you increment section, eitherwith \stepcounter (see Section 13.7 [\stepcounter], page 119) or \refstepcounter (seeSection 13.6 [\refstepcounter], page 118), then LATEX will reset subsection to zero.
This example
\newcounter{asuper} \setcounter{asuper}{1}
\newcounter{asub}[asuper] \setcounter{asub}{3} % Note ‘asuper’
The value of asuper is \arabic{asuper} and of asub is \arabic{asub}.
\stepcounter{asuper}
Now asuper is \arabic{asuper} while asub is \arabic{asub}.
produces ‘The value of asuper is 1 and that of asub is 3’ and ‘Now asuper is 2
while asub is 0’.
If the counter already exists, for instance by entering asuper twice, then you getsomething like ‘LaTeX Error: Command \c@asuper already defined. Or name \end...
illegal, see p.192 of the manual.’.
If you use the optional argument then the super counter must already exist. Entering\newcounter{jh}[lh] when lh is not a defined counter will get you ‘LaTeX Error: No
counter ’lh’ defined.’
12.6 \newlength
Synopsis:
\newlength{arg}
Allocate a new length register (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). The requiredargument arg must begin with a backslash, \. The new register holds rubber lengths suchas 72.27pt or 1in plus.2in minus.1in (a LATEX length register is what plain TEX calls askip register). The initial value is zero. The control sequence \arg must not be alreadydefined.
Chapter 12: Definitions 108
An example:
\newlength{\graphichgt}
If you forget the backslash then you get ‘Missing control sequence inserted’. Ifthe command sequence already exists then you get something like ‘LaTeX Error: Command
\graphichgt already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual’.
12.7 \newsavebox
Synopsis:
\newsavebox{\cmd}
Define \cmd, the string consisting of a backslash followed by cmd, to refer to a new binfor storing material. These bins hold material that has been typeset, to use multiple timesor to measure or manipulate (see Chapter 20 [Boxes], page 169). The bin name \cmd isrequired, must start with a backslash, \, and must not already be a defined command. Thiscommand is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
This allocates a bin and then puts typeset material into it.
\newsavebox{\logobox}
\savebox{\logobox}{LoGo}
Our logo is \usebox{\logobox}.
The output is ‘Our logo is LoGo’.
If there is an already defined bin then you get something like ‘LaTeX Error: Command
\logobox already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual’.
The allocation of a box is global.
12.8 \newenvironment & \renewenvironment
Synopses, one of:
\newenvironment{env}{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment*{env}{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment*{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
\newenvironment*{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdef}{enddef}
or one of these.
\renewenvironment{env}{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment*{env}{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment*{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}
\renewenvironment*{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdef}{enddef}
Define or redefine the environment env, that is, create the construct \begin{env} ...
body ... \end{env}.
The starred form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain multi-ple paragraphs of text. However, the body of these environments can contain multipleparagraphs.
Chapter 12: Definitions 109
env Required; the environment name. It consists only of letters or the * character,and thus does not begin with backslash, \. It must not begin with the stringend. For \newenvironment, the name env must not be the name of an alreadyexisting environment, and also the command \env must be undefined. For\renewenvironment, env must be the name of an existing environment.
nargs Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of thatthe environment takes. When you use the environment these arguments ap-pear after the \begin, as in \begin{env}{arg1} ... {argn}. Omitting this isequivalent to setting it to 0; the environment will have no arguments. Whenredefining an environment, the new version can have a different number of ar-guments than the old version.
optargdefaultOptional; if this is present then the first argument of the defined environmentis optional, with default value optargdefault (which may be the empty string).If this is not in the definition then the environment does not take an optionalargument.
That is, when optargdefault is present in the definition of the environ-ment then you can start the environment with square brackets, as in\begin{env}[optval]{...} ... \end{env}. In this case, within begdefn theparameter #1 is set to the value of optval. If you call \begin{env} withoutsquare brackets, then within begdefn the parameter #1 is set to the value ofthe default optargdefault. In either case, any required arguments start with#2.
Omitting [myval] in the call is different than having the square brackets withno contents, as in []. The former results in #1 expanding to optargdefault; thelatter results in #1 expanding to the empty string.
begdef Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of \begin{env}. Withinbegdef, the parameters #1, #2, ... #nargs, are replaced by the values thatyou supply when you call the environment; see the examples below.
enddef Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of \end{env}. This may notcontain any parameters, that is, you cannot use #1, #2, etc., here (but see thefinal example below).
All environments, that is to say the begdef code, the environment body, and the enddefcode, are processed within a group. Thus, in the first example below, the effect of the\small is limited to the quote and does not extend to material following the environment.
If you try to define an environment and the name has already been used then youget something like ‘LaTeX Error: Command \fred already defined. Or name \end...
illegal, see p.192 of the manual’. If you try to redefine an environment and the namehas not yet been used then you get something like ‘LaTeX Error: Environment hank
undefined.’.
This example gives an environment like LATEX’s quotation except that it will be set insmaller type.
\newenvironment{smallquote}{%
\small\begin{quotation}
Chapter 12: Definitions 110
}{%
\end{quotation}
}
This has an argument, which is set in boldface at the start of a paragraph.
\newenvironment{point}[1]{%
\noindent\textbf{#1}
}{%
}
This one shows the use of a optional argument; it gives a quotation environment thatcites the author.
\newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
\begin{quotation}
\noindent\textit{#1}:
}{%
\end{quotation}
}
The author’s name is optional, and defaults to ‘Shakespeare’. In the document, use theenvironment like this.
\begin{citequote}[Lincoln]
...
\end{citequote}
The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in enddef, in thiscase in a box (see Section 20.5 [\sbox & \savebox], page 173).
\newsavebox{\quoteauthor}
\newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
\sbox\quoteauthor{#1}%
\begin{quotation}
}{%
\hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor}
\end{quotation}
}
12.9 \newtheorem
Synopses:
\newtheorem{name}{title}
\newtheorem{name}{title}[numbered_within]
\newtheorem{name}[numbered_like]{title}
Define a new theorem-like environment. You can specify one of numbered within andnumbered like, or neither, but not both.
The first form, \newtheorem{name}{title}, creates an environment that will be labelledwith title; see the first example below.
The second form, \newtheorem{name}{title}[numbered_within], creates an environ-ment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter numbered within, so this counterwill be reset when numbered within is reset. See the second example below.
Chapter 12: Definitions 111
The third form \newtheorem{name}[numbered_like]{title}, with optional argumentbetween the two required arguments, creates an environment whose counter will share thepreviously defined counter numbered like. See the third example.
This command creates a counter named name. In addition, unless the optional argumentnumbered like is used, inside of the theorem-like environment the current \ref value willbe that of \thenumbered_within (see Section 7.3 [\ref], page 42).
This declaration is global. It is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
Arguments:
name The name of the environment. It is a string of letters. It must not begin witha backslash, \. It must not be the name of an existing environment, and thecommand name \name must not already be defined.
title The text to be printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number.For example, ‘Theorem’.
numbered withinOptional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional unit suchas chapter or section. When the numbered within counter is reset then thename environment’s counter will also be reset.
If this optional argument is not used then the command \thename is set to\arabic{name}.
numbered likeOptional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The newenvironment will be numbered in sequence with numbered like.
Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered sequentially. Theexample below has a declaration in the preamble that results in ‘Definition 1’ and‘Definition 2’ in the output.
\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
First def
\end{defn}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
Second def
\end{defn}
This example has the same document body as the prior one. But here \newtheorem’soptional argument numbered within is given as section, so the output is like‘Definition 1.1’ and ‘Definition 2.1’.
\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
Chapter 12: Definitions 112
First def
\end{defn}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
Second def
\end{defn}
In the next example there are two declarations in the preamble, the second of which callsfor the new thm environment to use the same counter as defn. It gives ‘Definition 1.1’,followed by ‘Theorem 2.1’ and ‘Definition 2.2’.
\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
\newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem}
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
First def
\end{defn}
\section{...}
\begin{thm}
First thm
\end{thm}
\begin{defn}
Second def
\end{defn}
12.10 \newfont
This command is obsolete. This description is here only to help with old documents. Newdocuments should define fonts in families through the New Font Selection Scheme whichallows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman (see Chapter 4 [Fonts],page 16).
Synopsis:
\newfont{\cmd}{font description}
Define a command \cmd that will change the current font. The control sequence mustnot already be defined. It must begin with a backslash, \.
The font description consists of a fontname and an optional at clause. LATEX will lookon your system for a file named fontname.tfm. The at clause can have the form either at
dimen or scaled factor, where a factor of ‘1000’ means no scaling. For LATEX’s purposes,all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font’s designsize, which is a value defined in the .tfm file.
This defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each.
\newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt}
\newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 1100}
Chapter 12: Definitions 113
\testfontat abc
\testfontscaled abc
12.11 \protect
All LATEX commands are either fragile or robust. A fragile command can break when it isused in the argument to certain other commands. Commands that contain data that LATEXwrites to an auxiliary file and re-reads later are fragile. This includes material that goesinto a table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, etc. Fragile commands also include linebreaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more. To prevent suchcommands from breaking, one solution is to preceded them with the command \protect.
For example, when LATEX runs the \section{section name} command it writes the sec-tion name text to the .aux auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the documentsuch as in the table of contents. Any argument that is internally expanded by LATEX withouttypesetting it directly is referred to as a moving argument. A command is fragile if it canexpand during this process into invalid TEX code. Some examples of moving arguments arethose that appear in the \caption{...} command (see Section 8.10 [figure], page 52), inthe \thanks{...} command (see Section 18.1 [\maketitle], page 153), and in @-expressionsin the tabular and array environments (see Section 8.23 [tabular], page 77).
If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try preceding itwith \protect. Every fragile commands must be protected with their own \protect.
Although usually a \protect command doesn’t hurt, length commands are robust andshould not be preceded by a \protect command. Nor can a \protect command be usedin the argument to \addtocounter or \setcounter command.
In this example the \caption command gives a mysterious error about an extra curlybrace. Fix the problem by preceding each \raisebox command with \protect.
\begin{figure}
...
\caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}}
\end{figure}
In the next example the \tableofcontents command gives an error because the \(..\)in the section title expands to illegal TEX in the .toc file. You can solve this by changing\(..\) to \protect\(..\protect\).
\begin{document}
\tableofcontents
...
\section{Einstein’s \( e=mc^2 \)}
...
12.12 \ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend
Synopsis:
\ignorespaces
or
\ignorespacesafterend
Chapter 12: Definitions 114
Both commands cause LATEX to ignore spaces after the end of the command up untilthe first non-space character. The first is a command from Plain TEX, and the second isLATEX-specific.
The ignorespaces is often used when defining commands via \newcommand, or\newenvironment, or \def. The example below illustrates. It allows a user to show thepoints values for quiz questions in the margin but it is inconvenient because, as shown inthe enumerate list, users must not put any space between the command and the questiontext.
\newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}
\begin{enumerate}
\item\points{10}no extra space output here
\item\points{15} extra space between the number and the ‘extra’
\end{enumerate}
The solution is to change to this.
\newcommand{\points}[1]{%
\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}\ignorespaces}
A second example shows spaces being removed from the front of text. The commandsbelow allow a user to uniformly attach a title to names. But, as given, if a title accidentallystarts with a space then \fullname will reproduce that.
\makeatletter
\newcommand{\honorific}[1]{\def\@honorific{#1}} % remember title
\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\@honorific~#1} % put title before name
\makeatother
\begin{tabular}{|l|}
\honorific{Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} \\ % no extra space here
\honorific{ Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones} % extra space before title
\end{tabular}
To fix this, change to \newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\ignorespaces\@honorific~#1}.
The \ignorespaces is also often used in a \newenvironment at the end of the be-gin clause, that is, as part of the second argument, as in \begin{newenvironment}{env
name}{... \ignorespaces}{...}.
To strip spaces off the end of an environment use \ignorespacesafterend. An exampleis that this will show a much larger vertical space between the first and second environmentsthan between the second and third.
\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}}
\begin{eq}
e=mc^2
\end{eq}
\begin{equation}
F=ma
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
E=IR
\end{equation}
115
Putting a comment character % immediately after the \end{eq} will make thevertical space disappear, but that is inconvenient. The solution is to change to\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}\ignorespacesafterend}.
116
13 Counters
Everything LATEX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of thecounter is often the same as the name of the environment or command associated with thenumber, except that the counter’s name has no backslash \. Thus, associated with the\chapter command is the chapter counter that keeps track of the chapter number.
Below is a list of the counters used in LATEX’s standard document classes to controlnumbering.
part paragraph figure enumi
chapter subparagraph table enumii
section page footnote enumiii
subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv
subsubsection
The mpfootnote counter is used by the \footnote command inside of a minipage(see Section 8.18 [minipage], page 63). The counters enumi through enumiv are used inthe enumerate environment, for up to four levels of nesting (see Section 8.7 [enumerate],page 49).
Counters can have any integer value but they are typically positive.
New counters are created with \newcounter. See Section 12.5 [\newcounter], page 107.
13.1 \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol: Printingcounters
Print the value of a counter, in a specified style. For instance, if the counter counter has thevalue 1 then a \alph{counter} in your source will result in a lowercase letter a appearingin the output.
All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, \alph{enumi}.Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash.
\alph{counter}
Print the value of counter in lowercase letters: ‘a’, ‘b’, . . . If the counter’svalue is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get ‘LaTeX Error: Counter too
large.’
\Alph{counter}
Print in uppercase letters: ‘A’, ‘B’, . . . If the counter’s value is less than 1 ormore than 26 then you get ‘LaTeX Error: Counter too large.’
\arabic{counter}
Print in Arabic numbers such as ‘5’ or ‘-2’.
\roman{counter}
Print in lowercase roman numerals: ‘i’, ‘ii’, . . . If the counter’s value is lessthan 1 then you get no warning or error but LATEX does not print anything inthe output.
\Roman{counter}
Print in uppercase roman numerals: ‘I’, ‘II’, . . . If the counter’s value is lessthan 1 then you get no warning or error but LATEX does not print anything inthe output.
Chapter 13: Counters 117
\fnsymbol{counter}
Prints the value of counter using a sequence of nine symbols that are tradi-tionally used for labeling footnotes. The value of counter should be between 1and 9, inclusive. If the counter’s value is less than 0 or more than 9 then youget ‘LaTeX Error: Counter too large’, while if it is 0 then you get no error orwarning but LATEX does not output anything.
Here are the symbols:
Number Name Command Symbol1 asterisk \ast \ast2 dagger \dagger †3 ddagger \ddagger ‡4 section-sign \S §5 paragraph-sign \P ¶6 double-vert \parallel ‖7 double-asterisk \ast\ast \ast\ast8 double-dagger \dagger\dagger ††9 double-ddagger \ddagger\ddagger ‡‡
13.2 \usecounter
Synopsis:
\usecounter{counter}
Used in the second argument of the list environment (see Section 8.16 [list], page 57),this declares that list items will be numbered by counter. It initializes counter to zero,and arranges that when \item is called without its optional argument then counter isincremented by \refstepcounter, making its value be the current ref value (see Section 7.3[\ref], page 42). This command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
Put in the document preamble, this example makes a new list environment enumeratedwith testcounter:
\newcounter{testcounter}
\newenvironment{test}{%
\begin{list}{}{%
\usecounter{testcounter}
}
}{%
\end{list}
}
13.3 \value
Synopsis:
\value{counter}
Expands to the value of the counter counter. (Note that the name of a counter does notbegin with a backslash.)
Chapter 13: Counters 118
This example outputs ‘Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.’.
\newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5}
\newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}}
\addtocounter{test}{1}
Test counter is \arabic{test}.
Other counter is \arabic{other}.
The \value command is not used for typesetting the value of the counter. For that, seeSection 13.1 [\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol], page 116.
It is often used in \setcounter or \addtocounter but \value can be used anywherethat LATEX expects a number, such as in \hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}. It must notbe preceded by \protect (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
This example inserts \hspace{4\parindent}.
\setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
\hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
13.4 \setcounter
Synopsis:
\setcounter{counter}{value}
Globally set the counter counter to have the value of the value argument, which mustbe an integer. Thus, you can set a counter’s value as \setcounter{section}{5}. Notethat the counter name does not start with a backslash.
In this example if the counter theorem has value 12 then the second line will print ‘XII’.
\setcounter{exercise}{\value{theorem}}
Here it is in Roman: \Roman{exercise}.
13.5 \addtocounter
Synopsis:
\addtocounter{counter}{value
Globally increment counter by the amount specified by the value argument, which maybe negative.
In this example the section value appears as ‘VII’.
\setcounter{section}{5}
\addtocounter{section}{2}
Here it is in Roman: \Roman{section}.
13.6 \refstepcounter
Synopsis:
\refstepcounter{counter}
Globally increments the value of counter by one, as does \stepcounter (see Section 13.7[\stepcounter], page 119). The difference is that this command resets the value of any
Chapter 13: Counters 119
counter numbered within it. (For the definition of “counters numbered within”, seeSection 12.5 [\newcounter], page 107.)
In addition, this command also defines the current \ref value to be the result of\thecounter.
While the counter value is set globally, the \ref value is set locally, i.e., inside the currentgroup.
13.7 \stepcounter
Synopsis:
\stepcounter{counter}
Globally adds one to counter and resets all counters numbered within it. (For thedefinition of “counters numbered within”, see Section 12.5 [\newcounter], page 107.)
This command differs from \refstepcounter in that this one does not influence ref-erences — it does not define the current \ref value to be the result of \thecounter (seeSection 13.6 [\refstepcounter], page 118).
13.8 \day & \month & \year
LATEX defines the counter \day for the day of the month (nominally with value between 1and 31), \month for the month of the year (nominally with value between 1 and 12), andyear \year. When TEX starts up, they are set from the current values on the system. Therelated command \today produces a string representing the current day (see Section 23.8[\today], page 197).
They counters are not updated as the job progresses so in principle they could be incor-rect by the end. In addition, TEX does no sanity check:
\day=-2 \month=13 \year=-4 \today
gives no error or warning and results in the output ‘-2, -4’ (the bogus month value producesno output).
120
14 Lengths
A length is a measure of distance. Many LATEX commands take a length as an argument.
Lengths come in two types. A rigid length such as 10pt does not contain a plus orminus component. (Plain TEX calls this a dimen.) A rubber length (what Plain TEX callsa skip) such as as with 1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm can contain either or both of thosecomponents. In that rubber length, the 1cm is the natural length while the other two,the plus and minus components, allow TEX to stretch or shrink the length to optimizeplacement.
The illustrations below use these two commands.
% make a black bar 10pt tall and #1 wide
\newcommand{\blackbar}[1]{\rule{#1}{10pt}}
% Make a box around #2 that is #1 wide (excluding the border)
\newcommand{\showhbox}[2]{%
\fboxsep=0pt\fbox{\hbox to #1{#2}}}
This example uses those commands to show a black bar 100 points long between ‘XXX’ and‘YYY’. This length is rigid.
XXX\showhbox{100pt}{\blackbar{100pt}}YYY
As for rubber lengths, shrinking is simpler one: with 1cm minus 0.05cm, the naturallength is 1 cm but TEX can shrink it down as far as 0.95 cm. Beyond that, TEX refusesto shrink any more. Thus, below the first one works fine, producing a space of 98 pointsbetween the two bars.
XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
\blackbar{101pt}\hspace{100pt minus 2pt}\blackbar{101pt}}YYY
XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
\blackbar{105pt}\hspace{100pt minus 1pt}\blackbar{105pt}}YYY
But the second one gets a warning like ‘Overfull \hbox (1.0pt too wide) detected at
line 17’. In the output the first ‘Y’ is overwritten by the end of the black bar, because thebox’s material is wider than the 300 pt allocated, as TEX has refused to shrink the total toless than 309 points.
Stretching is like shrinking except that if TEX is asked to stretch beyond the givenamount, it will do it. Here the first line is fine, producing a space of 110 points between thebars.
XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
\blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 10pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY
XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
\blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 1pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY
In the second line TEX needs a stretch of 10 points and only 1 point was specified. TEXstretches the space to the required length but it gives you a warning like ‘Underfull \hbox
(badness 10000) detected at line 22’. (We won’t discuss badness.)
Chapter 14: Lengths 121
You can put both stretch and shrink in the same length, as in 1ex plus 0.05ex minus
0.02ex.
If TEX is setting two or more rubber lengths then it allocates the stretch or shrink inproportion.
XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
\blackbar{100pt}% left
\hspace{0pt plus 50pt}\blackbar{80pt}\hspace{0pt plus 10pt}% middle
\blackbar{100pt}}YYY % right
The left and right bars take up 100 points, so the middle needs another 100. The middlebar is 80 points so the two \hspace’s must stretch 20 points. Because the two are plus
50pt and plus 10pt, TEX gets 5/6 of the stretch from the first space and 1/6 from thesecond.
The plus or minus component of a rubber length can contain a fill component, as in 1in
plus2fill. This gives the length infinite stretchability or shrinkability so that TEX couldset it to any distance. Here the two figures will be equal-spaced across the page.
\begin{minipage}{\linewidth}
\hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{godel.png}%
\hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{einstein.png}%
\hspace{0pt plus 1fill}
\end{minipage}
TEX actually has three levels of infinity for glue components: fil, fill, and filll. Thelater ones are more infinite than the earlier ones. Ordinarily document authors only usethe middle one (see Section 19.3 [\hfill], page 158, and see Section 19.15 [\vfill], page 167).
Multiplying a rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so that after\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in} and \setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength} thenthe value of \zlength is 3in.
14.1 Units of length
TEX and LATEX know about these units both inside and outside of math mode.
pt Point, 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units, to two decimal places, is1 point = 2.85 mm = 28.45 cm.
pc Pica, 12 pt
in Inch, 72.27 pt
bp Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in PostScript andmany desktop publishing systems.
cm Centimeter
mm Millimeter
dd Didot point, 1.07 pt
cc Cicero, 12 dd
sp Scaled point, 1/65536 pt
Chapter 14: Lengths 122
Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of the font. Thex-height of the current font ex, traditionally the height of the lowercase letter x, is oftenused for vertical lengths. Similarly em, traditionally the width of the capital letter M, isoften used for horizontal lengths (there is also \enspace, which is 0.5em). Use of these canhelp make a definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition of thevertical space between list items given as \setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus
0.01ex} is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition givenin points.
In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit mu given by 1em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family. See Section 16.6[Spacing in math mode], page 146.
14.2 \setlength
Synopsis:
\setlength{len}{amount}
Set the length len to amount. The length name len must begin with a backslash, \. Theamount can be a rubber length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). It can be positive,negative or zero, and can be in any units that LATEX understands (see Section 14.1 [Unitsof length], page 121).
Below, with LATEX’s defaults the first paragraph will be indented while the second willnot.
I told the doctor I broke my leg in two places.
\setlength{\parindent}{0em}
He said stop going to those places.
If you did not declare len with \newlength, for example if you mistype the above as\newlength{\specparindent}\setlength{\sepcparindent}{...}, then you get an errorlike ‘Undefined control sequence. <argument> \sepcindent’. If you omit the backslashat the start of the length name then you get an error like ‘Missing number, treated as
zero. <to be read again> \relax l.19 \setlength{specparindent}{0.6\parindent}’
14.3 \addtolength
Synopsis:
\addtolength{len}{amount}
Increment the length len by amount. The length name len begins with a backslash, \.The amount is a rubber length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). It can be positive,negative or zero, and can be in any units that LATEX understands (see Section 14.1 [Unitsof length], page 121).
Below, if \parskip starts with the value 0pt plus 1pt
Doctor: how is the boy who swallowed the silver dollar?
\addtolength{\parskip}{1pt}
Nurse: no change.
Chapter 14: Lengths 123
then it has the value 1pt plus 1pt for the second paragraph.
If you did not declare the length len with \newlength, if for example you mistype theabove as \addtolength{\specparindent}{0.6\praindent}, then you get something like‘Undefined control sequence. <argument> \praindent’. If you leave off the backslash atthe start of len, as in \addtolength{parindent}{1pt}, then you get something like ‘Youcan’t use ‘the letter p’ after \advance’.
14.4 \settodepth
Synopsis:
\settodepth{len}{text}
Set the length len to the depth of box that LATEX gets on typesetting the text argument.The length name len must begin with a backslash, \.
This will show how low the character descenders go.
\newlength{\alphabetdepth}
\settodepth{\alphabetdepth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
\the\alphabetdepth
If you did not set aside the length len, if for example you mistype the above as\settodepth{\aplhabetdepth}{abc...}, then you get something like ‘Undefinedcontrol sequence. <argument> \aplhabetdepth’. If you leave the backslash out of len,as in \settodepth{alphabetdepth}{...} then you get something like ‘Missing number,
treated as zero. <to be read again> \setbox’.
14.5 \settoheight
Synopsis:
\settoheight{len}{text}
Sets the length len to the height of box that LATEX gets on typesetting the text argument.The length name len must begin with a backslash, \.
This will show how high the characters go.
\newlength{\alphabetheight}
\settoheight{\alphabetheight}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
\the\alphabetheight
If no such length len has been declared with \newlength, if for example you mistypeas \settoheight{\aplhabetheight}{abc...}, then you get something like ‘Undefinedcontrol sequence. <argument> \alphabetheight’. If you leave the backslash out of len,as in \settoheight{alphabetheight}{...} then you get something like ‘Missing number,
treated as zero. <to be read again> \setbox’.
14.6 \settowidth
Synopsis:
\settowidth{len}{text}
Set the length len to the width of the box that LATEX gets on typesetting the textargument. The length name len must begin with a backslash, \.
124
This measures the width of the lowercase ASCII alphabet.
\newlength{\alphabetwidth}
\settowidth{\alphabetwidth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
\the\alphabetwidth
If no such length len has been set aside, if for example you mistype the above as\settowidth{\aplhabetwidth}{abc...}, then you get something like ‘Undefinedcontrol sequence. <argument> \aplhabetwidth’. If you leave the backslash out oflen, as in \settoheight{alphabetwidth}{...} then you get something like ‘Missingnumber, treated as zero. <to be read again> \setbox’.
125
15 Making paragraphs
To start a paragraph, just type some text. To end the current paragraph, put an emptyline. This is three paragraphs, separated by two empty lines.
It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession
of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.
However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his
first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds
of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property
of some one or other of their daughters.
‘‘My dear Mr. Bennet,’’ said his lady to him one day,
‘‘have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?’’
The separator lines must be empty, including not containing a comment character, %.
Once LATEX has gathered all of a paragraph’s contents it divides that content into lines ina way that is optimized over the entire paragraph (see Chapter 9 [Line breaking], page 90).
