Later Middle Ages - Dr. Astorian's AP Consortium · Web viewMedieval Life idea and role of universal Church feudal and monastic institutions town life and guilds Scholasticism Gothic

Later Middle Ages

Medieval Lifeidea and role of universal Churchfeudal and monastic institutionstown life and guildsScholasticismGothic architecture

style: hierarchy, other-worldliness, focus on God, sense of stasis

Challengesdynastic conflict--changing idea of kingship (v. Vatican)

Golden Bull (1356)--Pope blocked out of HRE choiceHundred Years' War (1337-1452)--Eng. claim on Fr. throne

style of warfare impact on knighthoodWar of the Roses (1455-85)

divided ChurchBabylonian captivity (1309-77)Great Schism (1378-1415)Jan Hus--burned at stake in 1415conciliar movement

intellectualWilliam of Ockham--govt. secular, criticize Aristotle/reasonJohn Wycliffe--future Reformation challenges

Black Death/faminebegan in 1346killed 33-50% of Europe's populationpsychological and demographic impact

social lifejacquerieCiompi Revolt (1378)

A New Spiritmore focus on individualmore focus on here-and-nowvernacular literature--realism, national settingless faith in instit. Church, more mysticism

Result: Strain on existing institutions, ripe for social/intellectual change

The Renaissance

Rebirth of classical pasta strong contrast with the Middle Ages?Petrarch

style: secularism, virtu, humanism, civic virtue

Causesnew focus on this world after 14th centurywealth/indep. of Italian city-states (location)new ideas/text--from Byzantine Empire (falling to Ottomans)urban life--culture

Renaissance Society25% in towns, 10% elsewhere (econ. center, surr. countryside)cities ruled by wealthy elites--bankers, merchants, etc. (Medici, Sforza)luxury goodsstronger sense of community/cohesion (b/c of relative prosperity)family--patriarchal, extended (w/servants), women gain only in educ.

Idealshumanists--liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, history, moral phil.)

Petrarch--"the father of humanism"CastiglioneValla--philologyBruni--Florentine Academy

Machiavelli--circumstances of his writingThe Prince (1513)civic virtue (condotierre)

Artstyle and subjects--linear, perspective, symmetry, shading, individualsarchitecture--Brunulleschi (dome), Alberti painting/sculpture

Massaccio (Expulsion of Adam and Eve)Botticelli (Spring, Venus)da Vinci/Michelangelo (Renaissance Men)

role of Church--caveat to secularism

Politicscontests for local supremacy--Milan, Florence, Venice, Naples, Papal Statesstability through seigneurs, local elites (Council of Ten), MediciPeace of Lodi (1454)Venice--Great Council, strongest through navy/tradefall of Italian states--rise of Ottomans (affects trade), voyages of exploration, in middle of dynastic

rivalriesWars of Italy (1494-1529)sack of Rome (1527)

result: Renaissance spreads but conditions no longer favor Italy, center of Europe shifts to North and West (Spain, G.B., Low Countries)

European Exploration and Empire/New Monarchs

impact: changed balance of power and intellectual universe

Motives--God, gold, and gloryspices of Asiatechnological innovations, $ from bankingRenaissance mentality

ExplorersPrince Henry the NavigatorPortugal--spices and slaves (short-lived empire)Columbus sails for newly-united Spain Balboa, Magellanconquistadores--Cortes, Pizarro (types of individuals)type of control/impact on indigenous peoples/disease

Impact--reassess views of themselves

Europe in 1500 (diversity of forms/states in need of unity)East--loose Scand., Mongol/Ottomans, Russia, Poland-LithuaniaCentral--HREWest--Spain (reconquista), G.B., France

New Monarchsdifficulties--strong nobles, cult./reg'l diversity, transport, dynastic conflicts, other powers

(Church, etc.)changes in warfareRussia--gained at expense of Mongols

Ivan III--rewards for boyars/army, Orthodox ChurchIvan IV--punished/moved boyars, loyalty of army, peasants to serfs

Poland declines--weak central rulerG.B.