There are places where a new paragraph is not permitted. Don’t put a blank line inmath mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151); here the line before the \end{equation}
\begin{equation}
2^{|S|} > |S|
\end{equation}
will get you the error ‘Missing $ inserted’. Similarly, the blank line in this section
argument
\section{aaa
bbb}
gets ‘Runaway argument? {aaa ! Paragraph ended before \@sect was complete’.
15.1 \par
Synopsis (note that while reading the input TEX converts two consecutive newlines to a\par):
\par
End the current paragraph. The usual way to separate paragraphs is with a blank linebut the \par command is entirely equivalent. This command is robust (see Section 12.11[\protect], page 113).
This example uses \par rather than a blank line simply for readability.
\newcommand{\syllabusLegalese}{%
\whatCheatingIs\par\whatHappensWhenICatchYou}
In LR mode or a vertical mode the \par command does nothing but it terminatesparagraph mode, switching LATEX to vertical mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151).
Chapter 15: Making paragraphs 126
You cannot use the \par command in a math mode. You also cannot use it in theargument of many commands, such as the \section command (see Chapter 15 [Makingparagraphs], page 125, and Section 12.1 [\newcommand & \renewcommand], page 103).
The \par command is not the same as the \paragraph command. The latter is, like\section or \subsection, a sectioning unit used by the standard LATEX documents (seeSection 6.5 [\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph], page 35).
The \par command is not the same as \newline or the line break double backslash,\\. The difference is that \par ends the paragraph, not just the line, and also triggers theaddition of the between-paragraph vertical space \parskip (see Section 15.3 [\parindent &\parskip], page 127).
The output from this example
xyz
\setlength{\parindent}{3in}
\setlength{\parskip}{5in}
\noindent test\indent test1\par test2
is: after ‘xyz’ there is a vertical skip of 5 inches and then ‘test’ appears, aligned with theleft margin. On the same line, there is an empty horizontal space of 3 inches and then‘test1’ appears. Finally. there is a vertical space of 5 inches, followed by a fresh paragraphwith a paragraph indent of 3 inches, and then LATEX puts the text ‘test2’.
15.2 \indent & \noindent
Synopsis:
\indent
or
\noindent
Go into horizontal mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151). The \indent commandfirst outputs an empty box whose width is \parindent. These commands are robust (seeSection 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
Ordinarily you create a new paragraph by putting in a blank line. See Section 15.1[\par], page 125, for the difference between this command and \par. To start a paragraphwithout an indent, or to continue an interrupted paragraph, use \noindent.
In the middle of a paragraph the \noindent command has no effect, because LATEX isalready in horizontal mode there. The \indent command’s only effect is to output a space.
This example starts a fresh paragraph.
... end of the prior paragraph.
\noindent This paragraph is not indented.
and this continues an interrupted paragraph.
The data
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rl} ... \end{tabular}
Chapter 15: Making paragraphs 127
\end{center}
\noindent shows this clearly.
To omit indentation in the entire document put \setlength{\parindent}{0pt} in thepreamble. If you do that, you may want to also set the length of spaces between paragraphs,\parskip (see Section 15.3 [\parindent & \parskip], page 127).
Default LATEX styles have the first paragraph after a section that is not indented, asis traditional typesetting in English. To change that, look on CTAN for the packageindentfirst.
15.3 \parindent & \parskip
Synopsis:
\setlength{\parskip}{horizontal len}
\setlength{\parinden}{vertical len}
Both are a rubber lengths (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). They give the indenta-tion of ordinary paragraphs, not paragraphs inside minipages (see Section 8.18 [minipage],page 63), and the vertical space between paragraphs.
This, put in the preamble,
\setlength{\parindent}{0em}
\setlength{\parskip}{1ex}
arranges that the document will have paragraphs that are not indented, but instead arevertically separated by about the height of a lowercase ‘x’.
In standard LATEX documents, the default value for \parindent in one-column docu-ments is 15pt when the default text size is 10pt , 17pt for 11pt, and 1.5em for 12pt.In two-column documents it is 1em. The default value for \parskip in LATEX’s standarddocument styles is 0pt plus1pt.
15.4 Marginal notes
Synopsis, one of:
\marginpar{right}
\marginpar[left]{right}
Create a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as theline in the text where the \marginpar occurs.
The margin that LATEX uses for the note depends on the current layout (see Section 3.1[Document class options], page 7) and also on \reversemarginpar (see below). If you areusing one-sided layout (document option oneside) then it goes in the right margin. If youare using two-sided layout (document option twoside) then it goes in the outside margin.If you are in two-column layout (document option twocolumn) then it goes in the nearestmargin.
If you declare \reversemarginpar then LATEX will place subsequent marginal notes inthe opposite margin to that given in the prior paragraph. Revert that to the default positionwith \normalmarginpar.
128
When you specify the optional argument left then it is used for a note in the left margin,while the mandatory argument right is used for a note in the right margin.
Normally, a note’s first word will not be hyphenated. You can enable hyphenation thereby beginning left or right with \hspace{0pt}.
These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
\marginparpush
Minimum vertical space between notes; default ‘7pt’ for ‘12pt’ documents, ‘5pt’else.
\marginparsep
Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default ‘11pt’ for ‘10pt’documents, ‘10pt’ else.
\marginparwidth
Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided ‘10pt’ document is ‘90pt’,‘83pt’ for ‘11pt’, and ‘68pt’ for ‘12pt’; ‘17pt’ more in each case for a two-sideddocument. In two column mode, the default is ‘48pt’.
The standard LATEX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling offthe bottom of the page.
129
16 Math formulas
Produce mathematical text by putting LATEX into math mode or display math mode (seeChapter 17 [Modes], page 151). This example shows both.
The wave equation for \( u \) is
\begin{displaymath}
\frac{\partial^2u}{\partial t^2} = c^2\nabla^2u
\end{displaymath}
where \( \nabla^2 \) is the spatial Laplacian and \( c \) is constant.
Math mode is for inline mathematics. In the above example it is invoked by the starting\( and finished by the matching ending \). Display math mode is for displayed equationsand here is invoked by the displaymath environment. Note that any mathematical textwhatever, including mathematical text consisting of just one character, is handled in mathmode.
When in math mode or display math mode, LATEX handles many aspects of your inputtext differently than in other text modes. For example,
contrast x+y with \( x+y \)
in math mode the letters are in italics and the spacing around the plus sign is different.
There are three ways to make inline formulas, to put LATEX in math mode.
\( mathematical material \)
$ mathematical material $
\begin{math} mathematical material \end{math}
The first form is preferred and the second is quite common, but the third form is rarelyused. You can sometimes use one and sometimes another, as in \(x\) and $y$. You canuse these in paragraph mode or in LR mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151).
To make displayed formulas, put LATEX into display math mode with either:
\begin{displaymath}
mathematical material
\end{displaymath}
or
\begin{equation}
mathematical material
\end{equation}
(see Section 8.5 [displaymath], page 48, see Section 8.9 [equation], page 51). The onlydifference is that with the equation environment, LATEX puts a formula number alongsidethe formula. The construct \[ math \] is equivalent to \begin{displaymath} math
\end{displaymath}. These environments can only be used in paragraph mode (seeChapter 17 [Modes], page 151).
The two mathematics modes are similar, but there are some differences. One involvesthe placement of subscripts and superscripts; in display math mode they are further apartand in inline math mode they are closer together.
Sometimes you want the display math typographical treatment to happen in the inlinemath mode. For this, the \displaystyle declaration forces the size and style of the formula
Chapter 16: Math formulas 130
to be that of displaymath. Thus \(\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n\) will havethe limits above and below the summation sign, not next to it. Another example is that
\begin{tabular}{r|cc}
\textsc{Name} &\textsc{Series} &\textsc{Sum} \\ \hline
Arithmetic &\( a+(a+b)+(a+2b)+\cdots+(a+(n-1)b) \)
&\( na+(n-1)n\cdot\frac{b}{2}\) \\
Geometric &\( a+ab+ab^2+\cdots+ab^{n-1} \)
&\(\displaystyle a\cdot\frac{1-b^n}{1-b}\) \\
\end{tabular}
because it has no \displaystyle, the ‘Arithmetic’ line’s fraction will be scrunched. But,because of its \displaystyle, the ‘Geometric’ line’s fraction will be easy to read, withcharacters the same size as in the rest of the line.
The American Mathematical Society has made freely available a set of packages thatgreatly expand your options for writing mathematics, amsmath and amssymb (also be awareof the mathtools package that is an extension to, and loads, amsmath). New documentsthat will have mathematical text should use these packages. Descriptions of these packagesis outside the scope of this document; see their documentation on CTAN.
16.1 Subscripts & superscripts
Synopsis (in math mode or display math mode), one of:
base^exp
base^{exp}
or, one of:
base_exp
base_{exp}
Make exp appear as a superscript of base (with the caret character, ^) or a subscript(with underscore, _).
In this example the 0’s and 1’s are subscripts while the 2’s are superscripts.
\( (x_0+x_1)^2 \leq (x_0)^2+(x_1)^2 \)
To have the subscript or superscript contain more than one character, surround theexpression with curly braces, as in e^{-2x}. This example’s fourth line shows curly bracesused to group an expression for the exponent.
\begin{displaymath}
(3^3)^3=27^3=19\,683
\qquad
3^{(3^3)}=3^{27}=7\,625\,597\,484\,987
\end{displaymath}
LATEX knows how to handle a superscript on a superscript, or a subscript on a subscript,or supers on subs, or subs on supers. So, expressions such as e^{x^2} and x_{i_0} give cor-rect output. Note the use in those expressions of curly braces to give the base a determinedexp. If you enter \(3^3^3\) then you get ‘Double superscript’.
LATEX does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. Inthis example the integral has both. They come out in the correct place without any authorintervention.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 131
\begin{displaymath}
\int_{x=a}^b f’(x)\,dx = f(b)-f(a)
\end{displaymath}
Note the parentheses around x=a to make the entire expression a subscript.
To put a superscript or subscript before a symbol, use a construct like {}_t K^2. Theempty curly braces {} give the subscript something to attach to and keeps it from acciden-tally attaching to a prior symbols.
Using the subscript or superscript command outside of math mode or display mathmode, as in the expression x^2, will get you the error ‘Missing $ inserted’.
A common reason to want subscripts outside of a mathematics mode is to typeset chem-ical formulas. There are packages for that such as mhchem; see CTAN.
16.2 Math symbols
LATEX provides almost any mathematical or technical symbol that anyone uses. For example,if you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get the pi symbol π. See the Comprehensive
LATEX Symbol List at https://ctan.org/tex-archive/info/symbols/comprehensive/.
Here is a list of commonly-used symbols. It is by no means exhaustive. Each symbol isdescribed with a short phrase, and its symbol class, which determines the spacing around it,is given in parenthesis. Unless said otherwise, the commands for these symbols can be usedonly in math mode. To redefine a command so that it can be used whatever the currentmode, see Section 17.1 [\ensuremath], page 151.
\| ‖ Parallel (relation). Synonym: \parallel.
\aleph ℵ Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary).
\alpha α Lowercase Greek letter alpha (ordinary).
\amalg q Disjoint union (binary)
\angle 6 Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than sign < and anglebracket \langle.
\approx ≈ Almost equal to (relation).
\ast ∗ Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary). Synonym: *, which isoften a superscript or subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar: \star, whichis five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and some-times reserved for cross-correlation.
\asymp � Asymptotically equivalent (relation).
\backslash
\ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus \setminus, and \textbackslash
for backslash outside of math mode.
\beta β Lowercase Greek letter beta (ordinary).
\bigcap⋂
Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar: binary intersec-tion \cap.
\bigcirc © Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function composition \circ.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 132
\bigcup⋃
Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary union \cup.
\bigodot⊙
Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator).
\bigoplus ⊕Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator).
\bigotimes⊗Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator).
\bigtriangledown
5 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down (operator).
\bigtriangleup
4 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up (operator).
\bigsqcup ⊔Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator).
\biguplus ⊎Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus (operator). (Note that
the name has only one p.)
\bigvee∨
Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator).
\bigwedge ∧Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator).
\bot Up tack, bottom, least element of a partially ordered set, or a contradiction(ordinary). See also \top.
\bowtie ./ Natural join of two relations (relation).
\Box Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary). Not available inplain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package.
\bullet • Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication dot \cdot.
\cap ∩ Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator \bigcap.
\cdot · Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet dot \bullet.
\chi χ Lowercase Greek chi (ordinary).
\circ ◦ Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar: variable-sized opera-tor \bigcirc.
\clubsuit
♣ Club card suit (ordinary).
\complement
Set complement, used as a superscript as in $S^\complement$ (ordinary). Notavailable in plain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package. Alsoused: $S^{\mathsf{c}}$ or $\bar{S}$.
\cong ∼= Congruent (relation).
\coprod∐
Coproduct (operator).
Chapter 16: Math formulas 133
\cup ∪ Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator \bigcup.
\dagger † Dagger relation (binary).
\dashv a Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar: turnstile \vdash.
\ddagger ‡ Double dagger relation (binary).
\Delta Δ Greek uppercase delta, used for increment (ordinary).
\delta δ Greek lowercase delta (ordinary).
\Diamond Large diamond operator (ordinary). Not available in plain TEX. In LATEX youneed to load the amssymb package.
\diamond � Diamond operator (binary). Similar: large diamond \Diamond, circle bul-let \bullet.
\diamondsuit
♦ Diamond card suit (ordinary).
\div ÷ Division sign (binary).
\doteq.= Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically equal to \Doteq.
\downarrow
↓ Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: \Downarrow double line downarrow.
\Downarrow
⇓ Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: \downarrow single line downarrow.
\ell ` Lowercase cursive letter l (ordinary).
\emptyset
∅ Empty set symbol (ordinary). The variant form is \varnothing.
\epsilon ε Lowercase lunate epsilon (ordinary). Similar to Greek text letter. More widelyused in mathematics is the script small letter epsilon \varepsilon ε. Related:the set membership relation \in ∈.
\equiv ≡ Equivalence (relation).
\eta η Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\exists ∃ Existential quantifier (ordinary).
\flat [ Musical flat (ordinary).
\forall ∀ Universal quantifier (ordinary).
\frown _ Downward curving arc (ordinary).
\Gamma Γ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\gamma γ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\ge ≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for \geq.
\geq ≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for \ge.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 134
\gets ← Is assigned the value (relation). Synonym: \leftarrow.
\gg � Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less than \ll.
\hbar h Planck constant over two pi (ordinary).
\heartsuit
♥ Heart card suit (ordinary).
\hookleftarrow
←↩ Hooked left arrow (relation).
\hookrightarrow
↪→ Hooked right arrow (relation).
\iff ⇐⇒ If and only if (relation). It is \Longleftrightarrow with a \thickmuskip
on either side.
\Im = Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part \Re.
\imath Dotless i; used when you are putting an accent on an i (see Section 16.4 [Mathaccents], page 145).
\in ∈ Set element (relation). See also: lowercase lunate epsilon \epsilonε andsmall letter script epsilon \varepsilon.
\infty ∞ Infinity (ordinary).
\int∫
Integral (operator).
\iota ι Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\Join Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain TEX.
\jmath Dotless j; used when you are putting an accent on a j (see Section 16.4 [Mathaccents], page 145).
\kappa κ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\Lambda Λ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\lambda λ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\land ∧ Logical and (binary). This is a synonym for \wedge. See also logical or \lor.
\langle 〈 Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar: less-than <.Matches \rangle.
\lbrace { Left curly brace (opening). Synonym: \{. Matches \rbrace.
\lbrack [ Left square bracket (opening). Synonym: [. Matches \rbrack.
\lceil d Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom shaved off(opening). Matches \rceil.
\le ≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for \leq.
\leadsto Squiggly right arrow (relation). Not available in plain TEX. In LATEX you needto load the amssymb package. To get this symbol outside of math mode youcan put \newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}} in the preambleand then use \Leadsto instead.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 135
\Leftarrow
⇐ Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar: single-line left ar-row \leftarrow.
\leftarrow
← Single-line left arrow (relation). Synonym: \gets. Similar: double-line leftarrow \Leftarrow.
\leftharpoondown
↽ Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation).
\leftharpoonup
↼ Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation).
\Leftrightarrow
⇔ Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: single-line double headed arrow \leftrightarrow.
\leftrightarrow
↔ Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: double-line doubleheaded arrow \Leftrightarrow.
\leq ≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for \le.
\lfloor b Left floor bracket (opening). Matches: \floor.
\lhd Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). Not available in plainTEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package. For the normal subgroupsymbol you should load amssymb and use \vartriangleleft (which is a relationand so gives better spacing).
\ll � Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater than \gg.
\lnot ¬ Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: \neg.
\longleftarrow
←− Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line left ar-row \Longleftarrow.
\longleftrightarrow
←→ Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: long double-linedouble-headed arrow \Longleftrightarrow.
\longmapsto
7−→ Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar:shorter version \mapsto.
\longrightarrow
−→ Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line rightarrow \Longrightarrow.
\lor ∨ Logical or (binary). Synonym: wedge \wedge.
\mapsto 7→ Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: longerversion \longmapsto.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 136
\mho Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary). Not available inplain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package.
\mid | Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of \mid is for a set \{\, x
\mid x\geq 5 \,\}.
Similar: \vert and | produce the same single-line vertical bar symbol butwithout any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and you should not use themas relations but instead only as ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols. For absolutevalue, see the entry for \vert and for norm see the entry for \Vert.
\models |= Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash (relation). Similar:long double dash \vDash.
\mp ∓ Minus or plus (relation).
\mu µ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\nabla ∇ Hamilton’s del, or differential, operator (ordinary).
\natural \ Musical natural notation (ordinary).
\ne 6= Not equal (relation). Synonym: \neq.
\nearrow ↗ North-east arrow (relation).
\neg ¬ Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: \lnot. Sometimes instead used fornegation: \sim.
\neq 6= Not equal (relation). Synonym: \ne.
\ni 3 Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: \owns.Similar: is a member of \in.
\not 6 Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following operator (relation).
Many negated operators are available that don’t require \not, particularly withthe amssymb package. For example, \notin is typographically preferable to\not\in.
\notin /∈ Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset of \nsubseteq.
\nu ν Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\nwarrow ↖ North-west arrow (relation).
\odot � Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator \bigodot.
\oint∮
Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle (operator).
\Omega Ω uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\omega ω Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\ominus Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary).
\oplus ⊕ Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator \bigoplus.
\oslash � Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary).
\otimes ⊗ Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized opera-tor \bigotimes.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 137
\owns 3 Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: \ni.Similar: is a member of \in.
\parallel
‖ Parallel (relation). Synonym: \|.
\partial ∂ Partial differential (ordinary).
\perp ⊥ Perpendicular (relation). Similar: \bot uses the same glyph but the spacingis different because it is in the class ordinary.
\phi φ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is \varphi ϕ.
\Pi Π uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\pi π Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is \varpi $.
\pm ± Plus or minus (binary).
\prec ≺ Precedes (relation). Similar: less than <.
\preceq � Precedes or equals (relation). Similar: less than or equals \leq.
\prime ′ Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically used as a su-perscript: $f^\prime$; $f^\prime$ and $f’$ produce the same result. Anadvantage of the second is that $f’’’$ produces the desired symbol, that is,the same result as $f^{\prime\prime\prime}$, but uses rather less typing.You can only use \prime in math mode. Using the right single quote ’ in textmode produces a different character (apostrophe).
\prod∏
Product (operator).
\propto ∝ Is proportional to (relation)
\Psi Ψ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\psi ψ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\rangle 〉 Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar: greater than >.Matches:\langle.
\rbrace } Right curly brace (closing). Synonym: \}. Matches \lbrace.
\rbrack ] Right square bracket (closing). Synonym: ]. Matches \lbrack.
\rceil e Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches \lceil.
\Re < Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related: double-line,or blackboard bold, R \mathbb{R}; to access this, load the amsfonts package.
\restriction
Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym: \upharpoonright. Not avail-able in plain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package.
\revemptyset
Reversed empty set symbol (ordinary). Related: \varnothing. Not availablein plain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the stix package.
\rfloor c Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut off (closing).Matches \lfloor.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 138
\rhd Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). Not available in plainTEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package. For the normal subgroupsymbol you should instead load amssymb and use \vartriangleright (whichis a relation and so gives better spacing).
\rho ρ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is \varrho %.
\Rightarrow
⇒ Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation). Similar: right single-linearrow \rightarrow.
\rightarrow
→ Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: \to. Similar: rightdouble line arrow \Rightarrow.
\rightharpoondown
⇁ Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation).
\rightharpoonup
⇀ Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation).
\rightleftharpoons⇀↽ Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation).
\searrow ↘ Arrow pointing southeast (relation).
\setminus
\ Set difference, reverse solidus or reverse slash, like \ (binary). Similar: back-slash \backslash and also \textbackslash outside of math mode.
\sharp ] Musical sharp (ordinary).
\Sigma Σ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\sigma σ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is \varsigma ς.
\sim ∼ Similar, in a relation (relation).
\simeq ' Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation).
\smallint
∫ Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a display (operator).
\smile ^ Upward curving arc, smile (ordinary).
\spadesuit
♠ Spade card suit (ordinary).
\sqcap u Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar: intersection cap.
\sqcup t Square union symbol (binary). Similar: union cup. Related: variable-sizedoperator \bigsqcup.
\sqsubset
Square subset symbol (relation). Similar: subset \subset. Not available inplain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 139
\sqsubseteq
v Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or equalto \subseteq.
\sqsupset
Square superset symbol (relation). Similar: superset \supset. Not availablein plain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package.
\sqsupseteq
w Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset orequal \supseteq.
\star ? Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary operation but some-times reserved for cross-correlation (binary). Similar: the synonyms asterisk *
and \ast, which are six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript orsubscript, as with the Kleene star.
\subset ⊂ Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation).
\subseteq
⊆ Subset or equal to (relation).
\succ � Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less than >.
\succeq � Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less than or equal to \leq.
\sum∑
Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital sigma \Sigma.
\supset ⊃ Superset (relation).
\supseteq
⊇ Superset or equal to (relation).
\surd√
Radical symbol (ordinary). The LATEX command \sqrt{...} typesets thesquare root of the argument, with a bar that extends to cover the argument.
\swarrow ↙ Southwest-pointing arrow (relation).
\tau τ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\theta θ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is \vartheta ϑ.
\times × Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See also \cdot.
\to → Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: \rightarrow.
\top Top, greatest element of a partially ordered set (ordinary). See also \bot.
\triangle
4 Triangle (ordinary).
\triangleleft
/ Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary). Similar: \lhd. For the normalsubgroup symbol you should load amssymb and use \vartriangleleft (whichis a relation and so gives better spacing).
\triangleright
. Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal subgroup sym-bol you should instead load amssymb and use \vartriangleright (which is arelation and so gives better spacing).
Chapter 16: Math formulas 140
\unlhd Left-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a lineunder (binary). Not available in plain TEX. In LATEX you need to loadthe amssymb package. For the normal subgroup symbol load amssymb anduse \vartrianglelefteq (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).
\unrhd Right-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is, triangle, with aline under (binary). Not available in plain TEX. In LATEX you need to loadthe amssymb package. For the normal subgroup symbol load amssymb anduse \vartrianglerighteq (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).
\Uparrow ⇑ Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-lineup-pointing arrow \uparrow.
\uparrow ↑ Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation). Similar: double-lineup-pointing arrow \Uparrow.
\Updownarrow
m Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow \updownarrow.
\updownarrow
l Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow \Updownarrow.
\upharpoonright
Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation). Synonym: \restriction. Notavailable in plain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package.
\uplus ] Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the middle (binary).Similar: union \cup. Related: variable-sized operator \biguplus.
\Upsilon ϒ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\upsilon υ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\varepsilon
ε Small letter script epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely used in math-ematics than the non-variant lunate epsilon form \epsilon ε. Related: setmembership \in.
\vanothing
Empty set symbol. Similar: \emptyset. Related: \revemptyset. Not avail-able in plain TEX. In LATEX you need to load the amssymb package.
\varphi ϕ Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is\phi φ.
\varpi $ Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is\pi π.
\varrho % Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is\rho ρ.
\varsigma
ς Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is\sigma σ.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 141
\vartheta
ϑ Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is\theta θ.
\vdash ` Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation). Similar: turnstile rotateda half-circle \dashv.
\vee ∨ Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical and \wedge.Similar: variable-sized operator \bigvee.
\Vert ‖ Vertical double bar (ordinary). Similar: vertical single bar \vert.
For a norm symbol, you can use the mathtools package and put in yourpreamble \DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}. This givesyou three command variants for double-line vertical bars that are correctlyhorizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version$\norm*{M^\perp}$ then the height of the vertical bars will match the heightof the argument, whereas with \norm{M^\perp} the bars do not grow with theheight of the argument but instead are the default height, and \norm[size
command]{M^\perp} also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the sizegiven in the size command, e.g., \Bigg.
\vert | Single line vertical bar (ordinary). Similar: double-line vertical bar \Vert.For such that, as in the definition of a set, use \mid because it is a relation.
For absolute value you can use the mathtools package and in your preambleput \DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}. This gives youthree command variants for single-line vertical bars that are correctlyhorizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$ then the height of the vertical bars will match theheight of the argument, whereas with \abs{\frac{22}{7}} the bars do notgrow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and\abs[size command]{\frac{22}{7}} also gives bars that do not grow but areset to the size given in the size command, e.g., \Bigg.
\wedge ∧ Logical and (binary). Synonym: \land. See also logical or \vee. Similar:variable-sized operator \bigwedge.
\wp ℘ Weierstrass p (ordinary).
\wr o Wreath product (binary).
\Xi Ξ uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\xi ξ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
\zeta ζ Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
The following symbols are most often used in plain text but LATEX provides versions touse in mathematical text.
\mathdollar
Dollar sign in math mode: $.
\mathparagraph
Paragraph sign (pilcrow) in math mode, ¶.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 142
\mathsection
Section sign in math mode §.
\mathsterling
Sterling sign in math mode: £.
\mathunderscore
Underscore in math mode: .
16.2.1 Blackboard bold
Synopsis:
\usepackage{amssymb} % in preamble
...
\mathbb{uppercase-letter}
Provide blackboard bold symbols, sometimes also known as doublestruck letters, usedto denote number sets such as the natural numbers, the integers, etc.
Here
\( \forall n \in \mathbb{N}, n^2 \geq 0 \)
the \mathbb{N} gives blackboard bold symbol representing the natural numbers.
If you use other than an uppercase letter then you do not get an error but you get strangeresults, including unexpected characters.
There are packages that give access to symbols other than just the capital letters; lookon CTAN.
16.2.2 Calligraphic
Synopsis:
\mathcal{uppercase-letters}
Use a script-like font.
In this example the graph identifier is output in a cursive font.
Let the graph be \( \mathcal{G} \).
If you use something other than an uppercase letter then you do not get an error. Insteadyou get unexpected output. For instance, \mathcal{g} outputs a close curly brace symbol,while \mathcal{+} outputs a plus sign.
16.2.3 \boldmath & \unboldmath
Synopsis (used in paragraph mode or LR mode):
\boldmath \( math \)
or
\unboldmath \( math \)
Declarations to change the letters and symbols in math to be in a bold font, or tocountermand that and bring back the regular (non-bold) default. They must be usedwhen not in math mode or display math mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151). Bothcommands are fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
Chapter 16: Math formulas 143
In this example each \boldmath command takes place inside an \mbox,
we have $\mbox{\boldmath \( v \)} = 5\cdot\mbox{\boldmath \( u \)$}$
which means \boldmath is only called in a text mode, here LR mode, and explains whyLATEX must switch to math mode to set v and u.
If you use either command inside math mode, as with Trouble: \( \boldmath x \),then you get something like ‘LaTeX Font Warning: Command \boldmath invalid in math
mode on input line 11’ and ‘LaTeX Font Warning: Command \mathversion invalid in
math mode on input line 11’.
There are many issues with \boldmath. New documents should use the bm packageprovided by the LATEX Project team. A complete description is outside the scope of thisdocument (see the full documentation on CTAN) but even this small example
\usepackage{bm} % in preamble
...
we have $\bm{v} = 5\cdot\bm{u}$
shows that it is an improvement over \boldmath.
16.2.4 Dots, horizontal or vertical
Ellipses are the three dots (usually three) indicating that a pattern continues.
\begin{array}{cccc}
a_{0,0} &a_{0,1} &a_{0,2} &\ldots \\
a_{1,0} &\ddots \\
\vdots
\end{array}
LATEX provides these.
\cdots Horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line, as in · · ·. Usedas: \( a_0\cdot a_1\cdots a_{n-1} \).
\ddots Diagonal ellipsis,. . .. See the above array example for a usage.
\ldots Ellipsis on the baseline, . . .. Used as: \( x_0,\ldots x_{n-1} \). Anotherexample is the above array example. A synonym is \mathellipsis. A synonymfrom the amsmath package is \hdots.
You can also use this command outside of mathematical text, as in The gears,
brakes, \ldots{} are all broken. (In a paragraph mode or LR mode a syn-onym for \ldots is \dots.)
\vdots Vertical ellipsis,.... See the above array example for a usage.
The amsmath package has the command \dots to semantically mark up ellipses. Thisexample produces two different-looking outputs for the first two uses of the \dots command.
\usepackage{amsmath} % in preamble
...
Suppose that \( p_0, p_1, \dots, p_{n-1} \) lists all of the primes.
Observe that \( p_0\cdot p_1 \dots \cdot p_{n-1} +1 \) is not a
multiple of any \( p_i \).
Chapter 16: Math formulas 144
Conclusion: there are infinitely many primes \( p_0, p_1, \dotsc \).
In the first line LATEX looks to the comma following \dots to determine that it shouldoutput an ellipsis on the baseline. The second line has a \cdot following \dots so LATEXoutputs an ellipsis that is on the math axis, vertically centered. However, the third usagehas no follow-on character so you have to tell LATEX what to do. You can use one of thecommands: \dotsc if you need the ellipsis appropriate for a comma following, \dotsb ifyou need the ellipses that fits when the dots are followed by a binary operator or relationsymbol, \dotsi for dots with integrals, or \dotso for others.
16.3 Math functions
These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing.
\arccos Inverse cosine arccos
\arcsin Inverse sine arcsin
\arctan Inverse tangent arctan
\arg Angle between the real axis and a point in the complex plane arg
\bmod Binary modulo operator, used as in \( 5\bmod 3=2 \) 5 mod 3
\cos Cosine cos
\cosh Hyperbolic cosine cosh
\cot Cotangent cot
\coth Hyperbolic cotangent coth
\csc Cosecant csc
\deg Degrees deg
\det Determinant det
\dim Dimension dim
\exp Exponential exp
\gcd Greatest common divisor gcd
\hom Homomorphism hom
\inf Infinum inf
\ker Kernel ker
\lg Base 2 logarithm lg
\lim Limit lim
\liminf Limit inferior lim inf
\limsup Limit superior lim sup
\ln Natural logarithm ln
\log Logarithm log
Chapter 16: Math formulas 145
\max Maximum max
\min Minimum min
\pmod Parenthesized modulus, as used in \( 5\equiv 2\pmod 3 \) 5 ≡ 2 (mod 3)
\Pr Probability Pr
\sec Secant sec
\sin Sine sin
\sinh Hyperbolic sine sinh
\sup Supremum sup
\tan Tangent tan
\tanh Hyperbolic tangent tanh
The amsmath package adds improvements on some of these, and also allows you to defineyour own. The full documentation is on CTAN, but briefly, you can define an identityoperator with \DeclareMathOperator{\identity}{id} that is like the ones above butprints as ‘id’. The starred form \DeclareMathOperator*{\op}{op} sets any limits aboveand below, as is traditional with \lim, \sup, or \max.
16.4 Math accents
LATEX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These aredifferent from accents in normal text (see Section 23.5 [Accents], page 194).
\acute Math acute accent x.
\bar Math bar-over accent x
\breve Math breve accent x
\check Math hacek (check) accent x
\ddot Math dieresis accent x
\dot Math dot accent x
\grave Math grave accent x
\hat Math hat (circumflex) accent x
\mathring
Math ring accent x
\tilde Math tilde accent ~x
\vec Math vector symbol ~x
\widehat Math wide hat accent x+ y
\widetilde
Math wide tilde accent ˜x+ y
When you are putting an accent on an i or a j, the tradition is to use one without a dot,\imath or jmath (see Section 16.2 [Math symbols], page 131).
Chapter 16: Math formulas 146
16.5 Over- and Underlining
LATEX provides commands for making overlines or underlines, or putting braces over orunder some material.
\underline{text}
Underline text. Works inside math mode, and outside. The result of\underline{xyz} is xyz. The line is always completely below the text, takingaccount of descenders, so in \(\underline{y}\) the line is lower than in\(\underline{x}\). This command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect],page 113).
Note that the package ulem does text mode underlining and allows line breakingas well as a number of other features. See the documentation on CTAN. Seealso Section 19.10 [\hrulefill & \dotfill], page 163, for producing a line, for suchthings as a signature.
\overline{text}
Put a horizontal line over text. Works inside math mode, and outside. Forexample, \overline{x+y}. The result looks like: x+ y. Note that this differsfrom the command \bar (see Section 16.4 [Math accents], page 145).
\underbrace{math}
Put a brace under math. For example, this (1-\underbrace{1/2)+(1/2}-
1/3) emphasizes the telescoping part. The result looks like this:(1 − 1/2) + (1/2︸ ︷︷ ︸−1/3). Attach text to the brace by using subscript, _, or
superscript, ^, as here.
\begin{displaymath}
1+1/2+\underbrace{1/3+1/4}_{>1/2}+
\underbrace{1/5+1/6+1/7+1/8}_{>1/2}+\cdots
\end{displaymath}
The superscript appears on top of the expression, and so can look unconnectedto the underbrace.
\overbrace{math}
Put a brace over math, as with \overbrace{x+x+\cdots+x}^{\mbox{\(k\)
times}}. See also \underbrace.
The package mathtools adds an over- and underbrace, as well as some improvementson the braces. See the documentation on CTAN.
16.6 Spacing in math mode
When typesetting mathematics, LATEX puts in spacing according to the normal rules formathematics texts. If you enter y=m x then LATEX ignores the space and in the output them is next to the x, as y = mx.
But LATEX’s rules sometimes need tweaking. For example, in an integral the tradition isto put a small extra space between the f(x) and the dx, here done with the \, command.
\int_0^1 f(x)\,dx
Chapter 16: Math formulas 147
LATEX provides the commands that follow for use in math mode. Many of these spacingdefinitions are expressed in terms of the math unit mu. It is defined as 1/18 em, wherethe em is taken from the current math symbols family (see Section 14.1 [Units of length],page 121). Thus, a \thickspace is something like 5/18 times the width of a ‘M’.
\; Synonym: \thickspace. Normally 5.0mu plus 5.0mu. Math mode only.
\:
\> Synonym: \medspace. Normally 4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu. Math modeonly.
\, Synonym: \thinspace. Normally 3mu, which is 1/6 em. Can be used in bothmath mode and text mode (see Section 19.8 [\thinspace & \negthinspace],page 162).
This space is widely used, for instance between the function and the infinitesimalin an integral \int f(x)\,dx and, if an author does this, before punctuationin a displayed equation.
The antiderivative is
\begin{equation}
3x^{-1/2}+3^{1/2}\,.
\end{equation}
\! A negative thin space. Normally -3mu. The \! command is math mode onlybut the \negthinspace command is available for text mode (see Section 19.8[\thinspace & \negthinspace], page 162).
\quad This is 18 mu, that is, 1 em. This is often used for space surrounding equa-tions or expressions, for instance for the space between two equations inside adisplaymath environment. It is available in both text and math mode.
\qquad A length of 2 quads, that is, 36 mu = 2 em. It is available in both text andmath mode.
16.6.1 \smash
Synopsis:
\smash{subformula}
Typeset subformula as if its height and depth were zero.
In this example the exponential is so tall that without the \smash command LATEX wouldseparate its line from the line above it, and the uneven line spacing might be unsightly.
To compute the tetration $\smash{2^{2^{2^2}}}$,
evaluate from the top down, as $2^{2^4}=2^{16}=65536$.
(Because of the \smash the printed expression could run into the line above so you maywant to wait until the final version of the document to make such adjustments.)
This pictures the effect of \smash by using \fbox to surround the box that LATEX willput on the line. The \blackbar command makes a bar extending from 10 points below thebaseline to 20 points above.
\newcommand{\blackbar}{\rule[-10pt]{5pt}{30pt}}
\fbox{\blackbar}
Chapter 16: Math formulas 148
\fbox{\smash{\blackbar}}
The first box that LATEX places is 20 points high and 10 points deep. But the secondbox is treated by LATEX as having zero height and zero depth, despite that the ink printedon the page still extends well above and below the line.
The \smash command appears often in mathematics to adjust the size of an elementthat surrounds a subformula. Here the first radical extends below the baseline while thesecond lies just on the baseline.
\begin{equation}
\sqrt{\sum_{0\leq k< n} f(k)}
\sqrt{\vphantom{\sum}\smash{\sum_{0\leq k< n}} f(k)}
\end{equation}
Note the use of \vphantom to give the \sqrt command an argument with the height ofthe \sum (see Section 16.6.2 [\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom], page 148).
While most often used in mathematics, the \smash command can appear in other con-texts. However, it doesn’t change into horizontal mode. So if it starts a paragraph thenyou should first put a \leavevmode, as in the bottom line below.
xxx xxx xxx
\smash{yyy} % no paragraph indent
\leavevmode\smash{zzz} % usual paragraph indent
The package mathtools has operators that provide even finer control over smashing asubformula box.
16.6.2 \phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom
Synopsis:
\phantom{subformula}
or
\vphantom{subformula}
or
\hphantom{subformula}
The \phantom command creates a box with the same height, depth, and width assubformula, but empty. That is, this command causes LATEX to typeset the box but not itsink. The \vphantom variant also produces an invisible box with the same height and depthas subformula, but it has width zero. And \hphantom makes a box with the same width assubformula but with height and depth zero.
Without the \vphantom in this example, the top bars of the two square roots would beat different heights.
\( \sqrt{\vphantom{a^3}a}\cdot\sqrt{a^3} \)
The \vphantom{a^3} causes the first \sqrt to have inside it a box of the same heightas the second \sqrt, so LATEX makes the bars align.
These commands often are combined with \smash. See Section 16.6.1 [\smash], page 147,for another example of the use of \vphantom.
Chapter 16: Math formulas 149
The three phantom commands appear often but note that LATEX provides a suite ofother commands to work with box sizes that may be more convenient, including \makebox
(see Section 20.1 [\mbox & \makebox], page 169) as well as \settodepth (see Section 14.4[\settodepth], page 123), \settoheight (see Section 14.5 [\settoheight], page 123), and\settowidth (see Section 14.6 [\settowidth], page 123). In addition, the mathtools packagehas many commands that offer fine-grained control over spacing.
All three commands produce an ordinary box, without any special mathematics status.So to do something like attaching a superscript you should give it such a status, for examplewith the \operatorname command from the package amsmath.
While most often used in mathematics, these three can appear in other contexts. How-ever, they don’t cause LATEX to change into horizontal mode. So if one of these starts aparagraph then you should prefix it with \leavevmode.
16.7 Math miscellany
LATEX contains a wide variety of mathematics facilities. Here are some that don’t fit intoother categories.
16.7.1 Colon character : & \colon
Synopsis, one of:
:
\colon
In mathematics, the colon character, :, is a relation.
With side ratios \( 3:4 \) and \( 4:5 \), the triangle is right.
Ordinary LATEX defines \colon to produce the colon character with the spacing appropriatefor punctuation, as in set-builder notation \{x\colon 0\leq x<1\}.
But the widely-used amsmath package defines \colon for use in the definition of func-tions f\colon D\to C. So if you want the colon character as a punctuation then use\mathpunct{:}.
16.7.2 \*
Synopsis:
\*
A multiplication symbol that allows a line break. If there is a break then LATEX puts a\times symbol, ×, before that break.
In \( A_1\* A_2\* A_3\* A_4 \), if there is no line break then LATEX outputs it asthough it were \( A_1 A_2 A_3 A_4 \). If a line break does happen, for example betweenthe two middle ones, then LATEX sets it like \( A_1 A_2 \times \), followed by the break,followed by \( A_3 A_4 \).
16.7.3 \frac
Synopsis:
\frac{numerator}{denominator}
Chapter 16: Math formulas 150
Produces the fraction. Used as: \begin{displaymath} \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma}}
\end{displaymath}. In inline math mode it comes out small; see the discussion of\displaystyle (see Chapter 16 [Math formulas], page 129).
16.7.4 \left & \right
Synopsis:
\left delimiter1 ... \right delimiter2
Make matching parentheses, braces, or other delimiters. The delimiters are sized accord-ing to the math they enclose. This makes a unit vector surrounded by appropriate-heightparentheses.
\begin{equation}
\left(\begin{array}{c}
1 \\
0 \\
\end{array}\right)
Every \left must have a matching \right. Leaving out the \left( in the above gets‘Extra \right’. Leaving off the \right) gets ‘You can’t use ‘\eqno’ in math mode’.
However, the two delimiters delimiter1 and delimiter2 need not match. A common caseis that you want an unmatched brace, as below. Use a period, ‘.’, as a null delimiter.
\begin{equation}
f(n)=\left\{\begin{array}{ll}
1 &\mbox{--if \(n=0\)} \\
f(n-1)+3n^2 &\mbox{--else}
\end{array}\right.
\end{equation}
Note that to get a curly brace as a delimiter you must prefix it with a backslash, \{.
16.7.5 \sqrt
Synopsis, one of:
\sqrt{arg}
\sqrt[root-number]{arg}
The square root, or optionally other roots, of arg. The optional argument root-numbergives the root, i.e., enter the cube root of x+y as \sqrt[3]{x+y}. It comes out like this:3√x+ y. The radical grows with the size of arg (as the height of the radical grows, the angle
on the leftmost part gets steeper, until for a large enough arg, it is vertical).
LATEX has a separate \surd character (see Section 16.2 [Math symbols], page 131).
16.7.6 \stackrel
Synopsis, one of:
\stackrel{text}{relation}
Put text above relation. To put a function name above an arrow enter
\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}. The result looks like this:f−→.
151
17 Modes
As LATEX processes your document, at any point it is in one of six modes. They fall intothree categories of two each, the horizontal modes, the math modes, and the vertical modes.Some commands only work in one mode or another (in particular, many commands onlywork in one of the math modes), and error messages will refer to these.
• Paragraph mode is what LATEX is in when processing ordinary text. It breaks the inputtext into lines and breaks the lines into pages. This is the mode LATEX is in most ofthe time.
LR mode (for left-to-right mode; in plain TEX this is called restricted horizontal mode)is in effect when LATEX starts making a box with an \mbox command. As in paragraphmode, LATEX’s output is a string of words with spaces between them. Unlike in para-graph mode, in LR mode LATEX never starts a new line, it just keeps going from leftto right. (Although LATEX will not complain that the LR box is too long, when it isfinished and next tries to put that box into a line, it could very well complain that thefinished LR box won’t fit there.)
• Math mode is when LATEX is generating an inline mathematical formula.
Display math mode is when LATEX is generating a displayed mathematical formula.(Displayed formulas differ somewhat from inline ones. One example is that the place-ment of the subscript on \int differs in the two situations.)
• Vertical mode is when LATEX is building the list of lines and other material making theoutput page. This is the mode LATEX is in when it starts a document.
Internal vertical mode is in effect when LATEX starts making a \vbox. This is thevertical analogue of LR mode.
For instance, if you begin a LATEX article with ‘Let \( x \) be ...’ then these are themodes: first LATEX starts every document in vertical mode, then it reads the ‘L’ and switchesto paragraph mode, then the next switch happens at the ‘\(’ where LATEX changes to mathmode, and then when it leaves the formula it pops back to paragraph mode.
Paragraph mode has two subcases. If you use a \parbox command or a minipage thenLATEX is put into paragraph mode. But it will not put a page break here. Inside one ofthese boxes, called a parbox, LATEX is in inner paragraph mode. Its more usual situation,where it can put page breaks, is outer paragraph mode (see Chapter 10 [Page breaking],page 95).
17.1 \ensuremath
Synopsis:
\ensuremath{formula}
Ensure that formula is typeset in math mode.
For instance, you can redefine commands that ordinarily can be used only in math mode,so that they can be used both in math and in plain text.
\newcommand{\dx}{\ensuremath{dx}}
In $\int f(x)\, \dx$, the \dx{} is an infinitesimal.
152
Caution: the \ensuremath command is useful but not a panacea.
\newcommand{\alf}{\ensuremath{\alpha}}
You get an alpha in text mode: \alf.
But compare the correct spacing in $\alf+\alf$ with that in \alf+\alf.
Best is to typeset math things in a math mode.
153
18 Page styles
The style of a page determines where LATEX places the components of that page, suchas headers and footers, and the text body. This includes pages in the main part of thedocument but also includes special pages such as the title page of a book, a page from anindex, or the first page of an article.
The package fancyhdr is very helpful for constructing page styles. See its documentationon CTAN.
18.1 \maketitle
Synopsis:
\maketitle
Generate a title. In the standard classes the title appears on a separate page, except inthe article class where it is at the top of the first page. (See Section 3.1 [Document classoptions], page 7, for information about the titlepage document class option.)
This example shows \maketitle appearing in its usual place, immediately after\begin{document}.
\documentclass{article}
\title{Constructing a Nuclear Reactor Using Only Coconuts}
\author{Jonas Grumby\thanks{%
With the support of a Ginger Grant from the Roy Hinkley Society.} \\
Skipper, \textit{Minnow}
\and
Willy Gilligan\thanks{%
Thanks to the Mary Ann Summers foundation
and to Thurston and Lovey Howell.} \\
Mate, \textit{Minnow}
}
\date{1964-Sep-26}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
Just sit right back and you’ll hear a tale, a tale of a fateful trip.
That started from this tropic port, aboard this tiny ship. The mate was
a mighty sailin’ man, the Skipper brave and sure. Five passengers set
sail that day for a three hour tour. A three hour tour.
...
You tell LATEX the information used to produce the title by making the following declara-tions. These must come before the \maketitle, either in the preamble or in the documentbody.
\author{name1 \and name2 \and ...}
Required. Declare the document author or authors. The argument is a listof authors separated by \and commands. To separate lines within a singleauthor’s entry, for instance to give the author’s institution or address, use adouble backslash, \\. If you omit the \author declaration then you get ‘LaTeXWarning: No \author given’.
Chapter 18: Page styles 154
\date{text}
Optional. Declare text to be the document’s date. The text doesn’t need tobe in a date format; it can be any text at all. If you omit \date then LATEXuses the current date (see Section 23.8 [\today], page 197). To have no date,instead use \date{}.
\thanks{text}
Optional. Produce a footnote. You can use it in the author information foracknowledgements as illustrated above, but you can also use it in the title, orany place a footnote makes sense. It can be any text at all so you can use it forany purpose, such as to print an email address.
\title{text}
Required. Declare text to be the title of the document. Get line breaks insidetext with a double backslash, \\. If you omit the \title declaration then youget ‘LaTeX Error: No \title given’.
To make your own title page, see Section 8.26 [titlepage], page 86. You can either createthis as a one-off or you can include it as part of a renewed \maketitle command. (Manypublishers will provide a class to use in place of article that formats the title accordingto their house requirements.)
18.2 \pagenumbering
Synopsis:
\pagenumbering{number-style}
Specifies the style of page numbers, and resets the page number. The numbering styleis reflected on the page, and also in the table of contents and other page references. Thisdeclaration has global scope so its effect is not delimited by braces or environments.
In this example, before the Main section the pages are numbered ‘a’, etc. Starting onthe page containing that section, the pages are numbered ‘1’, etc.
\begin{document}\pagenumbering{alph}
...
\section{Main}\pagenumbering{arabic}
...
The argument number-style is one of the following (see also Section 13.1 [\alph \Alph\arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol], page 116).
arabic Arabic numerals: 1, 2, . . .
roman lowercase Roman numerals: i, ii, . . .
Roman uppercase Roman numerals: I, II, . . .
alph lowercase letters: a, b, . . . If you have more than 26 pages then you get ‘LaTeXError: Counter too large’.
Alph uppercase letters: A, B, . . . If you have more than 26 pages then you get ‘LaTeXError: Counter too large’.
Chapter 18: Page styles 155
gobble LATEX does not output a page number, although it does get reset. Referencesto that page also are blank. (This does not work with the popular packagehyperref so to have the page number not appear you may want to instead use\pagestyle{empty} or \thispagestyle{empty}.)
Traditionally, if a document has front matter—preface, table of contents, etc.—then itis numbered with lowercase Roman numerals. The main matter of a document uses arabic.See Section 6.7 [\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter], page 37.
If you want to address where the page number appears on the page, see Section 18.3[\pagestyle], page 155. If you want to change the value of page number then you willmanipulate the page counter (see Chapter 13 [Counters], page 116).
18.3 \pagestyle
Synopsis:
\pagestyle{style}
Declaration that specifies how the page headers and footers are typeset, from the currentpage onwards.
A discussion with an example is below. Note first that the package fancyhdr is now thestandard way to manipulate headers and footers. New documents that need to do anythingother than one of the standard options below should use this package. See its documentationon CTAN.
Values for style:
plain The header is empty. The footer contains only a page number, centered.
empty The header and footer is empty.
headings Put running headers and footers on each page. The document style specifieswhat goes in there; see the discussion below.
myheadings
Custom headers, specified via the \markboth or the \markright commands.
Some discussion of the motivation for LATEX’s mechanism will help you work with theoptions headings or myheadings. The document source below produces an article, two-sided, with the pagestyle headings. On this document’s left hand pages, LATEX wants (inaddition to the page number) the title of the current section. On its right hand pagesLATEX wants the title of the current subsection. When it makes up a page, LATEX gets thisinformation from the commands \leftmark and \rightmark. So it is up to \section and\subsection to store that information there.
\documentclass[twoside]{article}
\pagestyle{headings}
\begin{document}
... \section{Section 1} ... \subsection{Subsection 1.1} ...
\section{Section 2}
...
\subsection{Subsection 2.1}
...
Chapter 18: Page styles 156
\subsection{Subsection 2.2}
...
Suppose that the second section falls on a left page. Although when the page starts it is inthe first section, LATEX will put ‘Section 2’ in the left page header. As to the right header,if no subsection starts before the end of the right page then LATEX blanks the right handheader. If a subsection does appear before the right page finishes then there are two cases.If at least one subsection starts on the right hand page then LATEX will put in the rightheader the title of the first subsection starting on that right page. If at least one of 2.1, 2.2,. . . , starts on the left page but none starts on the right then LATEX puts in the right handheader the title of the last subsection to start, that is, the one in effect during the righthand page.
To accomplish this, in a two-sided article, LATEX has \section issue a command\markboth, setting \leftmark to ‘Section 2’ and setting \rightmark to blank.And, LATEX has \subsection issue a command \markright, setting \rightmark to‘Subsection 2.1’, etc.
Here are the descriptions of \markboth and \markright:
\markboth{left-head}{right-head}
Sets both the right hand and left hand heading information for either a pagestyle of headings or myheadings. A left hand page heading left-head is gener-ated by the last \markboth command before the end of the page. A right handpage heading right-head is generated by the first \markboth or \markright
that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one that camebefore that page.
\markright{right}
Sets the right hand page heading, leaving the left unchanged.
18.4 \thispagestyle
Synopsis:
\thispagestyle{style}
Works in the same way as the \pagestyle (see Section 18.3 [\pagestyle], page 155),except that it changes to style for the current page only. This declaration has global scope,so its effect is not delimited by braces or environments.
Often the first page of a chapter or section has a different style. For example, this LATEXbook document has the first page of the first chapter in plain style, as is the default (seeChapter 18 [Page styles], page 153).
\documentclass{book}
\pagestyle{headings}
\begin{document}
\chapter{First chapter}
...
\chapter{Second chapter}\thispagestyle{empty}
...
The plain style has a page number on it, centered in the footer. To make the page entirelyempty, the command \thispagestyle{empty} immediately follows the second \chapter.
157
19 Spaces
LATEX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. Some of these are best suitedto mathematical text; see Section 16.6 [Spacing in math mode], page 146. Some spacingcommands are suitable for both regular text and mathematical text; versions of some ofthese commands are in this chapter.
19.1 \enspace & \quad & \qquad
Synopsis, one of:
\enspace
\quad
\qquad
Insert a horizontal space of 1/2 em, 1 em, or 2 em. The em is a length defined by a fontdesigner, often thought of as being the width of a capital M. One advantage of describingspace in ems is that it can be more portable across documents than an absolute measurementsuch as points (see [Lengths/em], page 122).
This puts a suitable gap between two graphics.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{womensmile.png}%
\qquad\includegraphics{mensmile.png}
\end{center}
See Section 16.6 [Spacing in math mode], page 146, for \quad and \qquad. These arelengths from centuries of typesetting and so may be a better choice in many circumstancesthan arbitrary lengths, such as you get with \hspace.