War of Roses depletes noblesHenry VIII-royal domains (taxes), depts. of state, coerce/kill nobles

Privy Council and Parliament increased (Reformation)France

indep. arist. and provincialismLouis XI--marriages, alliances, consumption taxes, nat'l army

Spainregional diversity (Aragon/Castile)reconquista/Inquisition--nationalismCharles V--bureau. courts (often absent)

Dynastic Strugglesmilitary technology and continuing chivalrypersonal rivalries (Henry VIII, Francis I, Charles V)Valois v. Habsburg (often in Italy)--vie for HRE titlePavia (1525), Francis captured, turns tables w/Henry/SuleimanTreaty of Cateau-Cambresis

overall trend: growing power of state, aided by econ. advances

The ReformationImportance: challenged the powerful institutional role of Catholic Church, divided Europe religiously, more individualism, and led to political conflict

The Causes--(influenced by political develop./econ. motives)intellectual ferment--printing press (1518-25--1/3 of books by Luther)Christian humanism--spirit of reform through education, new Bibles

NOTE: diff. w/Italian humanismSir Thomas More (later beheaded)--UtopiaErasmus--satirized Church abuses, called for more indiv. beliefCisneros--Polyglot Bible--"saved" Spain from Reformation

abuses of Church--nepotism, simony, pluralism, indulgencesRenaissance popes (Julius II, Alex. VI)Fred. III "the Wise" and Johann Tetzel

Lutheran Reformation95 Theses--for discussion, individual salvationsola fide, sola scriptura, sola gratiaequality of all believers, challenge power of Pope/councilsDiet of Worms (1521)Address to Christian Nobility (1520)--appeal to German nationalism

Charles V's problemsconverts from elites (resentment of Rome)anticlericalism among burghers

converts--often for national/economic reasonssocial and political conservatismwhere: Germany, Scandinavia

Other Protestant reformersZwingli (Swiss)--city/Church united, radically v. ritual/materialCalvinism--Institutes of Christ. Relig. (1536)--predest., indep. congreg.

where: Low Countries, Britain, FranceEnglish Reformation

Act of Supremacy (1534)Edward VI (reforms, comp. w/ Cath), Mary (repression), Eliz. I

Anabaptists--radicals, denied secular authority, only true believerswhere: Germany, Bohemia, Hungary

Catholic Reformationsummary: reform abuses, renewed spirituality, emphasize again doctrines, fight back against

Prot.New Piety--indiv. spirituality, Teresa of Avila (Carmelites)Loyola and the Jesuits (missionaries)Council of Trent (1545-63)--dominated by Pope's Ital. (refused comp. w/HRE)

abolished indulgence abusesreaffirm special mark of clergyupdate liturgyscriptural and apostolic tradition

index and Inquisitionwhere: France, Italy, Ireland, E. Europe (Poland, Hungary, Austria)

Beginning of WarfareCharles V--trying to reunite empire v. Ottoman, France, German Prots.1555--Peace of Augsburg

Religious Warfare

main focus: development of secular authority of state, division of Europe into distinct nation-states (Treaty of Westphalia--1648)

Naturenew technology, admin., organizationdepth of hatred--fear of neighbors, "pollution"

French Wars of ReligionCalvinist inroads (10% by 1560--esp. among well-to-do)Henry II death (1559)

Catherine de Medici--regentdynastic instabilityGuises v. Bourbons

Charles X sister to marry Henry of Navarre (Prot)St. Bartholomew Day's Massacre

politiques and Catholic LeagueWar of Three Henrys (1588-89 Guise and Henry III assass.)settlement--Henry IV to Cath., Edict of Nantes (1598)

Spain's War with NetherlandsPhilip II--leader of European Cath.

war v. Ottomans (Lepanto--1571)Spanish Armada

Burgundian inheritancesocial/econ. situation of provincesforce Cath.----passive resistance (William of Orange)

Revolt1566--iconoclasmDuke of Alba (Council of Blood)taxes high, repression--more opp. even among Cath.

settlmentPacification of Ghent (1576)--cede auth. to States-GeneralTwelve Years' Truce (1609)--ack. indep. of United Provinces

Eastern EuropePoland-Lithuania--instability and powerful nobility

war w/ Russia going thru Time of TroublesSweden--rise of int'l Prot. power

effort to control Baltic tradeThirty Years War--type of war, impact on Germany, not just Cath. v. Prot.

Bohemian revolt--effort to get Ferd. II as Emperor Defenstration of Prague (1618)White Mountain (1620)--defeat Fred. V and get Bohemia Cath.

fear of Catholic Habsburgs--G.B., Holland, Germans, Denmark joinSwedish intervene w/effort to convert Lutherans

Magdeburg sacking (1631)--unite Protestant behing Gust. Adolph.died at Lutzen

Spain v. France Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

reaffirm Augsburg--HRE just a nameDutch independentstate system

16th Century Social History

theme: hierarchy, econ./demographic changes affect these

Economy--expansion of agriculture, increase in pop., Price Revolutionrural

90% of pop.subsistence farming--often famines, instabilitythree-crop rotationpeasants leased land, owned by lord/seigneur, common landrobot, corvee

townsguilds--structure of workfocus on foodmerchants, artisansmost unskilleddomestic service

changes80 to 105 M in pop.at first---prod., urban, consumption upthen strain

Price Revolutionwages not keeping up (guilds more strict)landless laborers among wealthy peasants

result: subsistence crisis, social stratification

Social Life--focus on hierarchy, though econ. challengedGreat Chain of Being, Body Politic

nobles (about 2-3%)--tax exempt., pol. office, armybourg., skilled (about 10%)--challenged abovetownspeople/peasants--guilds, land, citizenship to figure status

Social Changebourg./prof. enter office, buy statuspoverty taxes local charities

Peasant Revoltsliterate leadersprotest gaming rights/enclosures"Twelve Articles of Swabian Peasants" (1525)--Luther condemned

Private Life--family and community provide continuityFamily

nuclearmarriage agepatriarchicalwomen control domestic scene, men public

communitylord, priest give continuitysocial customs, festivals--saints, "world turned upside down"

popular beliefsmagicwitchcraft--social change, Reformation, superstition, lack of science

The Royal State

reason: to provide security/order, promote interests of state, needs of warfareNOTE: compare French and British evolution of absolute monarchy

Divine Right--Bishop Bousset/Jean Bodin, organic view, "one king, faith, law"

Efforts at CentralizationCardinal Richelieu and Louis XIIISpain--Count-Duke Olivares and Philip IV but failed

econ. weak--taxes, inflation, emigrationfocus on relig. zeal--upper class crusaders/priestsdisunity (Moors, Moriscos, conversos)--persecutionrebellions

Stuarts--diff. in taxingmethods: courts, intendants, taxes, selling offices,

Opposition/CrisisCauses--taxes, pop. pressures, war, bad harvests, state regulationright to resist

Hugeunot thinkers--right to resist civil auth. if unjustFronde

EnglandJames I (1603-25)--financial diff.Puritan demands--get rid of Cath, epispocacyCharles I (1625-49)

new prayer book in Scotland (1637)ship moneyBishop Laud

Long Parliament (no funds to fight invading Scots)Civil War (1642-49)

military forces more radical take overtry king and execute in 1649

CommonwealthRump Parliament and Council of StateStuart Restoration--toleration, Parl. role

Glorious Revolution (1688)Locke (Second Treatise) and Hobbes (Leviathan)

Eastern EuropePrussia

Fred. Will--Great Elector (1640-88)excise taxes, armies, bureau--united scattered statesfocus is army