19.2 \hspace
Synopsis, one of:
\hspace{length}
\hspace*{length}
Insert the horizontal space length. The length can be positive, negative, or zero; addingnegative space is like backspacing. It is a rubber length, that is, it may contain a plus
or minus component, or both (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). Because the space isstretchable and shrinkable, it is sometimes called glue.
This makes a line with ‘Name:’ an inch from the right margin.
\noindent\makebox[\linewidth][r]{Name:\hspace{1in}}
The *-version inserts horizontal space that non-discardable. More precisely, when TEXbreaks a paragraph into lines any white space—glues and kerns—that come at a line breakare discarded. The *-version avoids that (technically, it adds a non-discardable invisibleitem in front of the space).
In this example
\parbox{0.8\linewidth}{%
Fill in each blank: Four \hspace*{1in} and seven years ago our
fathers brought forth on this continent, a new \hspace*{1in},
Chapter 19: Spaces 158
conceived in \hspace*{1in}, and dedicated to the proposition
that all men are created \hspace*{1in}.}
the 1 inch blank following ‘conceived in’ falls at the start of a line. If you erase the * thenLATEX discards the blank.
Here, the \hspace separates the three graphics.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{lion.png}% comment keeps out extra space
\hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{tiger.png}%
\hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{bear.png}
\end{center}
Because the argument to each \hspace has minus 0.25cm, each can shrink a little if thethree figures are too wide. But each space won’t shrink more than 0.25 cm (see Chapter 14[Lengths], page 120).
19.3 \hfill
Synopsis:
\hfill
Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but that can stretch horizontallyas far as needed (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120).
This creates a one-line paragraph with ‘Name:’ on the left side of the page and ‘QuizOne’ on the right.
\noindent Name:\hfill Quiz One
The \hfill command is equivalent to \hspace{\fill} and so the space can be discardedat line breaks. To avoid that instead use \hspace*{\fill} (see Section 19.2 [\hspace],page 157).
Here the graphs are evenly spaced in the middle of the figure.
\newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
...
\begin{figure}
\hspace*{\fill}%
\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph0.png}}%
\hfill\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph1.png}}%
\hspace*{\fill}%
\caption{Comparison of two graphs} \label{fig:twographs}
\end{figure}
Note the \hspace*’s where the space could otherwise be dropped.
19.4 \hss
Synopsis:
\hss
Produce a horizontal space that is infinitely shrinkable as well as infinitely stretchable(this command is a TEX primitive). LATEX authors should reach first for the \makebox
command to get the effects of \hss (see Section 20.1 [\mbox & \makebox], page 169).
Chapter 19: Spaces 159
Here, the first line’s \hss makes the Z stick out to the right, overwriting the Y. In thesecond line the Z sticks out to the left, overwriting the X.
X\hbox to 0pt{Z\hss}Y
X\hbox to 0pt{\hss Z}Y
Without the \hss you get something like ‘Overfull \hbox (6.11111pt too wide)
detected at line 20’.
19.5 \spacefactor
Synopsis:
\spacefactor=integer
Influence LATEX’s glue stretch and shrink behavior. Most user-level documents do notuse this command.
While LATEX is laying out the material, it may stretch or shrink the gaps between words.(This space is not a character; it is called the interword glue; see Section 19.2 [\hspace],page 157). The \spacefactor command (from Plain TEX) allows you to, for instance, havethe space after a period stretch more than the space after a word-ending letter.
After LATEX places each character, or rule or other box, it sets a parameter called thespace factor. If the next thing in the input is a space then this parameter affects howmuch stretching or shrinking can happen. A space factor that is larger than the normalvalue means that the glue can stretch more and shrink less. Normally, the space factor is1000. This value is in effect following most characters, and any non-character box or mathformula. But it is 3000 after a period, exclamation mark, or question mark, it is 2000 aftera colon, 1500 after a semicolon, 1250 after a comma, and 0 after a right parenthesis orbracket, or closing double quote or single quote. Finally, it is 999 after a capital letter.
If the space factor f is 1000 then the glue gap will be the font’s normal space value (forComputer Modern Roman 10 point this is 3.3333 points). Otherwise, if the space factor f isgreater than 2000 then TEX adds the font’s extra space value (for Computer Modern Roman10 point this is 1.11111 points), and then the font’s normal stretch value is multiplied byf/1000 and the normal shrink value is multiplied by 1000/f (for Computer Modern Roman10 point these are 1.66666 and 1.11111 points).
For example, consider the period ending A man’s best friend is his dog. After it,TEX puts in a fixed extra space, and also allows the glue to stretch 3 times as much andshrink 1/3 as much, as the glue after friend, which does not end in a period.
The rules for space factors are even more complex because they play additional roles.In practice, there are two consequences. First, if a period or other punctuation is followedby a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote then the spacing effect ofthat period carries through those characters (that is, the following glue will have increasedstretch and shrink). Second, if punctuation comes after a capital letter then its effect is notin place so you get an ordinary space. This second case also affects abbreviations that donot end in a capital letter (see Section 19.5.1 [\@], page 160).
You can only use \spacefactor in paragraph mode or LR mode (see Chapter 17[Modes], page 151). You can see the current value with \the\spacefactor or\showthe\spacefactor.
Chapter 19: Spaces 160
(Comment, not really related to \spacefactor: if you get errors like ‘You can’t use
‘\spacefactor’ in vertical mode’, or ‘You can’t use ‘\spacefactor’ in math mode.’,or ‘Improper \spacefactor’ then you have probably tried to redefine an internal command.See Section 12.3 [\makeatletter & \makeatother], page 105.)
19.5.1 \@
Synopsis:
capital-letter\@.
Treat a period as sentence-ending, where LATEX would otherwise think it is part of anabbreviation. LATEX thinks that a period ends an abbreviation if the period comes after acapital letter, and otherwise thinks the period ends the sentence. By default, in justifying aline LATEX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamationpoint, comma, or colon) more than it adjusts the space between words (see Section 19.5[\spacefactor], page 159).
This example shows the two cases to remember.
The songs \textit{Red Guitar}, etc.\ are by Loudon Wainwright~III\@.
The second period ends the sentence, despite that it is preceded by a capital. We tell LATEXthat it ends the sentence by putting \@ before it. The first period ends the abbreviation‘etc.’ but not the sentence. The backslash-space, \ , produces a mid-sentence space.
So: if you have a capital letter followed by a period that ends the sentence, then put \@before the period. This holds even if there is an intervening right parenthesis or bracket, orright single or double quote, because the spacing effect of that period carries through thosecharacters. For example, this
Use the \textit{Instructional Practices Guide},
(a book by the MAA)\@.
will have correct inter-sentence spacing after the period.
The \@ command is only for a text mode. If you use it outside of a text mode then you get‘You can’t use ‘\spacefactor’ in vertical mode’ (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151).
Comment: the converse case is a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not acapital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the sentence. For that case followthe period with a backslash-space, (\ ), or a tie, (~), or \@. Examples are Nat.\ Acad.\
Science, and Mr.~Bean, and (manure, etc.\@) for sale (note in the last one that the \@
comes before the closing parenthesis).
19.5.2 \frenchspacing
Synopsis, one of:
\frenchspacing
\nonfrenchspacing
The first declaration causes LATEX to treat spacing between sentences in the same wayas spacing between words in the middle of a sentence. The second causes spacing betweensentences to stretch or shrink more (see Section 19.5 [\spacefactor], page 159); this is thedefault.
Some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the space between sen-tences (or spaces following a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than
Chapter 19: Spaces 161
the space between words that are in the middle of a sentence. Declaring \frenchspacing
(the command is from Plain TEX) switches to the tradition that all spaces are treatedequally.
19.5.3 \normalsfcodes
Synopsis:
\normalsfcodes
Reset the LATEX space factor values to the default (see Section 19.5 [\spacefactor],page 159).
19.6 Backslash-space, \
This section refers to the command consisting of two characters, a backslash followed by aspace. Synopsis:
\
Produce a space. By default it produces white space of length 3.33333 pt plus 1.66666 ptminus 1.11111 pt.
When you type one or more blanks between words, LATEX produces white space. Butthat is different than an explicit space. This illustrates.
\begin{tabular}{l}
One blank: makes some space \\
Three blanks: in a row \\
Three spaces:\ \ \ in a row \\
\end{tabular}
On the first line LATEX puts some space after the colon. On the second line LATEX collapsesthe three blanks to output one whitespace, so you end with the same space after the colonas in the first line. LATEX would similarly collapse a blank followed by a tab, or a blankand a newline and a blank. However, the bottom line asks for three spaces so the whitearea is wider. That is, the backslash-space command creates a fixed amount of horizontalspace. (Note that you can define a horizontal space of any width at all with \hspace;see Section 19.2 [\hspace], page 157.)
The backslash-space command has two main uses. It is often used after control sequencesto keep them from gobbling the space that follows, as in \TeX\ is nice. (But using curlyparentheses, as in \TeX{} is best, has the advantage of still working if the next character isa period.) The other common use is that it marks a period as ending an abbreviation insteadof ending a sentence, as in So says Prof.\ Smith (see Section 19.5.1 [\@], page 160).
Under normal circumstances, \tab and \newline are equivalent to backslash-space, \ .
19.7 ~
Synopsis:
before~after
The tie character, ~, produces a space between before and after at which the line willnot be broken. By default the white space has length 3.33333 pt plus 1.66666 pt minus1.11111 pt (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120).
Chapter 19: Spaces 162
Here LATEX will not break the line between the final two words.
Thanks to Prof.~Lerman.
In addition, despite the period, LATEX does not use the end-of-sentence spacing (seeSection 19.5.1 [\@], page 160).
Ties prevent the end of line separation of things where that could cause confusion. Butthey also reduce LATEX’s options when it breaks lines into paragraphs, so you can use toomany. They are also matters of taste, sometimes alarmingly dogmatic taste, among readers.Nevertheless, here are some usage models, many of them from the TEXbook.
• Between an enumerator and its item, such as in references: Chapter~12, orTheorem~\ref{th:Wilsons}, or Figure~\ref{fig:KGraph}. When cases areenumerated inline: (b)~Show that $f(x)$ is (1)~continuous, and (2)~bounded.
• Between a number and its unit: $745.7.8$~watts (the siunitx package has a specialfacility for this) or 144~eggs. This includes between a month and a date: October~12or 12~Oct. In general, in any expressions where numbers and abbreviations or symbolsare separated by a space: AD~565, or 2:50~pm, or Boeing~747, or 268~Plains Road,or \$$1.4$~billion.
• When mathematical phrases are rendered in words: equals~$n$, or less
than~$\epsilon$, or given~$X$, or modulo~$p^e$ for all large~$n$ (but compareis~$15$ with is $15$~times the height). Between mathematical symbols inapposition with nouns: dimension~$d$ or function~$f(x)$ (but compare with
length $l$~or more). When a symbol is a tightly bound object of a preposition:of~$x$, or from $0$ to~$1$, or in common with~$m$.
• Between symbols in series: $1$,~$2$, or~$3$ or $1$,~$2$, \ldots,~$n$.
• Between a person’s forenames and between multiple surnames: Donald~E. Knuth, orLuis~I. Trabb~Pardo, or Charles~XII (but you must give TeX places to break theline so you may do Charles Louis Xavier~Joseph de~la Vall\’ee~Poussin).
• Before a dash: pages 12~--14 or it is~--- it must be said~--- plausible.
19.8 \thinspace & \negthinspace
Synopsis, one of:
\thinspace
\negthinspace
Produce an unbreakable and unstretchable space of 1/6 em and -1/6 em. These are thetext mode equivalents of \, and \! (see [Spacing in math mode/\thinspace], page 147).You can use \, as a synonym for \thinspace in text mode.
The \negthinspace command is used in text mode mostly for fiddling with spaces. Onecommon use of \thinspace is as the space between nested quotes.
Killick replied, ‘‘I heard the Captain say, ‘Ahoy there.’\thinspace’’
Another use is that some style guides call for a \thinspace between an ellipsis and asentence ending period (other style guides, though, think the three dots are quite enoughalready). Still another use is between initials, as in D.\thinspace E.\ Knuth.
Chapter 19: Spaces 163
19.9 \/
Synopsis:
before-character\/after-character
Insert an italic correction, a small space defined by the font designer for each character,to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. When you use \/, LATEX takes thecorrection from the font metric file, scales it by any scaling that has been applied to thefont, and then inserts that much horizontal space.
Here, were it not for the \/, the before-character italic f would hit the after-characterroman H
\newcommand{\companylogo}{{\it f}\/H}
because the italic letter leans far to the right.
If after-character is a period or comma then don’t insert an italic correction since thosepunctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons as wellas with normal letters, the italic correction can help.
When you use commands such as \textit or \itshape to change fonts, LATEX willautomatically insert any needed italic correction (see Section 4.1 [Font styles], page 16).
Roman characters can also have an italic correction. An example is in the namepdf\/\TeX.
There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way.
19.10 \hrulefill & \dotfill
Synopsis, one of:
\hrulefill
\dotfill
Produce an infinite horizontal rubber length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120) thatLATEX fills with a rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of white space.
This outputs a line 2 inches long.
Name:~\makebox[2in]{\hrulefill}
This example, when placed between blank lines, creates a paragraph that is left and rightjustified and where the middle is filled with evenly spaced dots.
\noindent John Aubrey, RN \dotfill{} Melbury Lodge
To make the rule or dots go to the line’s end use \null at the start or end.
To change the rule’s thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as here
\renewcommand{\hrulefill}{%
\leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern\z@}
which changes the default thickness of 0.4 pt to 1 pt. Similarly, adjust the dot spacing aswith
\renewcommand{\dotfill}{%
\leavevmode\cleaders\hb@[email protected]{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@}
which changes the default length of 0.33 em to 1.00 em.
Chapter 19: Spaces 164
This example produces a line for a signature.
\begin{minipage}{4cm}
\centering
\hrulefill\\
Signed
\end{minipage}
The line is 4 cm long.
19.11 \bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip
Synopsis, one of:
\bigskip
\medskip
\smallskip
Produce an amount of vertical space, large or medium-sized or small. These commandsare fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
Here the skip suggests the passage of time (from The Golden Ocean by O’Brian).
Mr Saumarez would have something rude to say to him, no doubt: he
was at home again, and it was delightful.
\bigskip
‘‘A hundred and fifty-seven miles and one third, in twenty-four hours,’’
said Peter.
Each command is associated with a length defined in the document class file.
\bigskip The same as \vspace{\bigskipamount}, ordinarily about one line space, withstretch and shrink. The default for the book and article classes is 12pt plus
4pt minus 4pt.
\medskip The same as \vspace{\medskipamount}, ordinarily about half of a line space,with stretch and shrink. The default for the book and article classes is 6pt
plus 2pt minus 2pt.
\smallskip
The same as \vspace{\smallskipamount}, ordinarily about a quarter of a linespace, with stretch and shrink. The default for the book and article classesis 3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt.
Because each command is a \vspace, if you use on in mid-paragraph then it will insertits vertical space between the line in which you use it and the next line, not necessarily atthe place that you use it. So these are best between paragraphs.
The commands \bigbreak, \medbreak, and \smallbreak are similar but also suggestto LATEX that this is a good place to put a page break (see Section 19.12 [\bigbreak &\medbreak & \smallbreak], page 165.
Chapter 19: Spaces 165
19.12 \bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak
Synopsis, one of:
\bigbreak
\medbreak
\smallbreak
Produce a vertical space that is big or medium-sized or small, and suggest to LATEX thatthis is a good place to break the page. (The associated penalties are -200, -100, and -50.)
See Section 19.11 [\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip], page 164, for more. These com-mands produce the same vertical space but differ in that they also remove a precedingvertical space if it is less than what they would insert (as with \addvspace). In addition,they terminate a paragraph where they are used: this example
abc\bigbreak def ghi
jkl mno pqr
will output three paragraphs, the first ending in ‘abc’ and the second starting, after anextra vertical space and a paragraph indent, with ‘def’.
19.13 \strut
Synopsis:
\strut
Ensure that the current line has height at least 0.7\baselineskip and depth at least0.3\baselineskip. Essentially, LATEX inserts into the line a rectangle having zero width,\rule[-0.3\baselineskip]{0pt}{\baselineskip} (see Section 23.7 [\rule], page 196).The \baselineskip changes with the current font and fontsize.
In this example the \strut keeps the box inside the frame from having zero height.
\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[2in]{\strut}
This example has four lists. In the first there is a much bigger gap between items 2and 3 than there is between items 1 and 2. The second list fixes that with a \strut at theend of its first item’s second line.
\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}
\noindent\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}
\item test
\item test
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}
\item test
\item test
\end{enumerate}
Chapter 19: Spaces 166
\end{minipage}%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}}
\item \fbox{test}
\item \fbox{test}
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}}
\item \fbox{test}
\item \fbox{test}
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}%
The final two lists use \fbox to show what’s happening. The third list’s \parbox goes onlyto the bottom of its second ‘test’, which happens not have any characters that descendbelow the baseline. The fourth list adds the strut that gives the needed extra below-baselinespace.
The \strut command is often useful in graphics, such as in TikZ or Asymptote. Forinstance, you may have a command such as \graphnode{node-name} that fits a circlearound node-name. However, unless you are careful the node-name’s ‘x’ and ‘y’ will producedifferent-diameter circles because the characters are different sizes. A careful \graphnodemight insert a \strut, then node-name, and then draw the circle.
The general approach of using a zero width \rule is useful in many circumstances. Inthis table, the zero-width rule keeps the top of the first integral from hitting the \hline.Similarly, the second rule keeps the second integral from hitting the first.
\begin{tabular}{rl}
\textsc{Integral} &\textsc{Value} \\
\hline
$\int_0^x t\, dt$ &$x^2/2$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex} \\
$\int_0^x t^2\, dt$ &$x^3/3$ \rule{0em}{2.5ex}
\end{tabular}
(Although the line-ending double backslash command has an available optional argumentto put in more vertical room, that won’t work here. Changing the first double backslash tosomething like \\[2.5ex] will put the room between the header line and the \hline, andthe integral would still hit the line.)
19.14 \vspace
Synopsis, one of:
\vspace{length}
\vspace*{length}
Add the vertical space length. The length can be positive, negative, or zero. It isa rubber length—it may contain a plus or minus component (see Chapter 14 [Lengths],page 120).
Chapter 19: Spaces 167
This puts space between the two paragraphs.
And I slept.
\vspace{1ex plus 0.5ex}
The new day dawned cold.
(See Section 19.11 [\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip], page 164, for commoninter-paragraph spaces.)
The *-version inserts vertical space that non-discardable. More precisely, LATEX discardsvertical space at a page break and the *-version causes the space to stay. This exampleleaves space between the two questions.
Question: Find the integral of \( 5x^4+5 \).
\vspace*{2cm plus 0.5cm}
Question: Find the derivative of \( x^5+5x+9 \).
That space will be present even if the page break happens to fall between the questions.
If you use \vspace in the middle of a paragraph (i.e., in horizontal mode) then thespace is inserted after the line containing the \vspace command; it does not start a newparagraph at the \vspace command.
In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on the page, with atleast one inch of space below each.
\begin{document}
1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp?
\vspace{1in plus 1fill}
2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong?
\vspace{1in plus 1fill}
\end{document}
19.15 \vfill
Synopsis:
\vfill
End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length that is infinite, so it canstretch or shrink as far as needed (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120).
It is often used in the same way as \vspace{\fill}, except that \vfill ends thecurrent paragraph whereas \vspace{\fill} adds the infinite vertical space below its line,irrespective of the paragraph structure. In both cases that space will disappear at a pageboundary; to circumvent this see the starred option in Section 19.14 [\vspace], page 166.
In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain the text ‘LostDog!’ and the second ‘Lost Dog!’ is exactly halfway between them.
\begin{document}
Lost Dog!
\vfill
Lost Dog! % perfectly in the middle
Chapter 19: Spaces 168
\vfill
Lost Dog!
\end{document}
19.16 \addvspace
Synopsis:
\addvspace{vert-length}
Add a vertical space of vert-length. However, if there are two or more \addvspace’sin a sequence then together they only add the space needed to make the natural lengthequal to the maximum of the vert-length’s in that sequence. This command is fragile (seeSection 12.11 [\protect], page 113). The vert-length is a rubber length (see Chapter 14[Lengths], page 120).
This example illustrates. The picture draws a scale. In a standard LATEX articlethe length \baselineskip is 12 pt. The two rules here are 22 pt apart: the sum of the\baselineskip and the 10 pt from the first addvspace.
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{color}
\begin{document}
\setlength{\unitlength}{2pt}%
\noindent\begin{picture}(0,0)%
\multiput(0,0)(0,-1){25}{{\color{blue}\line(1,0){1}}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,-5){6}{{\color{red}\line(1,0){2}}}
\end{picture}%
\rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}%
\par\addvspace{10pt}% \addvspace{20pt}%
\par\noindent\rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}%
\end{document}
Now uncomment the second \addvspace. It does not make the gap 20 pt longer; instead thegap is the sum of \baselineskip and 20 pt. So \addvspace in a sense does the oppositeof its name — it makes sure that multiple vertical spaces do not accumulate, but insteadthat only the largest one is used.
LATEX uses this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an environmentthat starts a new paragraph. For instance, a theorem environment begins and ends with\addvspace so that two consecutive theorem’s are separated by one vertical space, not two.
A error ‘Something’s wrong--perhaps a missing \item’ pointing to an \addvspace
means that you were not in vertical mode when you hit this command. One way to changethat is to precede \addvspace with a \par command (see Section 15.1 [\par], page 125),as in the above example.
169
20 Boxes
At its core, LATEX puts things in boxes and then puts the boxes on a page. So thesecommands are central.
There are many packages on CTAN that are useful for manipulating boxes. One usefuladjunct to the commands here is adjustbox.
20.1 \mbox & \makebox
Synopsis, one of:
\mbox{text}
\makebox{text}
\makebox[width]{text}
\makebox[width][position]{text}
Create a box, a container for material. The text is typeset in LR mode (see Chapter 17[Modes], page 151) so it is not broken into lines. The \mbox command is robust, while\makebox is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
Because text is not broken into lines, you can use \mbox to prevent hyphenation. Inthis example, LATEX will not hyphenate the table name, ‘T-4’.
See Table~\mbox{T-4}
The first two command versions, \mbox and \makebox, are roughly equivalent. Theycreate a box just wide enough to contain the text. (They are like plain TEX’s \hbox.)
In the third version the optional argument width specifies the width of the box. Notethat the space occupied by the text need not equal the width of the box. For one thing,text can be too small; this creates a full-line box
\makebox[\linewidth]{Chapter Exam}
with ‘Chapter Exam’ centered. But text can also be too wide for width. See the examplebelow of zero-width boxes.
In the width argument you can use the following lengths that refer to the dimension ofthe box that LATEX gets on typesetting text: \depth, \height, \width, \totalheight (thisis the box’s height plus its depth). For example, to make a box with the text stretched todouble the natural size you can say this.
\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}
For the fourth command version the optional argument position gives position of thetext within the box. It may take the following values:
c The text is centered (default).
l The text is flush left.
r Flush right.
s Stretch the interword space in text across the entire width. The textmust contain stretchable space for this to work. For instance, this couldhead a press release: \noindent\makebox[\textwidth][s]{\large\hfil
IMMEDIATE\hfil RELEASE\hfil}
Chapter 20: Boxes 170
A common use of \makebox is to make zero-width text boxes. This puts the value of thequiz questions to the left of those questions.
\newcommand{\pts}[1]{\makebox[0em][r]{#1 points\hspace*{1em}}}
\pts{10}What is the air-speed velocity of an unladen swallow?
\pts{90}An African or European swallow?
The right edge of the output ‘10 points ’ (note the ending space) will be just beforethe ‘What’ (note the space after ‘points’). You can use \makebox similarly when makinggraphics, such as in TikZ or Asymptote, where you put the edge of the text at a knownlocation, regardless of the length of that text.
For boxes with frames see Section 20.2 [\fbox & \framebox], page 170. For colorssee Section 21.3.3 [Colored boxes], page 178.
There is a related version of \makebox that is used within the picture environment,where the length is given in terms of \unitlength (see Section 8.19.13 [\makebox (picture)],page 71).
If you put a double-backslash into text then LATEX will not give you a new line;for instance \makebox{abc def \\ ghi} outputs ‘abc defghi’ while \makebox{abc def
\par ghi} outputs ‘abc def ghi’, but neither go to a second line. To get multiple linessee Section 20.3 [\parbox], page 171, and Section 8.18 [minipage], page 63.
20.2 \fbox & \framebox
Synopses, one of:
\fbox{text}
\framebox{text}
\framebox[width]{text}
\framebox[width][position]{text}
Create a box with an enclosing frame, four lines surrounding the space. These commandsare the same as \mbox and \makebox except for the frame (see Section 20.1 [\mbox &\makebox], page 169). The \fbox command is robust, the \framebox command is fragile(see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
\fbox{Warning! No work shown, no credit given.}
LATEX puts the text into a box that cannot be split or hyphenated. Around that box,separated from it by a small gap, are four lines making a frame.
The first two command invocations, \fbox{...} and \framebox{...}, are roughly thesame. As to the third and fourth invocations, the optional arguments allow you to specifythe box width as width and the position of the text inside that box as position. SeeSection 20.1 [\mbox & \makebox], page 169, for the full description but here is an examplecreating an empty box that is 1/4 in wide.
\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[0.25in]{\strut}}
The \strut inserts a vertical height of \baselineskip (see Section 19.13 [\strut], page 165).
These parameters determine the frame layout.
Chapter 20: Boxes 171
\fboxrule
The thickness of the lines around the enclosed box. The default is 0.2 pt.Change it with a command such as \setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt} (seeSection 14.2 [\setlength], page 122).
\fboxsep The distance from the frame to the enclosed box. The default is 3 pt. Changeit with a command such as \setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt} (see Section 14.2[\setlength], page 122). Setting it to 0 pt is useful sometimes: this will put aframe around the picture with no white border.
{\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}
\framebox{%
\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{prudence.jpg}}}
The extra curly braces keep the effect of the \setlength local.
As with \mbox and \makebox, LATEX will not break lines in text. But this example hasLATEX break lines to make a paragraph, and then frame the result.
\framebox{%
\begin{minipage}{0.6\linewidth}
My dear, here we must run as fast as we can, just to stay in place.
And if you wish to go anywhere you must run twice as fast as that.
\end{minipage}}
See Section 21.3.3 [Colored boxes], page 178, for colors other than black and white.
The picture environment has a version of this command where the units depend onpicture’s \unitlength (see Section 8.19.14 [\framebox (picture)], page 72).