Peter I/Russiathe manwestern tour/ideasconscription, factories, St. Petersburgexpansion (v. Poles, Swedes)

Louis XIV (1661-1715)--Versailles (the symbol)Colbert as finance ministerLouvois--army of 400,000intendents, bureau.failures--persecution of Hug. (revoke Nantes), war

Culture--Baroque (ornate, elegant, structured, grand)

Scientific and Commercial Revolutionstheme: challenge religion, augment state power, Europe controlling worldNew Science

Aristotle's viewCopernicus (1473-1543)--heliocentricBrahe (1546-1601)--data to proveKepler (1571-1630)--laws of planetary motionGalileo (1564-1642)--observation, gravity, recantation

Scientific Methodempirical, reason, inductive, deductiveDescartes--mind and matter, Christian skeptic, deductive, mathRobert Boyle--atomic theoryWilliam Harvey--dissection, circulationLeuwenhoek--microscopeNewton (1642-1727)--laws of motion, mechanics, calculusFrancis Bacon--empiricalscientific societies--Royal Academy of London

TradeDutch

Constit. stateecon. wealth--flyboats, location, toleranceBank of Amsterdam

banks--role in exchange and provide capital (Bank of England--1694)technology, practices--bills of exchange, acct., joint-stockmerchants and profittriangular tradeconsumption

spice trade (Dutch East Indies)India--Great Britain (calicoes, spices, tea)sugarchange in dietluxuries and art (Rembrandt, etc.)

Mercantilismthe theory--zero-sum, gold, coloniespractice

tariffsregulation (Navigation Acts)monopolies (Dutch East India, British East India, etc.)

WarsBritain-Dutch naval wars

over Cromwell's Navigation Act1652-54, 1665-67 (take N.Y.--anyone want it back?), 1672-74France gangs up (open dikes)--Treaty of Nijmegen

Louis XIVbalance of powerdesire for Burgundian landsNine Years War--seize Cologne

Grand Alliance--GB, Dutch, GermansTreaty of Ryswick

Spanish Succession (1701-14)v. Leopold I of AustriaUtrecht (1714)--Sp. terr. in Italy/Neth to Aust.France loses gains, G.B. advances in North Amer.

Seven Years War (1756-63)--G.B. gains N. Amer.

New European Powers and War

Motif: War, War, War, and power of state to maintain security

powers on way up: G.B., Prussia, Russiapowers on way down: Spain, Dutch, Polandholding own: France, Austria

Russia (Westernization)Peter the Great

census/poll taxTable of Ranks (1722)--based on meritcolleges of military science/liberal artsadvances in industry, peasantry still poor

Rural Life95% of peoplehigh taxesmilitary serviceenserfment under Catherine

Catherine--German who killed husbandboyars accept tsar power for exemption of state serviceCharter of Nobility (1785) outlines aboveDistrict Councils--local governmentPugachev Rebellion

Prussia (Hohenzollerns)Fred. Will I

replace mercenaries, train German officersall males register for conscriptionreform state bureaucracy

Fred. the Greatenlightened monarchinvasion of Silesia (War of Austrian Succession, 1740-48)promote educ., abolish torture, codify law

AustriaMaria Theresa (1740-80) and Pragmatic Sanction

got Hungarian support and retained crowncentralized bureaucracylimited feudal service

Joseph IImost enlightenedeliminate feudal obligations (overturned later)

Great Britain (prosperity and Parliament)Constitutional balanceroyal patronageparties and minister (Walpole)corruption and American Revolution

Seven Years WarPrussia/Austria adversariesDiplomatic Revolution of 1756partitions of Poland (1772, 1775, 1792)

Enlightenment and Old Regime

impact: set stage for French Revolution, social conditions produced grievances, ideas the tools/expectations/inspiration

Three ClassesNobility

set social tonenot all wealthyland and officessalons--patronized Enlightenment culture