20.3 \parbox
Synopses, one of:
\parbox{width}{contents}
\parbox[position]{width}{contents}
\parbox[position][height]{width}{contents}
\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{contents}
Produce a box of text that is width wide. Use this command to make a box of smallpieces of text, of a single paragraph. This command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect],page 113).
\begin{picture}(0,0)
...
\put(1,2){\parbox{1.75in}{\raggedright Because the graph is a line on
this semilog paper, the relationship is
exponential.}}
\end{picture}
The contents are processed in a text mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151) so LATEXwill break lines to make a paragraph. But it won’t make multiple paragraphs; for that, usea minipage environment (see Section 8.18 [minipage], page 63).
The options for \parbox (except for contents) are the same as those for minipage. Forconvenience a summary of the options is here but see Section 8.18 [minipage], page 63, fora complete description.
Chapter 20: Boxes 172
There are two required arguments. The width is a rigid length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths],page 120). It sets the width of the box into which LATEX typesets contents. The contents isthe text that is placed in that box. It should not have any paragraph-making components.
There are three optional arguments, position, height, and inner-pos. The position givesthe vertical alignment of the parbox with respect to the surrounding material. The possiblevalues are c or m to make the vertical center of the parbox lines up with the center of theadjacent line (this is the default), or t to match the top line of the parbox with the baselineof the surrounding material, or b to match the bottom line.
The optional argument height overrides the natural height of the box.
The optional argument inner-pos controls the placement of content inside the parbox.Its default is the value of position. Its possible values are: t to put the content at the topof the box, c to put it in the vertical center, b to put it at the bottom of the box, and s tostretch it out vertically (for this, the text must contain vertically stretchable space).
20.4 \raisebox
Synopsis, one of:
\raisebox{distance}{text}
\raisebox{distance}[height]{text}
\raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text}
Raise or lower text. This command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
This example makes a command for the restriction of a function by lowering the verticalbar symbol.
\newcommand\restricted[1]{\raisebox{-.5ex}{$|$}_{#1}}
$f\restricted{A}$
The first mandatory argument distance specifies how far to raise the second mandatoryargument text. This is a rigid length (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). If it is negativethen it lowers text. The text is processed in LR mode so it cannot contain line breaks (seeChapter 17 [Modes], page 151).
The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. If they are specified, theyoverride the natural height and depth of the box LATEX gets by typesetting text.
In the arguments distance, height, and depth you can use the following lengths that referto the dimension of the box that LATEX gets on typesetting text: \depth, \height, \width,\totalheight (this is the box’s height plus its depth).
This will align two graphics on their top (see Chapter 22 [Graphics], page 179).
\usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{calc} % in preamble
...
\begin{center}
\raisebox{1ex-\height}{%
\includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{lion.png}}
\qquad
\raisebox{1ex-\height}{%
\includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{meta.png}}
\end{center}
The first \height is the height of lion.png while the second is the height of meta.png.
Chapter 20: Boxes 173
20.5 \sbox & \savebox
Synopsis, one of:
\sbox{box-cmd}{text}
\savebox{box-cmd}{text}
\savebox{box-cmd}[width]{text}
\savebox{box-cmd}[width][pos]{text}
Typeset text just as with \makebox (see Section 20.1 [\mbox & \makebox], page 169)except that LATEX does not output it but instead saves it in a storage bin named box-cmd.The bin name box-cmd begins with a backslash, \. You must have previously allocatedthe bin box-cmd with \newsavebox (see Section 12.7 [\newsavebox], page 108).The \sbox
command is robust while \savebox is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
This creates and uses a bin.
\newsavebox{\fullname}
\sbox{\fullname}{John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt}
...
\usebox{\fullname}! His name is my name, too!
Whenever we go out, the people always shout!
There goes \\usebox{\fullname}! Ya da da da da da da.
One advantage of using and reusing a bin over a \newcommand is efficiency, that LATEX neednot repeatedly retypeset the contents. See the example below.
The first two command invocations, \sbox{box-cmd}{text} and \savebox{box-
cmd}{text}, are roughly equivalent. As to the third and fourth, the optional argumentsallow you to specify the box width as width, and the position of the text inside that boxas position. See Section 20.1 [\mbox & \makebox], page 169, for the full description.
In the \sbox and \savebox commands the text is typeset in LR mode so it does not haveline breaks (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151). If you use these then LATEX doesn’t giveyou an error but it ignores what you want: if you enter \sbox{\newbin}{test \\ test}
and \usebox{\newbin} then you get ‘testtest’, while if you enter \sbox{\newbin}{test\par test} and \usebox{\newbin} then you get ‘test test’, but no error or warning. Tofix this use a \parbox or minipage as here.
\savebox{\abin}{%
\begin{minipage}{\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
\item First item
\item Second item
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}}
...
\usebox{\abin}
As an example of the efficiency of reusing a bin’s contents, this puts the same pictureon each page of the document by putting it in the header. LATEX only typesets it once.
\usepackage{graphicx} % all this in the preamble
\newsavebox{\sealbin}
\savebox{\sealbin}{%
Chapter 20: Boxes 174
\setlength{\unitlength}{1in}%
\begin{picture}(0,0)%
\put(1.5,-2.5){%
\begin{tabular}{c}
\includegraphics[height=2in]{companylogo.png} \\
Office of the President
\end{tabular}}
\end{picture}%
}
\markright{\usebox{\sealbin}}
\pagestyle{headings}
The picture environment is good for fine-tuning the placement.
If the bin has not already been defined then you get something like ‘Undefined control
sequence. <argument> \nobin’.
20.6 lrbox
Synopsis:
\begin{lrbox}{box-cmd}
text
\end{lrbox}
The text inside the environment is saved in the bin box-cmd. The box-cmd must beginwith a backslash. You must create this bin in advance with \newsavebox (see Section 12.7[\newsavebox], page 108). This is the environment form of the \sbox and \savebox com-mands, and is equivalent to them. See Section 20.5 [\sbox & \savebox], page 173, for thefull information.
In this example the environment is convenient for entering the tabular.
\newsavebox{\jhbin}
\begin{lrbox}{\jhbin}
\begin{tabular}{c}
\includegraphics[height=1in]{jh.png} \\
Jim Hef{}feron
\end{tabular}
\end{lrbox}
...
\usebox{\jhbin}
20.7 \usebox
Synopsis:
\usebox{box-cmd}
Produce the box most recently saved in the bin box-cmd by the commands \sbox or\savebox, or the lrbox environment. See Section 20.5 [\sbox & \savebox], page 173,for more information and examples. (Note that box-cmd starts with a backslash.) Thiscommand is robust (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
175
21 Color
You can add color to text, rules, etc. You can also have color in a box or on an entire pageand write text on top of it.
Color support comes as an additional package. So put \usepackage{color} in yourdocument preamble to use the commands described here.
Many other packages also supplement LATEX’s color abilities. Particularly worth men-tioning is xcolor, which is widely used and significantly extends the capabilities describedhere, including adding ‘HTML’ and ‘Hsb’ color models.
21.1 color package options
Synopsis (must be in the document preamble):
\usepackage[comma-separated option list]{color}
When you load the color package there are two kinds of available options.
The first specifies the printer driver. LATEX doesn’t contain information about differentoutput systems but instead depends on information stored in a file. Normally you should notspecify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system’s default. Oneadvantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems. For completenesswe include a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: dvipdfmx, dvips, dvisvgm,luatex, pdftex, xetex. The two xdvi and oztex are essentially aliases for dvips (and xdvi
is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systems are: dvipdf, dvipdfm,dviwin, dvipsone, emtex, pctexps, pctexwin, pctexhp, pctex32, truetex, tcidvi, vtex(and dviwindo is an alias for dvipsone).
The second kind of options, beyond the drivers, are below.
monochrome
Disable the color commands, so that they do not generate errors but do notgenerate color either.
dvipsnames
Make available a list of 68 color names that are often used, particularly in legacydocuments. These color names were originally provided by the dvips driver,giving the option name.
nodvipsnames
Do not load that list of color names, saving LATEX a tiny amount of memoryspace.
21.2 Color models
A color model is a way of representing colors. LATEX’s capabilities depend on the printerdriver. However, the pdftex, xetex, and luatex printer drivers are today by far the mostcommonly used. The models below work for those drivers. All but one of these is alsosupported by essentially all other printer drivers used today.
Note that color combination can be additive or subtractive. Additive mixes colors oflight, so that for instance combining full intensities of red, green, and blue produces white.
Chapter 21: Color 176
Subtractive mixes pigments, such as with inks, so that combining full intensity of cyan,magenta, and yellow makes black.
cmyk A comma-separated list with four real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive. Thefirst number is the intensity of cyan, the second is magenta, and the others areyellow and black. A number value of 0 means minimal intensity, while a 1 isfor full intensity. This model is often used in color printing. It is a subtractivemodel.
gray A single real number between 0 and 1, inclusive. The colors are shades of grey.The number 0 produces black while 1 gives white.
rgb A comma-separated list with three real numbers between 0 and 1, inclusive.The first number is the intensity of the red component, the second is green, andthe third the blue. A number value of 0 means that none of that component isadded in, while a 1 means full intensity. This is an additive model.
RGB (pdftex, xetex, luatex drivers) A comma-separated list with three integersbetween 0 and 255, inclusive. This model is a convenience for using rgb sinceoutside of LATEX colors are often described in a red-green-blue model usingnumbers in this range. The values entered here are converted to the rgb modelby dividing by 255.
named Colors are accessed by name, such as ‘PrussianBlue’. The list of namesdepends on the driver, but all support the names ‘black’, ‘blue’, ‘cyan’,‘green’, ‘magenta’, ‘red’, ‘white’, and ‘yellow’ (See the dvipsnames optionin Section 21.1 [Color package options], page 175).
21.3 Commands for color
These are the commands available with the color package.
21.3.1 Define colors
Synopsis:
\definecolor{name}{model}{specification}
Give the name name to the color. For example, after this
\definecolor{silver}{rgb}{0.75,0.75,0.74}
you can use that color name with Hi ho, \textcolor{silver}{Silver}!.
This example gives the color a more abstract name, so it could change and not bemisleading.
\definecolor{logocolor}{RGB}{145,92,131} % RGB needs pdflatex
\newcommand{\logo}{\textcolor{logocolor}{Bob’s Big Bagels}}
Often a document’s colors are defined in the preamble, or in the class or style, ratherthan in the document body.
21.3.2 Colored text
Synopses:
\textcolor{name}{...}
Chapter 21: Color 177
\textcolor[color model]{color specification}{...}
or
\color{name}
\color[color model]{specification}
The affected text gets the color. This line
\textcolor{magenta}{My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:}
Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!
causes the first half to be in magenta while the rest is in black. You can use a color declaredwith \definecolor in exactly the same way that we just used the builtin color ‘magenta’.
\definecolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{rgb}{1.0,0.11,0.0}
I’m thinking about getting a \textcolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{sports car}.
The two \textcolor and \color differ in that the first is a command form, enclosingthe text to be colored as an argument. Often this form is more convenient, or at least moreexplicit. The second form is a declaration, as in The moon is made of {\color{green}
green} cheese, so it is in effect until the end of the current group or environment. Thisis sometimes useful when writing macros or as below where it colors everything inside thecenter environment, including the vertical and horizontal lines.
\begin{center} \color{blue}
\begin{tabular}{l|r}
UL &UR \\ \hline
LL &LR
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
You can use color in equations. A document might have this definition in the preamble
\definecolor{highlightcolor}{RGB}{225,15,0}
and then contain this equation.
\begin{equation}
\int_a^b \textcolor{highlightcolor}{f’(x)}\,dx=f(b)-f(a)
\end{equation}
Typically the colors used in a document are declared in a class or style but sometimesyou want a one-off. Those are the second forms in the synopses.
Colors of \textcolor[rgb]{0.33,0.14,0.47}{Purple} and
{\color[rgb]{0.72,0.60,0.37} Gold} for the team.
The format of color specification depends on the color model (see Section 21.2 [Colormodels], page 175). For instance, while rgb takes three numbers, gray takes only one.
The selection was \textcolor[gray]{0.5}{grayed out}.
Colors inside colors do not combine. Thus
\textcolor{green}{kind of \textcolor{blue}{blue}}
has a final word that is blue, not a combination of blue and green.
Chapter 21: Color 178
21.3.3 Colored boxes
Synopses:
\colorbox{name}{...}
\colorbox[model name]{box background color}{...}
or
\fcolorbox{frame color}{box background color}{...}
\fcolorbox[model name]{frame color}{box background color}{...}
Make a box with the stated background color. The \fcolorbox command puts a framearound the box. For instance this
Name:~\colorbox{cyan}{\makebox[5cm][l]{\strut}}
makes a cyan-colored box that is five centimeters long and gets its depth and height fromthe \strut (so the depth is -.3\baselineskip and the height is \baselineskip). Thisputs white text on a blue background.
\colorbox{blue}{\textcolor{white}{Welcome to the machine.}}
The \fcolorbox commands use the same parameters as \fbox (see Section 20.2 [\fbox& \framebox], page 170), \fboxrule and \fboxsep, to set the thickness of the rule and theboundary between the box interior and the surrounding rule. LATEX’s defaults are 0.4pt
and 3pt, respectively.
This example changes the thickness of the border to 0.8 points. Note that it is surroundedby curly braces so that the change ends at the end of the second line.
{\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt}
\fcolorbox{black}{red}{Under no circumstances turn this knob.}}
21.3.4 Colored pages
Synopses:
\pagecolor{name}
\pagecolor[color model]{color specification}
\nopagecolor
The first two set the background of the page, and all subsequent pages, to the color.For an explanation of the specification in the second form see Section 21.3.2 [Colored text],page 176. The third returns the background to normal, which is a transparent background.(If that is not supported use \pagecolor{white}, although that will make a white back-ground rather than the default transparent background.)
...
\pagecolor{cyan}
...
\nopagecolor
179
22 Graphics
You can use graphics such as PNG or PDF files in your LATEX document. You need anadditional package, which comes standard with LATEX. This example is the short how-to.
\include{graphicx} % goes in the preamble
...
\includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{plot.pdf}
To use the commands described here your document preamble must contain either\usepackage{graphicx} or \usepackage{graphics}. Most of the time, graphicx is thebetter choice.
Graphics come in two main types, raster and vector. LATEX can use both. In rastergraphics the file contains an entry for each location in an array, describing what color itis. An example is a photograph, in JPG format. In vector graphics, the file contains a listof instructions such as ‘draw a circle with this radius and that center’. An exampleis a line drawing produced by the Asymptote program, in PDF format. Generally vectorgraphics are more useful because you can rescale their size without pixelation or otherproblems, and because they often have a smaller size.
There are systems particularly well-suited to make graphics for a LATEX document. Forexample, these allow you to use the same fonts as in your document. LATEX comes with apicture environment (see Section 8.19 [picture], page 65) that has simple capabilities. Be-sides that, there are other ways to include the graphic-making commands in the document.Two such systems are the PSTricks and TikZ packages. There are also systems external toLATEX, that generate a graphic that you include using the commands of this chapter. Twothat use a programming language are Asymptote and MetaPost. One that uses a graphicalinterface is Xfig. Full description of these systems is outside the scope of this document;see their documentation on CTAN.
22.1 graphics package options
Synopsis (must be in the document preamble):
\usepackage[comma-separated option list]{graphics}
or
\usepackage[comma-separated option list]{graphicx}
The graphicx package has a format for optional arguments to the \includegraphics
command that is convenient (it is the key-value format), so it is the better choice for newdocuments. When you load the graphics or graphicx package with \usepackage thereare two kinds of available options.
The first is that LATEX does not contain information about different output systems butinstead depends on information stored in a printer driver file. Normally you should notspecify the driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system’s default. Oneadvantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems.
For completeness here is a list of the drivers. The currently relevant ones are: dvipdfmx,dvips, dvisvgm, luatex, pdftex, xetex. The two xdvi and oztex are essentially aliasesfor dvips (and xdvi is monochrome). Ones that should not be used for new systemsare: dvipdf, dvipdfm, dviwin, dvipsone, emtex, pctexps, pctexwin, pctexhp, pctex32,
Chapter 22: Graphics 180
truetex, tcidvi, vtex (and dviwindo is an alias for dvipsone). These are stored in fileswith a .def extension, such as pdftex.def.
The second kind of options are below.
demo Instead of an image file, LATEX puts in a 150 pt by 100 pt rectangle (unlessanother size is specified in the \includegraphics command).
draft For each graphic file, it is not shown but instead the file name is printed in abox of the correct size. In order to determine the size, the file must be present.
final (Default) Override any previous draft option, so that the document shows thecontents of the graphic files.
hiderotate
Do not show rotated text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer doesnot have the capability to rotate text.)
hidescale
Do not show scaled text. (This allows for the possibility that a previewer doesnot have the capability to scale.)
hiresbb In a PS or EPS file the graphic size may be specified in two ways. The%%BoundingBox lines describe the graphic size using integer multiples of a Post-Script point, that is, integer multiples of 1/72 inch. A later addition to the Post-Script language allows decimal multiples, such as 1.23, in %%HiResBoundingBox
lines. This option has LATEX to read the size from the latter.
22.2 graphics package configuration
These commands configure the way LATEX searches the file system for the graphic.
The behavior of file system search code is necessarily platform dependent. In this doc-ument we cover GNU/Linux, Macintosh, and Windows, as those systems are typicallyconfigured. For other situations consult the documentation in grfguide.pdf, or the LATEXsource, or your TEX distribution’s documentation.
22.2.1 \graphicspath
Synopsis:
\graphicspath{list of dir names inside curly brackets}
Declare a list of directories to search for graphics files. This allows you to later saysomething like \includegraphics{lion.png} instead of having to give its path.
LATEX always looks for graphic files first in the current directory. The declaration belowtells the system to then look in the subdirectory pix, and then ../pix.
\usepackage{graphicx} % or graphics; put in preamble
...
\graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} }
The \graphicspath declaration is optional. If you don’t include it then LATEX’s defaultis to search all of the places that it usually looks for a file (it uses LATEX’s \input@path).In particular, in this case one of the places it looks is the current directory.
Chapter 22: Graphics 181
Enclose each directory name in curly braces; for example, above it says ‘{pix}’. Dothis even if there is only one directory. Each directory name must end in a forward slash,/. This is true even on Windows, where good practice is to use forward slashes for all thedirectory separators since it makes the document portable to other platforms. If you havespaces in your directory name then use double quotes, as with {"my docs/"}. Getting oneof these rules wrong will cause LATEX to report Error: File ‘filename’ not found.
Basically, the algorithm is that with this example, after looking in the current directory,
\graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} }
...
\usepackage{lion.png}
for each of the listed directories, LATEX concatenates it with the file name and searches forthe result, checking for pix/lion.png and then ../pix/lion.png. This algorithm meansthat the \graphicspath command does not recursively search subdirectories: if you issue\graphicspath{{a/}} and the graphic is in a/b/lion.png then LATEX will not find it. Italso means that you can use absolute paths such as \graphicspath{{/home/jim/logos/}}or \graphicspath{{C:/Users/Albert/Pictures/}}. However, using these means that thedocument is not portable. (You could preserve portability by adjusting your TEX systemsettings configuration file parameter TEXINPUTS; see the documentation of your system.)
You can use \graphicspath anywhere in the document. You can use it more than once.Show its value with \makeatletter\typeout{\Ginput@path}\makeatother.
The directories are taken with respect to the base file. That is, suppose that you are work-ing on a document based on book/book.tex and it contains \include{chapters/chap1}.If in chap1.tex you put \graphicspath{{plots/}} then LATEX will not search for graphicsin book/chapters/plots, but instead in book/plots.
22.2.2 \DeclareGraphicsExtensions
Synopses:
\DeclareGraphicsExtensions{comma-separated list of file extensions}
Declare the filename extensions to try. This allows you to specify the order in which tochoose graphic formats when you include graphic files by giving the filename without theextension, as in \includegraphics{functionplot}.
In this example, LATEX will find files in the PNG format before PDF files.
\DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.png,PNG,.pdf,.PDF}
...
\includegraphics{lion} % will find lion.png before lion.pdf
Because the file name lion does not have a period, LATEX uses the extension list. For eachdirectory in the graphics path (see Section 22.2.1 [\graphicspath], page 180), LATEX willtry the extensions in the order given. If it does not find such a file after trying all thedirectories and extensions then it reports ‘! LaTeX Error: File ‘lion’ not found’. Notethat you must include the periods at the start of the extensions.
Because GNU/Linux and Macintosh filenames are case sensitive, the list of file extensionsis case sensitive on those platforms. The Windows platform is not case sensitive.
You are not required to include \DeclareGraphicsExtensions in your document; theprinter driver has a sensible default. For example, the most recent pdftex.def has thisextension list.
Chapter 22: Graphics 182
.png,.pdf,.jpg,.mps,.jpeg,.jbig2,.jb2,.PNG,.PDF,.JPG,.JPEG,.JBIG2,.JB2
You can use this command anywhere in the document. You can use it more than once.Show its value with \makeatletter\typeout{\Gin@extensions}\makeatother.
22.2.3 \DeclareGraphicsRule
Synopsis:
\DeclareGraphicsRule{extension}{type}{size-file extension}{command}
Declare how to handle graphic files whose names end in extension.
This example declares that all files with names have the form filename-without-
dot.mps will be treated as output from MetaPost, meaning that the printer driver willuse its MetaPost-handling code to input the file.
\DeclareGraphicsRule{.mps}{mps}{.mps}{}
This
\DeclareGraphicsRule{*}{mps}{*}{}
tells LATEX that it should handle as MetaPost output any file with an extension not coveredby another rule, so it covers filename.1, filename.2, etc.
This describes the four arguments.
extension The file extension to which this rule applies. The extension is anything afterand including the first dot in the filename. Use the Kleene star, *, to denotethe default behaviour for all undeclared extensions.
type The type of file involved. This type is a string that must be defined in theprinter driver. For instance, files with extensions .ps, .eps, or .ps.gz mayall be classed as type eps. All files of the same type will be input with thesame internal command by the printer driver. For example, the file types thatpdftex recognizes are: jpg, jbig2, mps, pdf, png, tif.
size-file extensionThe extension of the file to be read to determine the size of the graphic, if thereis such a file. It may be the same as extension but it may be different.
As an example, consider a PostScript graphic. To make it smaller, it might becompressed into a .ps.gz file. Compressed files are not easily read by LATEXso you can put the bounding box information in a separate file. If size-fileextension is empty then you must specify size information in the arguments of\includegraphics.
If the driver file has a procedure for reading size files for type then that will beused, otherwise it will use the procedure for reading .eps files. (Thus you mayspecify the size of bitmap files in a file with a PostScript style %%BoundingBox
line if no other format is available.)
command A command that will be applied to the file. This is very often leftblank. This command must start with a single backward quote. Thus,\DeclareGraphicsRule{.eps.gz}{eps}{.eps.bb}{‘gunzip -c #1} specifiesthat any file with the extension .eps.gz should be treated as an eps file, withthe BoundingBox information stored in the file with extension .eps.bb, and
Chapter 22: Graphics 183
that the command gunzip -c will run on your platform to decompresses thefile.
Such a command is specific to your platform. In addition, your TEX systemmust allow you to run external commands; as a security measure modern sys-tems restrict running commands unless you explicitly allow it. See the docu-mentation for your TEX distribution.
22.3 Commands for graphics
These are the commands available with the graphics and graphicx packages.
22.3.1 \includegraphics
Synopses for graphics package:
\includegraphics{filename}
\includegraphics[urx,ury]{filename}
\includegraphics[llx,lly][urx,ury]{filename}
\includegraphics*{filename}
\includegraphics*[urx,ury]{filename}
\includegraphics*[llx,lly][urx,ury]{filename}
Synopses for graphicx package:
\includegraphics{filename}
\includegraphics[key-value list]{filename}
\includegraphics*{filename}
\includegraphics*[key-value list]{filename}
Include a graphics file. The starred form \includegraphics* will clip the graphic tothe size specified, while for the unstarred form any part of the graphic that is outside thebox of the specified size will over-print the surrounding area.
This
\usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble
...
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{plot.pdf}
\end{center}
will incorporate into the document the graphic in plot.pdf, centered and at its nominal size.You can also give a path to the file, as with \includegraphics{graphics/plot.pdf}. Tospecify a list of locations to search for the file, see Section 22.2.1 [\graphicspath], page 180.
If your filename includes spaces then put it in double quotes. An example is\includegraphics{"sister picture.jpg"}.
The \includegraphics{filename} command decides on the type of graphicby splitting filename on the first dot. You can use filename with no dot, as in\includegraphics{turing} and then LATEX tries a sequence of extensions suchas .png and .pdf until it finds a file with that extension (see Section 22.2.2[\DeclareGraphicsExtensions], page 181).
If your file name contains dots before the extension then you can hide them with curlybraces, as in \includegraphics{{plot.2018.03.12.a}.pdf}. Or, if you use the graphicx
Chapter 22: Graphics 184
package then you can use the options type and ext; see below. This and other filenameissues are also handled with the package grffile.
This example puts a graphic in a figure environment so LATEX can move it to the nextpage if fitting it on the current page is awkward (see Section 8.10 [figure], page 52).
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=3cm]{lungxray.jpg}
\caption{The evidence is overwhelming: don’t smoke.} \label{fig:xray}
\end{figure}
This places a graphic that will not float, so it is sure to appear at this point in thedocument even if makes LATEX stretch the text or resort to blank areas on the page. It willbe centered and will have a caption.
\usepackage{caption} % in preamble
...
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{pix/nix.png}
\captionof{figure}{The spirit of the night} \label{pix:nix} % optional
\end{center}
This example puts a box with a graphic side by side with one having text, with the twovertically centered.
\newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
...
\begin{center}
\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{plot}}
\hspace{1em}
\vcenteredhbox{\begin{minipage}{0.4\textwidth}
\begin{displaymath}
f(x)=x\cdot \sin (1/x)
\end{displaymath}
\end{minipage}}
\end{center}
If you use the graphics package then the only options involve the size of the graphic(but see Section 22.3.2 [\rotatebox], page 188, and Section 22.3.3 [\scalebox], page 189).When one optional argument is present then it is [urx,ury] and it gives the coordinatesof the top right corner of the image, as a pair of TEX dimensions (see Section 14.1 [Units oflength], page 121). If the units are omitted they default to bp. In this case, the lower leftcorner of the image is assumed to be at (0,0). If two optional arguments are present thenthe leading one is [llx,lly], specifying the coordinates of the image’s lower left. Thus,\includegraphics[1in,0.618in]{...} calls for the graphic to be placed so it is 1 inchwide and 0.618 inches tall and so its origin is at (0,0).