Bourgeoisiediverse--professions, merchants, skilled workers15% in G.B., 2% in E. Europeenvied noblesculture

leisure, ape noblescoffee houses, theaterliteracy--magazines, newspapers, novels

family liferomantic loveidealizedview of childrenlimit family size

Masses--new opportunities, new challengesrising pop.-no decline this time (120 to 180 M)--Malthusless warfare and less diseaseagriculture

warmernew techniques--fertilizer, enclosure, livestock feed

the poor10-15% in urban areaslacked steady employmentwage labor, unskilled workerscharities strained"deserving" and "undeserving" poorworkhouses, hospitals, prisons, mental institutions

popular cultureliteracy--almanacs, fictionvillage festivalsblood sportstaverns

Enlightenment--rationalism, secularism, individualism, reformVoltaire sets the toneLocke--views on education, contract theoryphilosophes--Montesquieu, Hume, Condorcet, Diderot, KantAmericans Paine and Franklin economic--Adam Smith and invisible hand, free tradeRousseau

nature, childhood, Social Contract, General Willromanticismemotion, feeling, humanitarian impulse

result: provides goals of French Revolution, analogy of dynamoes

French Revolution and Napoleonimportance: ushered in modern mass politics, framed issues for next 200 years of govt. role in econ., ideal of equality, and nationalism

Old Regimerigid class systemfailure of absolute monarchy under Louis XV, XVIrevival of aristocracylimited econ. opportunity

Causessocial--resentment of middle/lower class at privilegespolitical--battle between king and arist. for power

parlements and taxationreform ministers--Turgot, Necker, Calonne, Brienne

intellectual--philosophes, ideals of EnlightenmentRousseauMontesquieu

economic--financial crisis and crop failures of 1787-88Liberal Revolution, June 1789-August 1792 (lib. nobles/upper bourg.)

Estates-General and cahiersdoublingvoting by order or head

National Assembly and Tennis Court Oath (Sieyes/Mirabeau)Dec. of Rights of Man and Citizen (8/89)

popular political partic.Bastille and National Guard (Lafayette)Great Fear and destruction of feudalism (Aug. 1789)October Days (role of women)

division withinCivil Constit. of Clergy (1790)Constitution of 1791econ. problems--inflation, deficits (laissez-faire)king tries to escapewar--Declaration of Pillnetz (4/92)

Radicals, Aug. 1792-July 1794 (lower bourg., lower classes)sans-culottes/ParisGirondins and Jacobins--RobespierreTuileries--king executed, republic proclaimedReign of Terror--Vendee, war (levee en masse), econ. crisis

composition of those executedRepublic of Virtue--women's role, de-Christianization, calendar

Directory/Thermidor, 1794-99 (upper bourg. back in control)dependent on military victories (rise of Napoleon)limited suffrage, luxurious style back

Consulate, 1799-1804 (Nap. engineers coup)Empire, 1804-15

Napoleon's personality/appraisal--enl. despot, modern dictator, rev. herovictories--various treaties, type of warfaremistakes

Continental System (1806)invasion of Spain (1808)invasion of Russia (1812)

pros: Code Napoleon, spread ideals, end feudalismcons: plunder, national revolts, women, methods, secret police

Industrial Revolution

focus on: process, why Britain first, how other nations differ, incremental/uneven technology increase, impact on society and instit., govt. role

Agricultural Revolutiontraditional farming techniquesMalthus and population pressuresrural life and household manufacturenew techniques--enclosure, fertilizer, new crops, specialization

Great Britainadvantages

resources--wood, coal, ore, riversisland locationbanking and financial backingspirit of innovation, wealthy open to profitflexible pol. system w/middle-class repres.