The graphicx package gives you many more options. Specify them in a key-value form,as here.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=1in,angle=90]{lion}
\hspace{2em}
Chapter 22: Graphics 185
\includegraphics[angle=90,width=1in]{lion}
\end{center}
The options are read left-to-right. So the first graphic above is made one inch wide andthen rotated, while the second is rotated and then made one inch wide. Thus, unless thegraphic is perfectly square, the two will end with different widths and heights.
There are many options. The primary ones are listed first.
Note that a graphic is placed by LATEX into a box, which is traditionally referred to as itsbounding box (distinct from the PostScript BoundingBox described below). The graphic’sprinted area may go beyond this box, or sit inside this box, but when LATEX makes up apage it puts together boxes and this is the box allocated for the graphic.
width The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this width. An exampleis \includegraphics[width=1in]{plot}. You can use the standard TEX di-mensions (see Section 14.1 [Units of length], page 121) and also convenientis \linewidth, or in a two-column document, \columnwidth (see Section 5.5[Page layout parameters], page 24). An example is that by using the calc
package you can make the graphic be 1 cm narrow than the width of the textwith \includegraphics[width=\linewidth-1.0cm]{hefferon.jpg}.
height The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this height. You canuse the standard TEX dimensions (see Section 14.1 [Units of length],page 121), and also convenient are \pageheight and \textheight (seeSection 5.5 [Page layout parameters], page 24). For instance, the command\includegraphics[height=0.25\textheight]{godel} will make the graphica quarter of the height of the text area.
totalheight
The graphic will be shown so its bounding box has this height plus depth. Thisdiffers from the height if the graphic was rotated. For instance, if it has beenrotated by -90 then it will have zero height but a large depth.
keepaspectratio
If set to true, or just specified as here
\includegraphics[...,keepaspectratio,...]{...}
and you give as options both width and height (or totalheight), then LATEXwill make the graphic is as large as possible without distortion. That is, LATEXwill ensure that neither is the graphic wider than width nor taller than height
(or totalheight).
scale Factor by which to scale the graphic. To make a graphic twice its nominal size,enter \includegraphics[scale=2.0]{...}. This number may be any value;a number between 1 and 0 will shrink the graphic and a negative number willreflect it.
angle Rotate the graphic. The angle is taken in degrees and counterclockwise. Thegraphic is rotated about its origin; see that option. For a complete descriptionof how rotated material is typeset, see Section 22.3.2 [\rotatebox], page 188.
origin The point of the graphic about which the rotation happens. Possiblevalues are any string containing one or two of: l for left, r for right, b
Chapter 22: Graphics 186
for bottom, c for center, t for top, and B for baseline. Thus, enteringthe command \includegraphics[angle=180,origin=c]{moon} will turnthe picture upside down about that picture’s center, while the command\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=lB]{LeBateau} will turn its pictureupside down about its left baseline. (The character c gives the horizontalcenter in bc or tc, but gives the vertical center in lc or rc.) The default is lB.
To rotate about an arbitrary point, see Section 22.3.2 [\rotatebox], page 188.
These are lesser-used options.
viewport Pick out a subregion of the graphic to show. Takes four arguments, separatedby spaces and given in TEX dimensions, as with \includegraphics[..,
viewport=0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}. The dimensions default to bigpoints, bp. They are taken relative to the origin specified by the boundingbox. See also the trim option.
trim Gives parts of the graphic to not show. Takes four arguments, separated by spa-ces, that are given in TEX dimensions, as with \includegraphics[.., trim=
0in 0.1in 0.2in 0.3in, ...]{...}. These give the amounts of the graphicnot to show, that is, LATEX will crop the picture by 0 inches on the left, 0.1 incheson the bottom, 0.2 inches on the right, and 0.3 inches on the top. See also theviewport option.
clip If set to true, or just specified as here
\includegraphics[...,clip,...]{...}
then the graphic is cropped to the bounding box. This is the same as using thestarred form of the command, \includegraphics*[...]{...}.
page Give the page number of a multi-page PDF file. The default is page=1.
pagebox Specifies which bounding box to use for PDF files from among mediabox,cropbox, bleedbox, trimbox, or artbox. PDF files do not have the Bounding-Box that PostScript files have, but may specify up to four predefined rectangles.The MediaBox gives the boundaries of the physical medium. The CropBox isthe region to which the contents of the page are to be clipped when displayed.The BleedBox is the region to which the contents of the page should be clippedin production. The TrimBox is the intended dimensions of the finished page.The ArtBox is the extent of the page’s meaningful content. The driver will setthe image size based on CropBox if present, otherwise it will not use one of theothers, with a driver-defined order of preference. MediaBox is always present.
interpolate
Enable or disable interpolation of raster images by the viewer. Can be set withinterpolate=true or just specified as here.
\includegraphics[...,interpolate,...]{...}
quiet Do not write information to the log. You can set it with quiet=true or justspecified it with \includegraphics[...,quite,...]{...},
draft If you set it with draft=true or just specify it with
\includegraphics[...,draft,...]{...}
Chapter 22: Graphics 187
then the graphic will not appear in the document, possibly saving color printerink. Instead, LATEX will put an empty box of the correct size with the filenameprinted in it.
These options address the bounding box for Encapsulated PostScript graphic files, whichhave a size specified with a line %%BoundingBox that appears in the file. It has four val-ues, giving the lower x coordinate, lower y coordinate, upper x coordinate, and upper ycoordinate. The units are PostScript points, equivalent to TEX’s big points, 1/72 inch. Forexample, if an .eps file has the line %%BoundingBox 10 20 40 80 then its natural size is30/72 inch wide by 60/72 inch tall.
bb Specify the bounding box of the displayed region. The argument is four dimen-sions separated by spaces, as with \includegraphics[.., bb= 0in 0in 1in
0.618in]{...}. Usually \includegraphics reads the BoundingBox numbersfrom the EPS file automatically, so this option is only useful if the boundingbox is missing from that file or if you want to change it.
bbllx, bblly, bburx, bbury
Set the bounding box. These four are obsolete, but are retained for compati-bility with old packages.
natwidth, natheight
An alternative for bb. Setting
\includegraphics[...,natwidth=1in,natheight=0.618in,...]{...}
is the same as setting bb=0 0 1in 0.618in.
hiresbb If set to true, or just specified as with
\includegraphics[...,hiresbb,...]{...}
then LATEX will look for %%HiResBoundingBox lines instead of %%BoundingBoxlines. (The BoundingBox lines use only natural numbers while theHiResBoundingBox lines use decimals; both use units equivalent to TEX’s bigpoints, 1/72 inch.) To override a prior setting of true, you can set it to false.
These following options allow a user to override LATEX’s method of choos-ing the graphic type based on the filename extension. An example is that\includegraphics[type=png,ext=.xxx,read=.xxx]{lion} will read the file lion.xxx
as though it were lion.png. For more on these, see Section 22.2.3 [\DeclareGraphicsRule],page 182.
type Specify the graphics type.
ext Specify the graphics extension. Only use this in conjunction with the optiontype.
read Specify the file extension of the read file. Only use this in conjunction with theoption type.
command Specify a command to be applied to this file. Only use this in conjunctionwith the option type. See Section 28.1 [Command line options], page 220, fora discussion of enabling the \write18 functionality to run external commands.
Chapter 22: Graphics 188
22.3.2 \rotatebox
Synopsis if you use the graphics package:
\rotatebox{angle}{material}
Synopses if you use the graphicx package:
\rotatebox{angle}{material}
\rotatebox[key-value list]{angle}{material}
Put material in a box and rotate it angle degrees counterclockwise.
This example rotates the table column heads forty five degrees.
\begin{tabular}{ll}
\rotatebox{45}{Character} &\rotatebox{45}{NATO phonetic} \\
A &AL-FAH \\
B &BRAH-VOH
\end{tabular}
The material can be anything that goes in a box, including a graphic.
\rotatebox[origin=c]{45}{\includegraphics[width=1in]{lion}}
To place the rotated material, the first step is that LATEX sets material in a box, with areference point on the left baseline. The second step is the rotation, by default about thereference point. The third step is that LATEX computes a box to bound the rotated material.Fourth, LATEX moves this box horizontally so that the left edge of this new bounding boxcoincides with the left edge of the box from the first step (they need not coincide vertically).This new bounding box, in its new position, is what LATEX uses as the box when typesettingthis material.
If you use the graphics package then the rotation is about the reference point of thebox. If you use the graphicx package then these are the options that can go in the key-valuelist, but note that you can get the same effect without needing this package, except for thex and y options (see Section 22.3.1 [\includegraphics], page 183).
origin The point of the material’s box about which the rotation happens. Possiblevalue is any string containing one or two of: l for left, r for right, b for bottom,c for center, t for top, and B for baseline. Thus, the first line here
\rotatebox[origin=c]{180}{moon}
\rotatebox[origin=lB]{180}{LeBateau}
will turn the picture upside down from the center while the second will turnits picture upside down about its left baseline. (The character c gives thehorizontal center in bc or tc but gives the vertical center in lc or rc, and givesboth in c.) The default is lB.
x, y Specify an arbitrary point of rotation with \rotatebox[x=TEX dimension,y=TEX
dimension]{...} (see Section 14.1 [Units of length], page 121). These give theoffset from the box’s reference point.
units This key allows you to change the default of degrees counterclockwise.Setting units=-360 changes the direction to degrees clockwise and settingunits=6.283185 changes to radians counterclockwise.
Chapter 22: Graphics 189
22.3.3 \scalebox
Synopses:
\scalebox{horizontal factor}{material}
\scalebox{horizontal factor}[vertical factor]{material}
\reflectbox{material}
Scale the material.
This example halves the size, both horizontally and vertically, of the first text anddoubles the size of the second.
\scalebox{0.5}{DRINK ME} and \scalebox{2.0}{Eat Me}
If you do not specify the optional vertical factor then it defaults to the same value asthe horizontal factor.
You can use this command to resize a graphic, as here.
\scalebox{0.5}{\includegraphics{lion}}
If you use the graphicx package then you can accomplish the same thing with optionalarguments to \includegraphics (see Section 22.3.1 [\includegraphics], page 183).
The \reflectbox command abbreviates \scalebox{-1}[1]{material}. Thus, Able
was I\reflectbox{Able was I} will show the phrase ‘Able was I’ immediately followedby its mirror reflection.
22.3.4 \resizebox
Synopses:
\resizebox{horizontal length}{vertical length}{material}
\resizebox*{horizontal length}{vertical length}{material}
Given a size, such as 3cm, transform material to make it that size. If either horizontallength or vertical length is an exclamation point ! then the other argument is used todetermine a scale factor for both directions.
This example makes the graphic be a half inch wide and scales it vertically by the samefactor to keep it from being distorted.
\resizebox{0.5in}{!}{\includegraphics{lion}}
The unstarred form \resizebox takes vertical length to be the box’s height while thestarred form \resizebox* takes it to be height+depth. For instance, make the text havea height+depth of a quarter inch with \resizebox*{!}{0.25in}{\parbox{1in}{This box
has both height and depth.}}.
You can use \depth, \height, \totalheight, and \width to refer to the originalsize of the box. Thus, make the text two inches wide but keep the original height with\resizebox{2in}{\height}{Two inches}.
190
23 Special insertions
LATEX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do notcorrespond to simple characters you can type.
23.1 Reserved characters
LATEX sets aside the following characters for special purposes. For example, the percentsign % is for comments. They are called reserved characters or special characters.
# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \
If you want a reserved character to be printed as itself, in the text body font, for allbut the final three characters in that list simply put a backslash \ in front of the character.Thus, typing \$1.23 will produce $1.23 in your output.
As to the last three characters, to get a tilde in the text body font use \~{} (omittingthe curly braces would result in the next character receiving a tilde accent). Similarly, toget a get a text body font circumflex use \^{}. To get a backslash in the font of the textbody, enter \textbackslash{}.
To produce the reserved characters in a typewriter font use \verb!! as below (the doublebackslash \\ is only there to split the lines).
\begin{center}
\# \$ \% \& \{ \} \_ \~{} \^{} \textbackslash \\
\verb!# $ % & { } _ ~ ^ \!
\end{center}
23.2 Upper and lower case
Synopsis:
\uppercase{text}
\lowercase{text}
\MakeUppercase{text}
\MakeLowercase{text}
Change the case of characters. The TEX primitives commands \uppercase and\lowercase only work for American characters. The LATEX commands \MakeUppercase
and \MakeLowercase commands also change characters accessed by commands such as\ae or \aa. The commands \MakeUppercase and \MakeLowercase are robust but theyhave moving arguments (see Section 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
These commands do not change the case of letters used in the name of a command withintext. But they do change the case of every other Latin letter inside the argument text. Thus,\MakeUppercase{Let $y=f(x)$} produces ‘LET Y=F(X)’. Another example is that thename of an environment will be changed, so that \MakeUppercase{\begin{tabular} ...
\end{tabular}} will produce an error because the first half is changed to \begin{TABULAR}.
LATEX uses the same fixed table for changing case throughout a document, The tableused is designed for the font encoding T1; this works well with the standard TEX fonts forall Latin alphabets but will cause problems when using other alphabets.
Chapter 23: Special insertions 191
To change the case of text that results from a macro inside text you need to do expansion.Here the \Schoolname produces ‘COLLEGE OF MATHEMATICS’.
\newcommand{\schoolname}{College of Mathematics}
\newcommand{\Schoolname}{\expandafter\MakeUppercase
\expandafter{\schoolname}}
The textcase package brings some of the missing feature of the standard LATEX com-mands \MakeUppercase and \MakeLowerCase.
To uppercase only the first letter of words, you can use the package mfirstuc.
23.3 Symbols by font position
You can access any character of the current font using its number with the \symbol com-mand. For example, the visible space character used in the \verb* command has the codedecimal 32, so it can be typed as \symbol{32}.
You can also specify numbers in octal (base 8) by using a ’ prefix, or hexadecimal (base16) with a " prefix, so the previous example could also be written as \symbol{’40} or\symbol{"20}.
23.4 Text symbols
LATEX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text.Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1. Unless you areusing XeLATEX or LuaLATEX then you may need to load the textcomp package.
\copyright
\textcopyright
c© The copyright symbol.
\dag † The dagger symbol (in text).
\ddag ‡ The double dagger symbol (in text).
\LaTeX The LATEX logo.
\LaTeXe The LATEX2e logo.
\guillemotleft («)\guillemotright (»)\guilsinglleft (‹)\guilsinglright (›)
«, », ‹, › Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French.
\ldots
\dots
\textellipsis
. . . An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): \ldots and \dots also work inmath mode.
\lq ‘ Left (opening) quote.
\P
\textparagraph
¶ Paragraph sign (pilcrow).
Chapter 23: Special insertions 192
\pounds
\textsterling
£ English pounds sterling.
\quotedblbase („)\quotesinglbase (‚)
„ and ‚ Double and single quotation marks on the baseline.
\rq ’ Right (closing) quote.
\S
\textsection
§ Section sign.
\TeX The TEX logo.
\textasciicircum
^ ASCII circumflex.
\textasciitilde
~ ASCII tilde.
\textasteriskcentered
* Centered asterisk.
\textbackslash
\ Backslash.
\textbar | Vertical bar.
\textbardbl
|| Double vertical bar.
\textbigcircle
Big circle symbol.
\textbraceleft
{ Left brace.
\textbraceright
} Right brace.
\textbullet
• Bullet.
\textcircled{letter}
Circle around letter.
\textcompwordmark
\textcapitalcompwordmark
\textascendercompwordmark
Used to separate letters that would normally ligature. For example,f\textcompwordmark i produces ‘fi’ without a ligature. This is most usefulin non-English languages. The \textcapitalcompwordmark form has thecap height of the font while the \textascendercompwordmark form has theascender height.
Chapter 23: Special insertions 193
\textdagger
† Dagger.
\textdaggerdbl
‡ Double dagger.
\textdollar (or \$)$ Dollar sign.
\textemdash (or ---)— Em-dash (used for punctuation, as in The playoffs --- if you are
fortunate enough to make the playoffs --- is more like a sprint.).
\textendash (or --)– En-dash (used for ranges, as in See pages 12--14).
\texteuro
The Euro symbol: e. For an alternative glyph design, try the eurosym pack-age; also, most fonts nowadays come with their own Euro symbol (UnicodeU+20AC).
\textexclamdown (or !‘)¡ Upside down exclamation point.
\textgreater
> Greater than symbol.
\textless
< Less than symbol.
\textleftarrow
Left arrow.
\textordfeminine
\textordmasculinea, o Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols.
\textperiodcentered
· Centered period.
\textquestiondown (or ?‘)¿ Upside down question mark.
\textquotedblleft (or ‘‘)“ Double left quote.
\textquotedblright (or ’’)” Double right quote.
\textquoteleft (or ‘)‘ Single left quote.
\textquoteright (or ’)’ Single right quote.
\textquotesingle
Straight single quote. (From TS1 encoding.)
Chapter 23: Special insertions 194
\textquotestraightbase
\textquotestraightdblbase
Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.
\textregisteredR© Registered symbol.
\textrightarrow
Right arrow.
\textthreequartersemdash
“Three-quarters” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
\texttrademarkTM Trademark symbol.
\texttwelveudash
“Two-thirds” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
\textunderscore
Underscore.
\textvisiblespace
Visible space symbol.
23.5 Accents
LATEX has wide support for many of the world’s scripts and languages, through the babel
package and related support if you are using pdfLATEX, or polyglossia if you are usingXeLATEX or LuaLATEX. This section does not cover that support. It only lists the coreLATEX commands for creating accented characters. The \capital... commands shownhere produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available withOT1.
Below, to make them easier to find, the accents are all illustrated with lowercase ‘o’.
Note that \i produces a dotless i, and \j produces a dotless j. These are often used inplace of their dotted counterparts when they are accented.
\"
\capitaldieresis
o Umlaut (dieresis).
\’
\capitalacute
o Acute accent.
\. o Dot accent.
\=
\capitalmacron
o Macron (overbar) accent.
\^
\capitalcircumflex
o Circumflex (hat) accent.
Chapter 23: Special insertions 195
\‘
\capitalgrave
o Grave accent.
\~
\capitaltilde
~n Tilde accent.
\b o¯
Bar accent underneath.
Related to this, \underbar{text} produces a bar under text. The argumentis always processed in LR mode (see Chapter 17 [Modes], page 151). The baris always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders.See also \underline in Section 16.7 [Math miscellany], page 149.
\c
\capitalcedilla
c Cedilla accent underneath.
\d
\capitaldotaccent
o. Dot accent underneath.
\H
\capitalhungarumlaut
o Long Hungarian umlaut accent.
\k
\capitalogonek
o Ogonek. Not available in the OT1 encoding.
\r
\capitalring
o Ring accent.
\t
\capitaltie
\newtie
\capitalnewtie
�oo Tie-after accent. The \newtie form is centered in its box.
\u
\capitalbreve
o Breve accent.
\v
\capitalcaron
o Hacek (check, caron) accent.
23.6 Additional Latin letters
Here are the basic LATEX commands for inserting letters beyond A–Z that extend the Latinalphabet, used primarily in languages other than English.
\aa
\AA a and A.
Chapter 23: Special insertions 196
\ae
\AE æ and Æ.
\dh
\DH Icelandic letter eth: ð and Ð. Not available with OT1 encoding, you need thefontenc package to select an alternate font encoding, such as T1.
\dj
\DJ Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke. Not availablewith OT1 encoding, you need the fontenc package to select an alternate fontencoding, such as T1.
\ij
\IJ ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).
\l
\L l and L.
\ng
\NG Lappish letter eng, also used in phonetics.
\o
\O ø and Ø.
\oe
\OE œ and Œ.
\ss
\SS ß and SS.
\th
\TH Icelandic letter thorn: þ and Þ. Not available with OT1 encoding, you needthe fontenc package to select an alternate font encoding, such as T1.
23.7 \rule
Synopsis, one of:
\rule{width}{thickness}
\rule[raise]{width}{thickness}
Produce a rule, a filled-in rectangle.
This produces a rectangular blob, sometimes called a Halmos symbol, often used to markthe end of a proof.
\newcommand{\qedsymbol}{\rule{0.4em}{2ex}}
The amsthm package includes this command, with a somewhat different-looking symbol.
The mandatory arguments give the horizontal width and vertical thickness of the rect-angle. They are rigid lengths (see Chapter 14 [Lengths], page 120). The optional argumentraise is also a rigid length, and tells LATEX how much to raise the rule above the baseline,or lower it if the length is negative.
This produces a line, a rectangle that is wide but not tall.
\noindent\rule{\textwidth}{0.4pt}
Chapter 23: Special insertions 197
The line is the width of the page and 0.4 points tall. This line thickness is common inLATEX.
A rule that has zero width, or zero thickness, will not show up in the output, but cancause LATEX to change the output around it. See Section 19.13 [\strut], page 165, forexamples.
23.8 \today
Synopsis:
\today
Produce today’s date in the format ‘month dd, yyyy’. An example of a date in thatformat is ‘July 4, 1976’.
Multilingual packages such as babel or polyglossia, or classes such as lettre, willlocalize \today. For example, the following will output ‘4 juillet 1976’:
\year=1976 \month=7 \day=4
\documentclass{minimal}
\usepackage[french]{babel}
\begin{document}
\today
\end{document}
\today uses the counters \day, \month, and \year (see Section 13.8 [\day & \month &\year], page 119).
A number of package on CTAN work with dates. One is datetime package which canproduce a wide variety of date formats, including ISO standards.
The date is not updated as the LATEX process runs, so in principle the date could beincorrect by the time the program finishes.
198
24 Splitting the input
LATEX lets you split a large document into several smaller ones. This can simplify editingor allow multiple authors to work on the document. It can also speed processing.
Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is always one root file, on whichLATEX compilation starts. This shows such a file with five included files.
\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{ % comment out lines below to omit compiling
pref,
chap1,
chap2,
append,
bib
}
\begin{document}
\frontmatter
\include{pref}
\mainmatter
\include{chap1}
\include{chap2}
\appendix
\include{append}
\backmatter
\include{bib}
\end{document}
This will bring in material from pref.tex, chap1.tex, chap2.tex, append.tex,and bib.tex. If you compile this file, and then comment out all of the lines inside\includeonly{...} except for chap1, and compile again, then LATEX will only processthe material in the first chapter. Thus, your output will appear more quickly and beshorter to print. However, the advantage of the \includeonly command is that LATEX willretain the page numbers and all of the cross reference information from the other parts ofthe document so these will appear in your output correctly.
See Section A.4 [Larger book template], page 225, for another example of \includeonly.
24.1 \endinput
Synopsis:
\endinput
When you \include{filename}, inside filename.tex the material after \endinput willnot be included. This command is optional; if filename.tex has no \endinput then LATEXwill read all of the file.
For example, suppose that a document’s root file has \input{chap1} and this ischap1.tex.
\chapter{One}
This material will appear in the document.
Chapter 24: Splitting the input 199
\endinput
This will not appear.
This can be useful for putting documentation or comments at the end of a file, or foravoiding junk characters that can be added during mailing. It is also useful for debugging:one strategy to localize errors is to put \endinput halfway through the included file andsee if the error disappears. Now, knowing which half contains the error, moving \endinput
to halfway through that area further narrows down the location. This process rapidly findsthe offending line.
After reading \endinput, LATEX continues to read to the end of the line, so somethingcan follow this command and be read nonetheless. This allows you, for instance, to closean \if... with a \fi.
24.2 \include & \includeonly
Synopsis:
\includeonly{ % in document preamble
...
filename,
...
}
...
\include{filename} % in document body
Bring material from the external file filename.tex into a LATEX document.
The \include command does three things: it executes \clearpage (see Section 10.1[\clearpage & \cleardoublepage], page 95), then it inputs the material from filename.tex
into the document, and then it does another \clearpage. This command can only appearin the document body. The \includeonly command controls which files will be read byLATEX under subsequent \include commands. Its list of filenames is comma-separated, andit can only appear in the preamble.
This example root document, constitution.tex, brings in three files, preamble.tex,articles.tex, and amendments.tex.
\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
preamble,
articles,
amendments
}
\begin{document}
\include{preamble}
\include{articles}
\include{amendments}
\end{document}
The file preamble.tex contains no special code; you have just excerpted the chapter fromconsitution.tex and put it in a separate file just for editing convenience.
\chapter{Preamble}
Chapter 24: Splitting the input 200
We the People of the United States,
in Order to form a more perfect Union, ...
Running LATEX on constitution.tex makes the material from the three files appear inthe document but also generates the auxiliary files preamble.aux, articles.aux, andamendments.tex. These contain information such as page numbers and cross-references (seeChapter 7 [Cross references], page 41). If you now comment out \includeonly’s lines withpreamble and amendments and run LATEX again then the resulting document shows onlythe material from articles.tex, not the material from preamble.tex or amendments.tex.Nonetheless, all of the auxiliary information from the omitted files is still there, includingthe starting page number of the chapter.
If the document preamble does not have \includeonly then LATEX will include all thefiles you call for with \include commands.
The \include command makes a new page. To avoid that, see Section 24.3 [\input],page 201, (which, however, does not retain the auxiliary information).
See Section A.4 [Larger book template], page 225, for another example using \include
and \includeonly. That example also uses \input for some material that will not neces-sarily start on a new page.
File names can involve paths.
\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
chapters/chap1,
}
\begin{document}
\include{chapters/chap1}
\end{document}
To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you should avoidspaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use dashes or underscores. Nevertheless,for the name ‘amo amas amat’, this works under TEX Live on GNU/Linux:
\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
"amo\space amas\space amat"
}
\begin{document}
\include{"amo\space amas\space amat"}
\end{document}
and this works under MiKTEX on Windows:
\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
{"amo amas amat"}
}
\begin{document}
\include{{"amo amas amat"}}
\end{document}
Chapter 24: Splitting the input 201
You cannot use \include inside a file that is being included or you get ‘LaTeX Error:
\include cannot be nested.’ The \include command cannot appear in the documentpreamble; you will get ‘LaTeX Error: Missing \begin{document}’.
If a file that you \include does not exist, for instance if you \include{athiesm} butyou meant \include{atheism}, then LATEX does not give you an error but will warn you‘No file athiesm.tex.’ (It will also create athiesm.aux.)
If you \include the root file in itself then you first get ‘LaTeX Error: Can be used only
in preamble.’ Later runs get ‘TeX capacity exceeded, sorry [text input levels=15]’.To fix this, you must remove the inclusion \include{root} but also delete the file root.auxand rerun LATEX.
24.3 \input
Synopsis:
\input{filename}
LATEX processes the file as if its contents were inserted in the current file. For a moresophisticated inclusion mechanism see Section 24.2 [\include & \includeonly], page 199.
If filename does not end in ‘.tex’ then LATEX first tries the filename with that extension;this is the usual case. If filename ends with ‘.tex’ then LATEX looks for the filename as itis.
For example, this
\input{macros}
will cause LATEX to first look for macros.tex. If it finds that file then it processes its contentsas thought they had been copy-pasted in. If there is no file of the name macros.tex thenLATEX tries the name macros, without an extension. (This may vary by distribution.)
To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you should avoidspaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use dashes or underscores. Nevertheless,for the name ‘amo amas amat’, this works under TEX Live on GNU/Linux:
\input{"amo\space amas\space amat"}
and this works under MiKTEX on Windows:
\input{{"amo amas amat"}}
202
25 Front/back matter
25.1 Table of contents etc.
Synopsis, one of:
\tableofcontents
\listoffigures
\listoftables
Produce a table of contents, or list of figures, or list of tables. Put the commandin the input file where you want the table or list to go. You do not type the entries;for example, typically the table of contents entries are automatically generated from thesectioning commands \chapter, etc.
This example illustrates the first command, \tableofcontents. LATEX will produce atable of contents on the book’s first page.
\documentclass{book}
% \setcounter{tocdepth}{1}
\begin{document}
\tableofcontents\newpage
...
\chapter{...}
...
\section{...}
...
\subsection{...}
...
\end{document}
Uncommenting the second line would cause that table to contain chapter and section listingsbut not subsection listings, because the \section command has level 1. See Chapter 6[Sectioning], page 30, for level numbers of the sectioning units. For more on the tocdepth
see [Sectioning/tocdepth], page 31.
Another example of the use of \tableofcontents is in Section A.4 [Larger book tem-plate], page 225.
If you want a page break after the table of contents, write a \newpage command afterthe \tableofcontents command, as above.
To make the table of contents LATEX stores the information in an auxiliary file namedroot-file.toc (see Chapter 24 [Splitting the input], page 198). For example, this LATEXfile test.tex
\documentclass{article}
\begin{document}
\tableofcontents\newpage
\section{First section}
\subsection{First subsection}
...
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 203
writes the following line to test.toc.
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}First section}{2}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}First subsection}{2}
The section or subsection is the sectioning unit. The hook \numberline lets you tochange how the information appears in the table of contents. Of its two arguments, 1 or1.1 is the sectioning unit number and First section or First subsection is the title.Finally, 2 is the page number on which the sectioning units start.
One consequence of this auxiliary file storage strategy is that to get the contents pagecorrect you must run LATEX twice, once to store the information and once to get it. Inparticular, the first time that you run LATEX on a new document, the table of contents pagewill be empty except for its ‘Contents’ header. Just run it again.
The commands \listoffigures and \listoftables produce a list of figures and a listof tables. They work the same way as the contents commands; for instance, these workwith information stored in .lof and .lot files.
To change the header for the table of contents page do something like the first line here.
\renewcommand{\contentsname}{Table of contents}
\renewcommand{\listfigurename}{Plots}
\renewcommand{\listtablename}{Tables}
Similarly, the other two lines will do the other two. Internationalization packages such asbabel or polyglossia will change the headers depending on the chosen base language.
CTAN has many packages for the table of contents and lists of figures and tables. Oneconvenient one for adjusting some aspects of the default, such as spacing, is tocloft. And,tocbibbind will automatically add the bibliography, index, etc. to the table of contents.
25.1.1 \addcontentsline
Synopsis:
\addcontentsline{ext}{unit}{text}
Add an entry to the file specified by ext. Usually ext is one of toc for the table ofcontents, lof for the list of figures, or lot for the list of tables.
The following will result in an ‘Appendices’ line in the table of contents.
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}}
It will appear at the same indentation level as the sections, will be in boldface, and will beassigned the page number associated with the point where it appears in the input file.
The \addcontentsline command writes information to the file root-name.ext. Itwrites that information as the text of the command \contentsline{unit}{text}{num},where num is the current value of counter unit. The most common case is the table ofcontents and there num is the page number of the first page of unit.
This command is invoked by the sectioning commands \chapter, etc., and also by\caption inside a float environment. But it is also used by authors. For example, in abook to have the preface unnumbered, you may use the starred \chapter*. But that doesnot put in table of contents information, so you can enter it manually, as here.
\chapter*{Preface}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{\protect\numberline{}Preface}
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 204
In the .toc file LATEX will put the line \contentsline {chapter}{\numberline
{}Preface}{3}; note the page number ‘3’.
All of the arguments for \addcontentsline are required.
ext Typically one of the strings toc for the table of contents, lof for the list offigures, or lot for the list of tables. The filename extension of the informationfile.
unit A string that depends on the value of the ext argument:
toc For the table of contents, this is the name of a sectional unit: part,chapter, section, subsection, etc.
lof For the list of figures: figure.
lot For the list of tables: table.
text The text of the entry. You must \protect any commands that are fragile (seeSection 12.11 [\protect], page 113).
The \addcontentsline command has an interaction with \include (see Section 24.2[\include & \includeonly], page 199). If you use them at the same level, as with\addcontentsline{...}{...}{...}\include{...} then lines in the table of contentscan come out in the wrong order. The solution is to move \addcontentsline into the filebeing included.
If you use a unit that LATEX does not recognize, as here
\addcontentsline{toc}{setcion}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}}
then you don’t get an error but the formatting in the table of contents will not make sense.
25.1.2 \addtocontents
Synopsis:
\addtocontents{ext}{text}
Add text, which may be text or formatting commands, directly to the auxiliary file withextension ext. This is most commonly used for the table of contents so that is the discussionhere, but this also applies to the list of figures and list of tables.
This will put some vertical space in the table of contents after the ‘Contents’ header.
\tableofcontents\newpage
\addtocontents{toc}{\protect\vspace*{3ex}}
The \addtocontents command has two arguments. Both are required.
ext Typically one of: toc for the table of contents, lof for the list of figures, or lotfor the list of tables. The extension of the file holding the information.
text The text, and possibly commands, to be written.
The sectioning commands such as \chapter use the \addcontentsline command tostore information. This command creates lines in the .toc auxiliary file containing the\contentsline command (see Section 25.1.1 [\addcontentsline], page 203). In contrast,the command \addtocontents puts material directly in that file.
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 205
The \addtocontents command has an interaction with \include (see Section 24.2[\include & \includeonly], page 199). If you use them at the same level, as with\addtocontents{...}{...}\include{...} then lines in the table of contents can comeout in the wrong order. The solution is to move \addtocontents into the file beingincluded.
25.1.3 \nofiles
Synopsis:
\nofiles
Prevent LATEX from writing any auxiliary files. The only output will be the .log and.pdf (or .dvi) files. This command must go in the preamble.
Because of the \nofiles command this example will not produce a .toc file.
\documentclass{book}
\nofiles
\begin{document}
\tableofcontents\newpage
\chapter{...}
...
LATEX will not erase any existing auxiliary files, so if you insert the \nofiles commandafter you have run the file and gotten a .toc then the table of contents page will continueto show the old information.
25.2 Indexes
This document has an index.
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{makeidx} \makeindex
...
\begin{document}
...
Recall Wilson’s Theorem: \index{Wilson’s Theorem}
a number \( n>1 \) is prime if and only if the factorial of \( n-1 \)
is congruent to \( -1 \) modulo~\( n \).
...
\printindex
...
The \usepackage{makeidx} and \makeindex in the preamble bring in the relevant com-mands.
Producing an index is a three stage process. First, in the document body you declareindex entries with the \index command (see Section 25.2.1 [\index], page 206). When yourun LATEX, the \index writes its information to an auxiliary file root-name.idx. Next,to alphabetize and to do other manipulations you run an external command, typicallymakeindex or xindy (see Section 25.2.2 [makeindex], page 207). These output a file root-
name.ind. Finally, you bring the information back into your document and typeset it withthe \printindex command (see Section 25.2.3 [\printindex], page 210).
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 206
There are many packages that apply to indexing commands. The showidx packagecauses each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears.This can help in preparing the index. The multind package supports multiple indexes. Seealso the TEX FAQ entry on this topic, http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind.
25.2.1 \index
Synopsis:
\index{index-entry-string}
Declare an entry in the index. This command is fragile (see Section 12.11 [\protect],page 113).
For example, as described in Section 25.2 [Indexes], page 205, one way to get an indexfrom what’s below is to compile the document with pdflatex test, then process the indexentries with makeindex test, and then compile again with pdflatex test.
W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann}
...
Ackermann function\index{Ackermann!function}
...
rate of growth\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate}
All three index entries will get a page number, such as ‘Ackermann, 22’. LATEX will formatthe second as a subitem of the first, on the line below it and indented, and the third as asubitem of the second. Three levels deep is as far as you can nest subentries. (If you add\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate!comparison} then makeindex says ‘Scanninginput file test.idx....done (4 entries accepted, 1 rejected)’ and nothing appearsin the index).
If you enter a second \index with the same index-entry-string then you will get asingle index entry with two page numbers (unless they happen to fall on the same page).Thus, adding as for Ackermann.\index{Ackermann} later in the same document asabove will give an index entry like ‘Ackermann, 22, 151’. Also, you can enter the indexentries in any order, so for instance \index{Ackermann!function} could come before\index{Ackermann}.
Get a page range in the output, like ‘Hilbert, 23--27’, as here.
W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann}
...
D~Hilbert (1862--1943)\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\(}
...
disapproved of his marriage.\index{Ackermann!Hilbert\)}
If the beginning and ending of the page range are equal then the system just gives a singlepage entry, not a range.
If you index subentries but not a main entry, as with \index{Jones!program} and\index{Jones!results}, then the output is the item ‘Jones’ with no comma or pagenumber, followed by two subitems, like ‘program, 50’ and ‘results, 51’.
Generate a index entry that says ‘See’ by using a vertical bar character:\index{Ackermann!function|see{P\’eter’s function}}. You can instead get ‘See
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 207
also’ with seealso. (The text ‘See’ is defined by \seename, and ‘See also’ by \alsoname.You can redefine these either by using an internationalization package such as babel orpolyglossia, or directly as with \renewcommand{\alsoname}[1]{Also see #1}.)
The ‘See’ feature is part of a more general functionality. After the vertical bar youcan put the name of a one-input command, as in \index{group|textit} (note the miss-ing backslash on the \textit command) and the system will apply that command tothe page number, here giving something like \textit{7}. You can define your own one-input commands, such as \newcommand{\definedpage}[1]{{\color{blue}#1}} and then\index{Ackermann!function|definedpage} will give a blue page number (see Chapter 21[Color], page 175). Another, less practical, example is this,
\newcommand\indexownpage[1]{#1, \thepage}
... Epimenides.\index{self-reference|indexownpage}
which creates an entry citing the page number of its own index listing.
The two functions just described combine, as here
\index{Ackermann!function|(definedpage}
...
\index{Ackermann!function|)}
which outputs an index entry like ‘function, 23--27’ where the page number range is inblue.
Consider an index entry such as ‘α-ring’. Entering it as $\alpha$-ring will causeit to be alphabetized according to the dollar sign. You can instead enter it using an at-sign, as \index{alpha-ring@$\alpha$-ring}. If you specify an entry with an at-signseparating two strings, pos@text, then pos gives the alphabetical position of the entry whiletext produces the text of the entry. Another example is that \index{Saint Michael’s
College@SMC} produces an index entry ‘SMC’ alphabetized into a different location than itsspelling would naturally give it.
To put a !, or @, or | character in an index entry, preceding it with a double quote, ".(The double quote gets deleted before alphabetization.)
A number of packages on CTAN have additional functionality beyond that providedby makeidx. One is index, which allows for multiple indices and contains a command\index*{index-entry-string} that prints the index-entry-string as well as indexing it.
The \index command writes the indexing information to the file root-name.idx file.Specifically, it writes text of the command \indexentry{index-entry-string}{page-
num}, where page-num is the value of the \thepage counter. On occasion, when the\printindex command is confused, you have to delete this file to start with a fresh slate.
If you omit the closing brace of an \index command then you get a message like this.
Runaway argument? {Ackermann!function
! Paragraph ended before \@wrindex was complete.
25.2.2 makeindex
Synopsis, one of:
makeindex filename
makeindex -s style-file filename
makeindex options filename0 ...
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 208
Sort, and otherwise process, the index information in the auxiliary file filename. Thisis a command line program. It takes one or more raw index files, filename.idx files, andproduces the actual index file, the filename.ind file that is input by \printindex (seeSection 25.2.3 [\printindex], page 210).
The first form of the command suffices for many uses. The second allows you to formatthe index by using an index style file, a .isty file. The third form is the most general; seethe full documentation on CTAN.
This is a simple .isty file.
% book.isty
% $ makeindex -s book.isty -p odd book.idx
% creates the index as book.ind, starting on an odd page.
preamble
"\\pagestyle{empty}
\\small
\\begin{theindex}
\\thispagestyle{empty}"
postamble
"\n
\\end{theindex}"
The description here covers only some of the index formatting possibilities in style-file.For a full list see the documentation on CTAN.
A style file consists of a list of pairs: specifier and attribute. These can appear in the filein any order. All of the attributes are strings, except where noted. Strings are surroundedwith double quotes, ", and the maximum length of a string is 144 characters. The \n is fora newline and \t is for a tab. Backslashes are escaped with another backslash, \\. If a linebegins with a percent sign, %, then it is a comment.
preamble Preamble of the output file. Defines the context in which the index is formatted.Default: "\\begin{theindex}\n".
postamble
Postamble of the output file. Default: "\n\n\\end{theindex}\n".
group_skip
Traditionally index items are broken into groups, typically a group for entriesstarting with ‘a’, etc. This specifier gives what is inserted when a new groupbegins. Default: "\n\n \\indexspace\n" (\indexspace is a rubber lengthwith default value 10pt plus5pt minus3pt).
lethead_flag
An integer. It governs what is inserted for a new group or letter. If it is 0(which is the default) then other than group_skip nothing will be insertedbefore the group. If it is positive then at a new letter the lethead_prefix andlethead_suffix will be inserted, with that letter in uppercase between them.If it is negative then what will be inserted is the letter in lowercase. The defaultis 0.
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 209
lethead_prefix
If a new group begins with a different letter then this is the prefix insertedbefore the new letter header. Default: ""
lethead_suffix
If a group begins with a different letter then this is the suffix inserted after thenew letter header. Default: "".
item_0 What is put between two level 0 items. Default: "\n \\item ".
item_1 Put between two level 1 items. Default: "\n \\subitem ".
item_2 put between two level 2 items. Default: "\n \\subsubitem ".
item_01 What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item. Default: "\n \\subitem
".
item_x1 What is put between a level 0 item and a level 1 item in the case that the level 0item doesn’t have any page numbers (as in \index{aaa|see{bbb}}). Default:"\n \\subitem ".
item_12 What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item. Default: "\n
\\subsubitem ".
item_x2 What is put between a level 1 item and a level 2 item, if the level 1 item doesn’thave page numbers. Default: "\n \\subsubitem ".
delim_0 Delimiter put between a level 0 key and its first page number. Default: acomma followed by a blank, ", ".
delim_1 Delimiter put between a level 1 key and its first page number. Default: acomma followed by a blank, ", ".
delim_2 Delimiter between a level 2 key and its first page number. Default: a commafollowed by a blank, ", ".
delim_n Delimiter between two page numbers for the same key (at any level). Default:a comma followed by a blank, ", ".
delim_r What is put between the starting and ending page numbers of a range. Default:"--".
line_max An integer. Maximum length of an index entry’s line in the output, beyondwhich the line wraps. Default: 72.
indent_space
What is inserted at the start of a wrapped line. Default: "\t\t".
indent_length
A number. The length of the wrapped line indentation. The default indent_
space is two tabs and each tab is eight spaces so the default here is 16.
page_precedence
A document may have pages numbered in different ways. For example, a bookmay have front matter pages numbered in lowercase roman while main matterpages are in arabic. This string specifies the order in which they will appear in
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 210
the index. The makeindex command supports five different types of numerals:lowercase roman r, and numeric or arabic n, and lowercase alphabetic a, anduppercase roman R, and uppercase alphabetic A. Default: "rnaRA".
There are a number of other programs that do the job makeindex does. One is xindy,which does internationalization and can process indexes for documents marked up usingLATEX and a number of other languages. It is highly configurable, both in markup termsand in terms of the collating order of the text, as described in its documentation.
25.2.3 \printindex
Synopsis:
\printindex
Place the index into the output.
To get an index you must first include \usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex in the doc-ument preamble and compile the document, then run the system command makeindex,and then compile the document again. See Section 25.2 [Indexes], page 205, for furtherdiscussion and an example of the use of \printindex.
25.3 Glossaries
Synopsis:
\usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries
...
\newglossaryentry{label}{settings}
...
\gls{label}.
...
\printglossaries
The glossaries package allows you to make glossaries, including multiple glossaries, aswell as lists of acronyms.
To get the output from this example, compile the document (for instance with pdflatex
filename), then run the command line command makeglossaries filename, and thencompile the document again.
\documentclass{...}
\usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries
\newglossaryentry{tm}{%
name={Turing machine},
description={A model of a machine that computes. The model is simple
but can compute anything any existing device can compute.
It is the standard model used in Computer Science.},
}
\begin{document}
Everything begins with the definition of a \gls{tm}.
...
\printglossaries
\end{document}
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 211
That gives two things. In the main text it outputs ‘... definition of a Turing machine’.In addition, in a separate sectional unit headed ‘Glossary’ there appears a description list.In boldface it says ‘Turing machine’ and the rest of the item says in normal type ‘A model
of a machine ... Computer Science’.
The command \makeglossary opens the file that will contain the entry information,root-file.glo. Put the \printglossaries command where you want the glossaries toappear in your document.
The glossaries package is very powerful. For instance, besides the commands\newglossaryentry and \gls, there are similar commands for a list of acronyms. See thepackage documentations on CTAN.
25.3.1 \newglossaryentry
Synopsis, one of:
\newglossaryentry{label}
{
name={name},
description={description},
other options, ...
}
or
\longnewglossaryentry{label}
{
name={name},
other options ...,
}
{description}
Declare a new entry for a glossary. The label must be unique for the document. Thesettings associated with the label are pairs: key=value.
This puts the blackboard bold symbol for the real numbers in the glossary.
\newglossaryentry{R}
{
name={\ensuremath{\mathbb{R}}},
description={the real numbers},
}
Use the second command form if the description spans more than one paragraph.
For a full list of keys see the package documentation on CTAN but here are a few.
name (Required.) The word, phrase, or symbol that you are defining.
description
(Required.) The description that will appear in the glossary. If this has morethan one paragraph then you must use the second command form given in thesynopsis.
plural The plural form of name. Refer to the plural form using \glspl or \Glspl (seeSection 25.3.2 [\gls], page 212).
Chapter 25: Front/back matter 212
sort How to place this entry in the list of entries that the glossary holds.
symbol A symbol, such as a mathematical symbol, besides the name.
25.3.2 \gls
Synopsis, one of:
\gls{label}
\glspl{label}
\Gls{label}
\Glspl{label}
Refer to a glossary entry. The entries are declared with \newglossaryentry (seeSection 25.3.1 [\newglossaryentry], page 211).
This
\newglossaryentry{N}{%
name={the natural numbers},
description={The numbers $0$, $1$, $2$, $\ldots$\@},
symbol={\ensuremath{\mathbb{N}}},
}
...
Consider \gls{N}.
gives the output ‘Consider the natural numbers’.
The second command form \glspl{label} produces the plural of name (by default ittries adding an ‘s’). The third form capitalizes the first letter of name, as does the fourthform, which also takes the plural.
213
26 Letters
Synopsis:
\documentclass{letter}
\address{senders address} % return address
\signature{sender name}
\begin{document}
\begin{letter}{recipient address}
\opening{salutation}
letter body
\closing{closing text}
\end{letter}
...
\end{document}
Produce one or more letters.
Each letter is in a separate letter environment, whose argument recipient address oftencontains multiple lines separated with a double backslash, (\\). For example, you mighthave:
\begin{letter}{Ninon de l’Enclos \\
l’h\^otel Sagonne}
...
\end{letter}
The start of the letter environment resets the page number to 1, and the footnotenumber to 1 also.
The sender address and sender name are common to all of the letters, whether there isone or more, so these are best put in the preamble. As with the recipient address, oftensender address contains multiple lines separated by a double backslash (\\). LATEX will putthe sender name under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional hand-writtensignature.
Each letter environment body begins with a required \opening command such as\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}. The letter body text is ordinary LATEX so it can con-tain everything from enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands such as\chapter that make no sense in a letter are turned off. Each letter environment bodytypically ends with a \closing command such as \closing{Yours,}.
Additional material may come after the \closing. You can say who is receiving a copyof the letter with a command like \cc{the Boss \\ the Boss’s Boss}. There’s a similar\encl command for a list of enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with \ps.
LATEX’s default is to indent the sender name and the closing above it by a length of\longindentation. By default this is 0.5\textwidth. To make them flush left, put\setlength{\longindentation}{0em} in your preamble.
To set a fixed date use something like \renewcommand{\today}{1958-Oct-12}. If putin your preamble then it will apply to all the letters.
This example shows only one letter environment. The three lines marked as optionalare typically omitted.
\documentclass{letter}
Chapter 26: Letters 214
\address{Sender’s street \\ Sender’s town}
\signature{Sender’s name \\ Sender’s title}
% optional: \location{Mailbox 13}
% optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101}
\begin{document}
\begin{letter}{Recipient’s name \\ Recipient’s address}
\opening{Sir:}
% optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage}
I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you.
\closing{Your most humble, etc.,}
\end{letter}
\end{document}
These commands are used with the letter class.
26.1 \address
Synopsis:
\address{senders address}
Specify the return address, as it appears on the letter and on the envelope. Separatemultiple lines in senders address with a double backslash, \\.
Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put in the preamble.However, it can go anywhere, including inside an individual letter environment.
This command is optional: if you do not use it then the letter is formatted with someblank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed letterhead paper. If you do use the\address declaration then it is formatted as a personal letter.
Here is an example.
\address{Stephen Maturin \\
The Grapes of the Savoy}
26.2 \cc
Synopsis:
\cc{name0 \\
... }
Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent. This command is optional.If it appears then typically it comes after \closing. Put the names on different lines byseparating them with a double backslash, \\, as in:
\cc{President \\
Vice President}
26.3 \closing
Synopsis:
\closing{text}
Chapter 26: Letters 215
Produce the letter’s closing. This is optional, but usual. It appears at the end of a letter,above a handwritten signature. For example:
\closing{Regards,}
26.4 \encl
Synopsis:
\encl{first enclosed object \\
... }
Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is optional; when it isused, it typically is put after \closing. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash,\\.
\encl{License \\
Passport}
26.5 \location
Synopsis:
\location{text}
The text appears centered at the bottom of the page. It only appears if the page styleis firstpage.
26.6 \makelabels
Synopsis:
\makelabels % in preamble
Optional, for a document that contains letter environments. If you just put\makelabels in the preamble then at the end of the document you will get a sheet withlabels for all the recipients, one for each letter environment, that you can copy to a sheetof peel-off address labels.
Customize the labels by redefining the commands \startlabels, \mlabel, and\returnaddress (and perhaps \name) in the preamble. The command \startlabels setsthe width, height, number of columns, etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed.The command \mlabel{return address}{recipient address} produces the two labels(or one, if you choose to ignore the return address) for each letter environment. The firstargument, return address, is the value returned by the macro \returnaddress. Thesecond argument, recipient address, is the value passed in the argument to the letter
environment. By default \mlabel ignores the first argument, the return address, causingthe default behavior described in the prior paragraph.
This illustrates customization. Its output includes a page with two columns having twolabels each.
\documentclass{letter}
\renewcommand*{\returnaddress}{Fred McGuilicuddy \\
Oshkosh, Mineola 12305}
\newcommand*\originalMlabel{}
Chapter 26: Letters 216
\let\originalMlabel\mlabel
\def\mlabel#1#2{\originalMlabel{}{#1}\originalMlabel{}{#2}}
\makelabels
...
\begin{document}
\begin{letter}{A Einstein \\
112 Mercer Street \\
Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540}
...
\end{letter}
\begin{letter}{K G\"odel \\
145 Linden Lane \\
Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540}
...
\end{letter}
\end{document}
The first column contains the return address twice. The second column contains the addressfor each recipient.
The package envlab makes formatting the labels easier, with standard sizes already pro-vided. The preamble lines \usepackage[personalenvelope]{envlab} and \makelabels
are all that you need to print envelopes.
26.7 \name
Synopsis:
\name{name}
Optional. Sender’s name, used for printing on the envelope together with the returnaddress.
26.8 \opening
Synopsis:
\opening{salutation}
Required. Follows the \begin{letter}{...}. The argument salutation is mandatory.For instance:
\opening{Dear John:}
26.9 \ps
Synopsis:
\ps{text}
Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after \closing.
\ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}
Chapter 26: Letters 217
26.10 \signature
Synopsis:
\signature{first line \\
... }
The sender’s name. This command is optional, although its inclusion is usual.
The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing. LATEX leavessome vertical space for a handwritten signature. Separate multiple lines with a doublebackslash, \\. For example:
\signature{J Fred Muggs \\
White House}
LATEX’s default for the vertical space from the \closing text down to the \signature
text is 6\medskipamount, which is six times \medskipamount (where \medskipamount isequal to a \parskip, which in turn is defined by default here to 0.7 em).
This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in the document.To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a letter environment and before the\closing.
You can include a graphic in the signature as here.
\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\
My name}
For this you must put \usepackage{graphicx} in the preamble (see Chapter 22 [Graphics],page 179).
26.11 \telephone
Synopsis:
\telephone{number}
The sender’s telephone number. This is typically in the preamble, where it applies to allletters. This only appears if the firstpage pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on thelower right of the page.
218
27 Terminal input/output
27.1 \typein
Synopsis, one of:
\typein{prompt-msg}
\typein[cmd]{prompt-msg}
Print prompt-msg on the terminal and cause LATEX to stop and wait for you to type aline of input. This line of input ends when you hit the return key.
For example, this
As long as I live I shall never forget \typein{Enter student name:}
coupled with this command line interaction
Enter student name:
\@typein=Aphra Behn
gives the output ‘... never forget Aphra Behn’.
The first command version, \typein{prompt-msg}, causes the input you typed to beprocessed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the \typein command.
In the second command version the optional argument cmd argument must be a commandname — it must begin with a backslash, \. This command name is then defined or redefinedto be the input that you typed. For example, this
\typein[\student]{Enter student name:}
\typeout{Recommendation for \student .}
gives this output on the command line,
Enter student name:
\student=John Dee
Recommendation for John Dee.
where the user has entered ‘John Dee.’