developmentscoal--Newcomen engineiron/steel--steam engine, smelting, puddlingtextile--jenny, mule, water frame

putting-out systemrise of factories

railroadsusesfinanced by private indiv.impact for mass transport

methods of organizationentrepreneurs--Wedgwood, Owenfactory system

costs/benefitsurbanization and its problemsimpact on trad. methods/relationships in workplacework conditionsfamily lifegeneral prosperity, cheaper/better goods

political responsesgovt. actions--infrastructure (sewage), Factory Act of 1833Chartism--worker democracyutilitarianismutopian socialism

The ContinentFrance--evol. development

smallholder trad. from rev.moderate pop. growth--continue trad. agri. methodsregional unevenness until RRsprotective tariffs

Germany--govt. promotion of industryZollverein and unityserfdom in eastRRs

Elsewhere--weak central govt., few natural resources, feudalism, isolation, little capital and wasted on boondoggles

Reaction, Romanticism, and Revolutionmotif: significant social/econ. (indust.) and intell. (ideologies) changes lead to stress on a reconstructed European order following Fr. Rev/Nap. WarsCongress of Vienna

principles: legitimacy, balance of power, orderMetternich (main figure), Castlereagh, Talleyrand, Alex. I prevent further Fr. expansion--Neth., Aust. in Italy, German Conf.100 Days--little desire to punish France--restore Louis XVIIIPolish-Saxon questionHoly Alliance and Concert of Europe (ensure stability/avoid rev.)

Social Changesurban growth and its problemsgovt. role in economy and poverty "question"--Factory Act 1833, etc.family life

more concern for limiting family sizedomesticity--middle-class value of home as refuge/women

New IdeologiesLiberalism--apostles--A. Smith, J.S. Mill, Bentham, Locke; individualism and limited government;laissez-faire and property; middle class

nationalism--inspired by Fr. Rev. and frustrated by Vienna; romantic--Garibaldi, Mazzini (Carbonari); F. List--Prussian econ. nationalism

Romanticism--more of a feeling than a philosophy; emotions, spirit, essence; heroic individual (Nap., Beethoven); art (Gothic revival/emotion, dark), lit. (medieval themes--Hugo), poetry (spontaneity--Wordsworth)

Conservatism--tradition, organic, change through adaptation; Metternich and Burke; trad. instit.--throne, altar, estate; suppress nationalism/Liberalism--Carlsbad Decrees (1819)

socialism--utopian and Marxist; condemn course of indust.--utopian commune; St-Simon (group/prod. labor), Proudhon (anti-prop.), Fourier (organ.)

RevolutionFrance 1830

Charles X--restore abs. monarchy and role of Churchbourg. revolt--Louis Phillipe (Orleans) in 3 days

Greek independence (Brit. support--Philhellenism)Belgian indep., failed Polish bidDecembrist Revolt (1825)--Nich. II a reactionaryBritish reform

Reform Bill of 1832--mod. extension of suffrageChartism--workers democ.--universal manhood suffrage, fades post-1848new policestrikes and Luddism (NOTE: varying responses to indust.)

1848causes: subsistence crisis, slow change, bourg. hopesreform banquets in Paris--ouster of L-P, bourg., nat'l workshops, class war (Commune

and peasants), military govt., Nap. III (coup in 1850)attempt at Liberal German govt. (Frankfurt Parl.)Hungarians temp. gain indep., Pan-Slavism, Italian effortsChartism in G.B.Habsburgs w/Russ. help regain control

Lessons: division between workers/middle-class, organization, realism, end of Concert of Europe

Nationalism and State Buildingtheme: new realism, nationalism taken up by conservatives, modern mass politics emergingRealpolitik and Nation-Building

instruments of powerrailroadsindustrializationpublic opinionsocial reform/programswar/diplomacy

Crimean War"Eastern Question" and Ottoman EmpirePiedmont-SardiniaPeace of Paris, 1856impact--decline of Russia, end of Concert of Europe, new warfare

Italy and CavourRomantic nationalism--Mazzini (Young Italy), Garibali, RisorgimentoLiberal reform under Cavour (RRs, tax, help private bus., currency)Treaty of Plombieres--Nap. III backs outplebisciteGaribaldi and Red Shirts--gives in Pope resists--"locked" in Romepick up Venetia in 1866

Bismarck and Germanyhumiliation of OlmutzJunkers and Bismarck's attitudeconflict w/Liberals in Reichstagwar w/Denmark (Schleswig-Holstein, Austria)Ems Dispatch and Franco-Prussian Waruniversal manhood suffrage but auth. rulecarrot and stick w/socialists

result: state has monopoly on forceReform and State-Building

models: G.B.--Liberal Parliamentary and local admin.; Russia--conservative dictated by tsar; France--blend with technocrats and centralized

Second Empire in France, 1852-71coup d'etat in 1852, Emperor in 1852public--manip. opinion, universal manhood suffragepublic works programs, private banking, RRsforeign policy--Crim. War, Ital. unif., Mex. (more liberal), F-P WarParis Commune (1871), siege, and class warfare

Great Britain and Victorian Compromisereconcile growth w/existing instit.Gladstone and Disraeli--ideologies

Liberal--abol. tariffs, decrease military $, civil service Conservative--Factory Act (1875), imperialism

Russia under Alex. II (1855-81)emancipation of serfs--caveats (mir and payments)zemstvo and judicial reformsindustrializationcontinuing dissent--assassination

new ruler: modern, tech., public welfare, competition, for good of stateRealism and Materialism

domesticity and consumption--home as haven, women as guardians (bourg.)arts--literature (Dostoyevsky, Dickens, Flaubert), painting (Courbet)Darwin and evolution--struggle and randomnessMarxism--class struggle, materialism, Das Kapital

Cultural Crisis of Europefocus: challenge to existing beliefs of Enl., conditions of Liberalism: irrational, violence, mass society

Futurists--embraced power of masses, liberate from pastSecond Industrial Revolution

"Great Depression," 1873-95, boom and bust cyclesoverproduction (tech./transport), world trade

The rush to organize--trusts, cartels, consortiaecon. nationalism--tariffs and imperialism

Liberal ChallengesGreat Britain

working-class politics (strikes)Labour Party (Kier Hardie)Fabian movement (mod. socialist)demands: city reform, public housing, benefits

legislationLiberal government of Asquith/Lloyd GeorgeNatl Ins. Act, Parl. Act--1911

Irish Home Rulefemale suffrage--the Pankurst (WSPU)--middle-class

Bismarck's GermanyAnti-Socialist Laws ("the stick"): revisionism (E. Bernstein)

largest party by 1914Kulturkampfwelfare legislation ("the carrot")nationalism--masses behind state

Scandals in Francenational culture--public schools, transport, mass consumptionBoulanger Affair, 1889Dreyfus Affair, 1894--Emile Zola, trad. v. Liberal instit.

Liberalism defeated in Austria weak middle classanti-Semitism: Karl Luegernationalism and national division

Outsidersfeminists

political strategies--sit-ins, protests, boycotts, violencestate response--forced feeding, Cat and Mouse gamesome pursue social reforms

Zionismanti-Semitism--biol. racism, poor econ., tradition, esp. E. EuropeTheodor Herzl and Zionism

Workers and radicalsanarcho-syndicalists--Sorel, Bakunin; mostly in Southern Europe

New Ideasphysics--challenging Newton's knowable world

Curie and radioactivityPlanck and quantum mechanicsEinstein and relativity

biology and medicine (Pasteur)social sciences--group phenomenon and their study

psychology--Freud, crowd behaviorsociology--Durkheim and Webercriminology--Lombroso

"new woman"--intell., sexual, strong, and liberatedtechnology and consumption--leisure, spending, sports, Eiffel Tower

Imperialismirony: height of Europe's power, imperialism led to increased comp., rivalry, and war that would end its dominance

New Imperialismgrander scalefrenzied competitiontechnology makes possible--warfare, transport/commun., bureau., canals