27.2 \typeout
Synopsis:
\typeout{msg}
Print msg on the terminal and in the log file.
This
\newcommand{\student}{John Dee}
\typeout{Recommendation for \student .}
outputs ‘Recommendation for John Dee’. Like what happens here with \student, com-mands that are defined with \newcommand or \renewcommand (among others) are replacedby their definitions before being printed.
LATEX’s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces aftera command name apply to msg. As above, use the command \space to get a single space,
219
independent of surrounding spaces. Use ^^J to get a newline. Get a percent character with\csname @percentchar\endcsname.
This command can be useful for simple debugging, as here:
\newlength{\jhlength}
\setlength{\jhlength}{5pt}
\typeout{The length is \the\jhlength.}
produces on the command line ‘The length is 5.0pt’.
220
28 Command line
Synopsis (from a terminal command line):
pdflatex options argument
Run LATEX on argument. In place of pdflatex you can also use xelatex, or lualatex,or dviluatex, or latex.
For example, this will run LATEX on the file thesis.tex, creating the output thesis.pdf.
pdflatex thesis
Note that .tex is the default file extension.
pdfTEX is a development of the original TEX program, as are XeTEX and LuaTEX (seeSection 2.3 [TEX engines], page 4). They are completely backward compatible. But theoriginal program had a custom output format, DVI, while the newer ones can output directlyto PDF. This allows them to take advantage of the extra features in PDF such as hyperlinks,support for modern image formats such as JPG and PNG, and ubiquitous viewing programs.In short, if you run pdflatex or xelatex or lualatex then you will by default get PDFand have access to all its modern features. If you run latex, or dvilualatex, then you willget DVI. The description here assumes pdfLATEX.
See Section 28.1 [Command line options], page 220, for a selection of the most usefulcommand line options. As to argument, the usual case is that it does not begin with abackslash, so the system takes it to be the name of a file and it compiles that file. Ifargument begins with a backslash then the system will interpret it as a line of LATEX input,which can be used for special effects (see Section 28.2 [Command line input], page 222).
If you gave no arguments or options then pdflatex prompts for input from the terminal.You can escape from this by entering <control>-D.
If LATEX finds an error in your document then by default it stops and asks you about it.See Section 28.3 [Recovering from errors], page 222, for an outline of what to do.
28.1 Command line options
These are the command-line options relevant to ordinary document authoring. For a fulllist, try running ‘latex --help’ from the command line.
With many implementations you can specify command line options by prefixing themwith ‘-’ or ‘--’. This is the case for both TEX Live (and MacTEX) and MiKTEX. We willuse both conventions interchangeably.
-version Show the current version, like ‘pdfTeX 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.16 (TeX Live
2015/Debian)’ along with a small amount of additional information, and exit.
-help Give a brief usage message that is useful as a prompt and exit.
-interaction=mode
TEX compiles a document in one of four interaction modes: batchmode,nonstopmode, scrollmode, errorstopmode. In errorstop mode (the default),TEX stops at each error and asks for user intervention. In batch mode itprints nothing on the terminal, errors are scrolled as if the user hit <return>
at every error, and missing files cause the job to abort. In nonstop mode,diagnostic message appear on the terminal but as in batch mode there is no
Chapter 28: Command line 221
user interaction. In scroll mode, TEX only stops for missing files or keyboardinput.
For instance, starting LATEX with this command line
pdflatex -interaction=batchmode filename
eliminates most terminal output.
-jobname=string
Set the value of TEX’s jobname to the string. The log file and output file willthen be named string.log and string.pdf.
When you run pdflatex options argument, if argument does not start witha backslash then TEX considers it the name of a file to input. Otherwise itwaits for the first \input instruction and the name of the input file will bethe job name. This is used to name the log file the output file. The jobname
option overrides that process and directly specifies the name. See Section 28.2[Command line input], page 222, for an example of its use.
-output-directory=directory
Write files in the directory directory. It must already exist.
--shell-escape
--no-shell-escape
--enable-write18
--disable-write18
Enable or disable \write18{shell command}. The first two options are forwith TEX Live or MacTEX while the second two are for MiKTEX.
Sometimes you want to run external system commands from inside a LATEX file.For instance the package sagetex allows you to have the mathematics softwaresystem Sage do calculations or draw graphs and then incorporate that outputin your document. For this TEX provides the \write18 command.
But with this functionality enabled, security issues could happen if you compileda LATEX file from the Internet. By default \write18 is disabled. (More precisely,by default TEX Live, MacTEX, and MiKTEX only allow the execution of alimited number of TEX-related programs, which they distribute.)
If you invoke LATEX with the option no-shell-escape, and in your documentyou call \write18{ls -l}, then you do not get an error but the log file says‘runsystem(ls -l)...disabled’.
-halt-on-error
Stop processing at the first error.
-file-line-error
-no-file-line-error
Enable or disable filename:lineno:error-style error messages. These areonly available with TEX Live or MacTEX.
Chapter 28: Command line 222
28.2 Command line input
As part of the command line invocation pdflatex options argument you can specify ar-bitrary LATEX input by starting argument with a backslash. This allows you to do somespecial effects.
For example, this file (which uses the hyperref package for hyperlinks) can produce twokinds of output, one for paper and one for a PDF.
\ifdefined\paperversion % in preamble
\newcommand{\urlcolor}{black}
\else
\newcommand{\urlcolor}{blue}
\fi
\usepackage[colorlinks=true,urlcolor=\urlcolor]{hyperref}
...
\href{https://www.ctan.org}{CTAN} % in body
...
Compiling this document book.tex with the command line pdflatex book will givethe ‘CTAN’ link in blue. But compiling it with pdflatex "\def\paperversion{}\input
book.tex" has the link in black. (Note the use of double quotes to prevent interpretationof the symbols by the command line shell; your system may do this differently.)
In a similar way, from the single file main.tex you can compile two different versions.
pdflatex -jobname=students "\def\student{}\input{main}"
pdflatex -jobname=teachers "\def\teachers{}\input{main}"
The jobname option is there because otherwise both files would be called main.pdf and thesecond would overwrite the first.
A final example. This loads the package graphicx with the option draft
pdflatex -jobname=aa "\RequirePackage[draft]{graphicx}\input{aa.tex}"
so the graphic files are read for their size information but not incorporated into the PDF.(The jobname option is there because otherwise the output file would be graphicx.pdf, as\RequirePackage does an \input of its own.)
28.3 Recovering from errors
If LATEX finds an error in your document then it gives you an error message and promptsyou with a question mark, ?. For instance, running LATEX on this file
\newcommand{\NP}{\ensuremath{\textbf{NP}}}
The \PN{} problem is a million dollar one.
causes it show this, and wait for input.
! Undefined control sequence.
l.5 The \PN
{} problem is a million dollar one.
?
The simplest thing is to enter ‘x’ and <return> and fix the typo. You could instead enter‘?’ and <return> to see other options.
223
There are two other error scenarios. The first is that you forgot to include the\end{document} or misspelled it. In this case LATEX gives you a ‘*’ prompt. You can getback to the command line by typing \stop and <return>.
The last scenario is that you mistyped the file name. For instance, instead of pdflatextest you might type pdflatex tste.
! I can’t find file ‘tste’.
<*> tste
(Press Enter to retry, or Control-D to exit)
Please type another input file name:
The simplest thing is to enter <Control> and ‘d’ (holding them down at the same time),and then retype the correct command line.
224
Appendix A Document templates
Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Addi-tional template resources are listed at http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates.
A.1 beamer template
The beamer class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is abasic template:
\documentclass{beamer}
\title{Beamer Class template}
\author{Alex Author}
\date{July 31, 2007}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
\begin{frame}[fragile]
\frametitle{First Slide}
\begin{verbatim}
This is \verbatim!
\end{verbatim}
\end{frame}
\end{document}
One web resource for this: http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/.
A.2 article template
\documentclass{article}
\title{Article Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\section{First section}
Some text.
\subsection{First section, first subsection}
Additional text.
Appendix A: Document templates 225
\section{Second section}
Some more text.
\end{document}
A.3 book template
This is a straightforward template for a book. See See Section A.4 [Larger book template],page 225, for a more elaborate one.
\documentclass{book}
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\chapter{First}
Some text.
\chapter{Second}
Some other text.
\section{A subtopic}
The end.
\end{document}
A.4 Larger book template
This is a more elaborate template for a book. It has \frontmatter, \mainmatter, and\backmatter to control the typography of the three main areas of a book (see Section 6.7[\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter], page 37). The book has a bibliography andan index.
Notable is that it uses \include and \includeonly (see Chapter 24 [Splitting the input],page 198). While you are working on a chapter you can comment out all the other chapterentries from the argument to \includeonly. That will speed up compilation without losingany information such as cross-references. (Material that does not need to come on a newpage is brought in with \input instead of \include. You don’t get the cross-referencebenefit this way.)
\documentclass[titlepage]{book}
\usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}
\includeonly{%
frontcover,
preface,
chap1,
Appendix A: Document templates 226
...
}
\begin{document}
\frontmatter
\include{frontcover}
% maybe comment out while drafting:
\maketitle \input{dedication} \input{copyright}
\tableofcontents
\include{preface}
\mainmatter
\include{chap1}
...
\appendix
\include{appena}
...
\backmatter
\bibliographystyle{apalike}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Bibliography}
\bibliography
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Index}
\printindex
\include{backcover}
\end{document}
A.5 tugboat template
TUGboat is the journal of the TEX Users Group, http://tug.org/TUGboat.
\documentclass{ltugboat}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{ifpdf}
\ifpdf
\usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage{url}
\fi
%%% Start of metadata %%%
\title{Example \TUB\ article}
% repeat info for each author.
\author{First Last}
\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}
Appendix A: Document templates 227
%%% End of metadata %%%
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
This is an example article for \TUB{}.
Please write an abstract.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
This is an example article for \TUB, linked from
\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.
We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the
\texttt{hyperref} package if active urls are desired (in the \acro{PDF}
output). Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.
The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations (and many more):
% verbatim blocks are often better in \small
\begin{verbatim}[\small]
\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
\BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
\ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
\mf \MFB
\plain \POBox \PS
\SGML \TANGLE \TB \TP
\TUB \TUG \tug
\UNIX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE
\, \bull \Dash \dash \hyph
\acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred} % please use!
\cs{fred} -> \fred
\meta{fred} -> <fred>
\nth{n} -> 1st, 2nd, ...
\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
\booktitle{Book of Fred}
\end{verbatim}
For references to other \TUB\ issue, please use the format
\textsl{volno:issno}, e.g., ‘‘\TUB\ 32:1’’ for our \nth{100} issue.
This file is just a template. The \TUB\ style documentation is the
\texttt{ltubguid} document at \url{http://ctan.org/pkg/tugboat}. (For
228
\CTAN\ references, where sensible we recommend that form of url, using
\texttt{/pkg/}; or, if you need to refer to a specific file location,
\texttt{http://mirror.ctan.org/\textsl{path}}.)
Email \verb|[email protected]| if problems or questions.
\bibliographystyle{plain} % we recommend the plain bibliography style
\nocite{book-minimal} % just making the bibliography non-empty
\bibliography{xampl} % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX
\makesignature
\end{document}
229
Index
*‘*’ prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219*-form of environment commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107*-form of sectioning commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31*-form, defining new commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
.
.glo file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
.idx file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 204
.ind file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
.isty file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
:: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
‘‘see’ and ‘see also’ index entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
\\fboxrule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168\fboxsep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168\NEWLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158\SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158\TAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Aabstracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46accents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191accents, mathematical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143accessing any character of a font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188acronyms, list of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207acute accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191acute accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143additional packages, loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9ae ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193algorithm2e package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76align environment, from amsmath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52aligning equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52alignment via tabbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74amsfonts package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127amsmath package . . . . . 47, 50, 87, 127, 141, 143, 145amsmath package, replacing eqnarray . . . . . . . . . . 52amsthm package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 193appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37appendix package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38aring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192arrays, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47arrow, left, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
arrow, right, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191ascender height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189ASCII circumflex, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189ASCII tilde, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189asterisk, centered, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189Asymptote package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 167at clause, in font definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110author, for titlepage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150auxiliary file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Bbabel package . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 84, 191, 194, 200, 203background, colored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175backslash, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189bar, double vertical, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189bar, vertical, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189bar-over accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191bar-over accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143bar-under accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192basics of LATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3beamer template and class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221beginning of document hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51bibliography format, open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9bibliography, creating (automatically) . . . . . . . . . . 86bibliography, creating (manually) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83bibTEX, using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86big circle symbols, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189Big point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119bigfoot package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102black boxes, omitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9blackboard bold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140bm package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140bold font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18bold math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18bold typewriter, avoiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49boldface mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140book, back matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38book, end matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38book, front matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38book, main matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166box, allocating new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106box, colored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174box, save . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170box, use saved box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166brace, left, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189brace, right, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189breaking lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90breaking pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95breaks, multiplication discretionary . . . . . . . . . . . 145breve accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192breve accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143bug reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Index 230
bullet symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130bullet, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189bulleted lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Ccalligraphic fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140calligraphic letters for math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18cap height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189caron accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192catcode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6category code, character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6cc list, in letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211cedilla accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192centered asterisk, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189centered equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9centered period, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190centering text, declaration for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48centering text, environment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Centimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 33character category code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6characters, accented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191characters, case of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187characters, non-English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192characters, reserved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187characters, special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187check accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192check accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Cicero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119circle symbol, big, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189circled letter, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189circumflex accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191circumflex accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143circumflex, ASCII, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189citation key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84class and package commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11class and package difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10class and package structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10class file example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10class file layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10class options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 10, 12classes of documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8cleveref package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 100closing letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211closing quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189code, typesetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88colon character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172, 173, 174, 175color models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172color package commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173color package options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172color, define . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173colored boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174colored page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175colored text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217command syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
commands, class and package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11commands, defining new ones . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 105commands, document class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10commands, graphics package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180commands, ignore spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112commands, redefining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103commands, star-variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7composite word mark, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189computer programs, typesetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88configuration, graphics package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177contents file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4copyright symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188counters, a list of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114counters, defining new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105counters, getting value of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115counters, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114counters, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116cprotect package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 89creating pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66creating tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77credit footnote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151cross references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43cross references, resolving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4cross referencing with page number . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44cross referencing, symbolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44currency, dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190currency, euro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Ddagger, double, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190dagger, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 190date, for titlepage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151date, today’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194datetime package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194define color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173defining a new command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 105defining new environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106defining new fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110defining new theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103delimiters, paired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146description lists, creating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49design size, in font definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110Didot point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119dieresis accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191difference between class and package . . . . . . . . . . . 10discretionary breaks, multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . 145discretionary hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92display math mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148displaying quoted text with
paragraph indentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74displaying quoted text without
paragraph indentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74document class commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10document class options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8document class, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3document classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Index 231
document templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221dollar sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190dot accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191dot over accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143dot-over accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191dot-under accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192dotless i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191dotless i, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132dotless j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191dotless j, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141double angle quotation marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188double dagger, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 190double dot accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143double guillemets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188double left quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190double low-9 quotation mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189double quote, straight base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191double right quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190double spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21double vertical bar, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189doublestruck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Ee-dash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190e-TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141ellipsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188em . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119em-dash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190em-dash, three-quarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191em-dash, two-thirds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191emphasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18enclosure list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212end of document hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51ending and starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3engines, TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4enlarge current page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96enumitem package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3environment, theorem-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46environments, defining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106envlab package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213EPS files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177, 180equation number, cross referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44equation numbers, left vs. right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9equation numbers, omitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53equations, aligning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52equations, environment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53equations, flush left vs. centered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9es-zet German letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193eth, Icelandic letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193etoolbox package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12euro symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190eurosym package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
exclamation point, upside-down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128extended Latin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192external files, writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Ffamilies, of fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19fancyhdr package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 152fancyvrb package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 88feminine ordinal symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190figure number, cross referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44figures, footnotes in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66figures, inserting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53file, root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195fixed-width font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18flafter package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28float package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28float page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28flush left equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9flushing floats and starting a page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95font catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19font commands, low-level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19font size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21font sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19font styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17font symbols, by number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17fonts, new commands for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110fonts, script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140footer style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152footer, parameters for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25footnote number, cross referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44footnote parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98footnote, in a table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100footnote, in section headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100footnote, of a footnote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102footnotes in figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66footnotes, creating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98Footnotes, in a minipage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99footnotes, symbols instead of numbers . . . . . . . . . . 98formulas, environment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53formulas, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127forward reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43forward references, resolving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146fragile commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111French quotation marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188functions, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Index 232
Ggeometry package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9global options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 10glossaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207glossary, entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208glossary, entry reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208glue register, plain TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 177, 180graphics package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 177, 180graphics package commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180graphics package options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176graphics packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70graphics, resizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186graphics, scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186grave accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192grave accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143greater than symbol, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129group, and environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Hhacek accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192hacek accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Halmos symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193hat accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191hat accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143header style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152header, parameters for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25hello, world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3here, putting floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28horizontal space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155horizontal space, stretchable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155hungarian umlaut accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192hyperref package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100, 152, 218hyphenation, defining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93hyphenation, discretionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92hyphenation, forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92hyphenation, preventing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
IIcelandic eth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193Icelandic thorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193idx file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204ij letter, Dutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193implementations of TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4importing graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180in-line formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64including graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180indent, forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124indentation of paragraphs, in minipage . . . . . . . . . 66indentfirst package . . . . . . . 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 124index entries, ‘see’ and ‘see also’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203index entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203index package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204index, page range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
index, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207index, processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202infinite horizontal stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155infinite vertical stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164inner paragraph mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148input file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195input/output, to terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215inserting figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53insertions of special characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187internal vertical mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148italic correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160italic font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
JJPEG files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177, 180JPG files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177, 180justification, ragged left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56justification, ragged right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
KKnuth, Donald E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Llabel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43labelled lists, creating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Lamport TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Lamport, Leslie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3landscape orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9LATEX logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188LATEX overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3LATEX Project team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2LATEX vs. LATEX2e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2LATEX2e logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Latin letters, additional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192layout commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23layout, page parameters for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25left angle quotation marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188left arrow, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190left brace, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189left quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188left quote, double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190left quote, single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190left-hand equation numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9left-justifying text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56left-justifying text, environment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55left-to-right mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148lengths, adding to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120lengths, allocating new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106lengths, defining and using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118lengths, predefined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121lengths, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120less than symbol, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190letters, accented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191letters, additional Latin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
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letters, ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211letters, starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213letters, writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210line break, forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90line breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90line breaks, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93line breaks, forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94line breaks, multiplication discretionary . . . . . . . 145line breaks, preventing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94lines in tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78lining numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18lining text up in tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78lining text up using tab stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74list items, specifying counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115list of figures file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4list of tables file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4listings package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 88lists of items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57lists of items, generic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58lists of items, numbered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51loading additional packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9log file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4logo, LATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188logo, LATEX2e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188logo, TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189long command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11low-9 quotation marks, single and double . . . . . . 189low-level font commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19lowercase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187LR mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148ltugboat class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223LuaTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Mm-width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119macro package, LATEX as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3macron accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191macron accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143macros2e package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Madsen, Lars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52make a box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166makeindex program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204making a title page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87making paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123marginal notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125masculine ordinal symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190matching brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146matching parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146math accents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143math formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127math functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142math miscellany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145math mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148math mode, entering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127math mode, spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144math symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129math, bold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
mathtools package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 144mfirstuc package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188mhchem package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128Millimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119minipage, creating a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64minted package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 88modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148monospace font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18moving arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111mpfootnote counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99mu, math unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119multicolumn text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23multilingual support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191multind package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202multiplication, discretionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
NNBSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158nested \include, not allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197new class commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10new command, check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11new command, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12new commands, defining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 105new line, output as input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91new line, starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90new line, starting (paragraph mode) . . . . . . . . . . . . 92new page, starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96non-English characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192notes in the margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125null delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146numbered items, specifying counter . . . . . . . . . . . 115numerals, old-style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Ooblique font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18oe ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193ogonek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192old-style numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18one-column output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23opening quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188OpenType fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4options, class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12options, color package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172options, document class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 10options, global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10options, graphics package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176options, package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12ordinals, feminine and masculine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190oslash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193outer paragraph mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148overbar accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191overdot accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143overlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143overview of LATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Index 234
Ppackage file layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10package options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12package, algorithm2e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76package, amsfonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127package, amsmath . . . . 47, 50, 87, 127, 141, 143, 145package, amsthm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 193package, appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38package, Asymptote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 167package, babel . . . . . . . . . . 34, 84, 191, 194, 200, 203package, bigfoot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102package, bm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140package, cleveref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 100package, cprotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 89package, datetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194package, enumitem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62package, envlab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213package, etoolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12package, eurosym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190package, fancyhdr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 152package, fancyvrb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 88package, flafter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28package, float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28package, geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9package, hyperref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100, 152, 218package, indentfirst . . . . . . . 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 124package, index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204package, listings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 88package, macros2e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6package, mathtools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 144package, mfirstuc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188package, mhchem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128package, minted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 88package, multind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202package, pict2e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70package, polyglossia . . . . . . . . . . 191, 194, 200, 203package, sagetex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218package, setspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21package, showidx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202package, siunitx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159package, symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129package, textcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188package, textcomp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18package, TikZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 167package, titlesec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 34, 35, 36, 37package, tocbibbind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200package, tocloft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200package, ulem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144package, url . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88package, verbatimbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88packages, loading additional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9page break, forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97page break, preventing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95page layout parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25page number, cross referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44page numbering style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151page style, this page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
page styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150page, colored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175paired delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146paragraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 36paragraph indentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125paragraph indentation, in minipage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66paragraph indentations in quoted text . . . . . . . . . . 74paragraph indentations in quoted
text, omitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74paragraph mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148, 168paragraph symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188paragraph, ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123paragraph, in a box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123parameters, for footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98parameters, page layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32PDF graphic files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177, 180pdfTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4pdfTEX engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4period, abbreviation-ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157period, centered, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190period, sentence-ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157period, spacing after . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157pica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119pict2e package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70pictures, creating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66pilcrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188placement of floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28PNG files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177, 180poetry, an environment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119polish l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193polyglossia package . . . . . . . . . . . 191, 194, 200, 203portrait orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9position, in picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68positional parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103postscript, in letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213pounds symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189preamble, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3predefined lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121prompt, ‘*’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Qquad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145question mark, upside-down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190quotation marks, French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188quote, single straight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190quote, straight base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191quoted text with paragraph
indentation, displaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74quoted text without paragraph
indentation, displaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Index 235
Rradical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146ragged left text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56ragged left text, environment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56ragged right text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56ragged right text, environment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55redefining environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106reference, forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43references, resolving forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4registered symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191relation, text above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147remarks in the margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125reporting bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2reserved characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187resizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186right angle quotation marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188right arrow, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191right brace, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189right quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189right quote, double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190right quote, single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190right-hand equation numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9right-justifying text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56right-justifying text, environment for . . . . . . . . . . . 56ring accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192ring accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143robust commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111roman font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18root file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146rotating graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185rotating text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185row, tabbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75rubber lengths, defining new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106running header and footer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25running header and footer style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Ssagetex package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218sans serif font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Scaled point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186script fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140script letters for math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 34section number, cross referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44section numbers, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31section symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189section, redefining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38sectioning commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31sectioning, part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32series, of fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20setspace package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21setting counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116shapes, of fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21sharp S letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
showidx package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202simulating typed text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88single angle quotation marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188single guillemets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188single left quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190single low-9 quotation mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189single quote, straight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190single right quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190siunitx package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159sizes of text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19skip register, plain TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106slanted font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18sloppypar environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93small caps font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18space, hard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158space, inserting horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155space, inserting vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165space, negative thin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159space, thin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159space, unbreakable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158space, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154spaces, ignore around commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112spacing within math mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144spacing, inter-sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 158Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine . . . . . . 190special characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187, 192special insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187specifier, float placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28splitting the input file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195square root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146stack math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147star-variants, commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7starred form, defining new commands . . . . . . . . . 103starting a new page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96starting a new page and clearing floats . . . . . . . . . 95starting and ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3starting on a right-hand page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95sterling symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189straight double quote, base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191straight quote, base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191straight single quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190stretch, infinite horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155stretch, infinite vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164stretch, omitting vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162styles of text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17styles, page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150subparagraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 36subscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128subsection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 35subsubsection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36superscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128symbols package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129symbols, boldface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140symbols, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129symbols, text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Index 236
Ttab stops, using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74table of contents entry, manually adding . . . . . . . 200table of contents file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4table of contents, avoiding footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . 100table of contents, creating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199table of contents, sectioning numbers printed . . . 32tables, creating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77template, article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221template, beamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221template, book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222template, TUGboat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223templates, document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221terminal input/output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215TEX logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189text symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188text, resizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186text, scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186textcase package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188textcomp package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18thanks, for titlepage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151theorem-like environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108theorems, defining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108theorems, typesetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86thin space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145, 159thin space, negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145, 159thorn, Icelandic letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193three-quarters em-dash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158tie-after accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192TikZ package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 167tilde accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192tilde accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143tilde, ASCII, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189title page, separate or run-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9title pages, creating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87title, for titlepage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151titles, making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150titlesec package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 34, 35, 36, 37tocbibbind package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200tocloft package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200today’s date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194tombstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193trademark symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191transcript file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4TrueType fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4TUGboat template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223two-column output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23two-thirds em-dash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191type styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17typed text, simulating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
typeface sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19typefaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17typewriter font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18typewriter labels in lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Uulem package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144umlaut accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191underbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192underlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143underscore, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191Unicode input, native . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4units, of length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119unofficial nature of this manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2unordered lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57uppercase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187url package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88using BibTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86UTF-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Vvariables, a list of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114vector symbol, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143verbatim text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88verbatim text, inline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88verbatimbox package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88vertical bar, double, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189vertical bar, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189vertical mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148vertical space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 165vertical space before paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125visible space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88visible space symbol, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Wweights, of fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20white space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154wide hat accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143wide tilde accent, math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143widths, of fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20writing external files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54writing letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Xx-height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119XeTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5xindy program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
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