MotivesStrategic (bases--Philippines, minerals--South Africa)Self-suffiency (not rely on other competitors)Missionary (Livingston, but then comes Stanley--on-the-make)Investment of surplus capital (crisis of overproduction, boom/bust)Nationalism (jingoism, yellow journalism, prestige--Italy, Germany)Need for New Markets (China)Outlet for surplus populations (Australia)White Man's Burden (Kipling, justification)

question: which was most important?The Scramble

NOTE: Africa was tribal (destroy), Asia hierarchical (plug in)Africa

90% by 1914missionaries first, then have to protectexpand slave posts to interiorLeopold II and Belgian Congo (personal fiefdom)Berlin Conference (1884) and Berlin Act (1885)Fashoda

AsiaChina

Opium Wars (1839-42) and Treaty of Nankingextraterritorialitysphere of influence and Open DoorTaiping and Boxer Rebellions

India, JapanConflicts

Boer War (1899-1902)diamonds and goldCape to Cairo RR (Cecil Rhodes)

Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911)--Germany challenges Francefear of GermanyAnglo-French alliance

Sino-Japanese War (1894)Russo-Japanese War (1905)

Impactworld economy, dep. on tradetheories of superiority and racismmaternal role of women (to breed sons), eugenicsenvironment--disease, tribal cultures destroyednew contenders--Japan, U.S.

CritiquesHobson (need more distrib. at home)Lenin--last phase of dying capitalism

European BOPdeclining--Aust., Russia, Ottomansthreatening--Germanyfearful--Francealoof--Great Britain

World War Iimpact: rearrange BOP, alienation, discredit elites, econ. disruption, political/diplomatic crisis, demography, 4 empires gone

Causesalliances

Bismarck's diplomacyThree Emperors' League (1873)Reinsurance Treaty w/RussiaDual Alliance, Triple Allianceisolate France, prevent encirclement

aggressive Kaiser Wilhelm IIAnglo-French rapprochement, Russian-French, Anglo-RussianTriple Entente (weaker members drag in stronger)

nationalismarms race, military plans, mobilizationimperial rivalriespsychological--relief from crisis

TriggerBalkan crises

1878 Congress of Berlin (indep. of Rom./Bulg/Serbia)1908--Aust. annexes Bosnia, Russians back down1912--Italy and Ottomans1913--Serbia and Bulgaria, Aust. creates Albania

A-H situation and reformer Franz Ferd. assass."the blank check" and Russian mobilization

War Europe GotSchieffen Plantechnology and killing

barbed wire, machine gun, poison gas, airplane, tanks, subs, trenchesBattle of Marne, Verdun, Somme

Eastern Front and Russian weakness (7M casualties by 1916)Gallipoli and Middle East (Lawrence)Turning Point

1917--Russia out, exhaustion, French strikes/mutiniesU.S. intervention

isolation (divided ethnically)violations of neutrality (Lusitania, Sussex pledge)unrestricted submarine warfare (little trade w/Germ.)

"over there"AEF and Pershing, German's final offensive

Total Warmobilization

women (5M in G.B. by end of war)bureaucracy expands (Rathenau in Germ.--state monopolies)

propagandarationing (sawdust bread in Germany)censorship (Schenck case)

Treaty of VersaillesFourteen Points and Wilson (idealist)French goals (Clemenceau--"the tiger" realistsettlement

boundaries--A-L to Fr., Poland, E. Europe (problems)war guilt--Article 231 and "stab in the back" (Kaiser gone)reparations--settled later at $33 billiondemilitarization--100,000, no navy/air force, Rhineland, SaarLeague of Nations--U.S. Senate rejects, Germ/Russ. not in

Russian Revolution/Soviet Development

theme: Russia's need to modernize but maintain autocratic government to prevent social chaos in vast, diverse, pol. inexperienced nation

Backgroundneed to reform--Peter the Great, Catherine, Alex. IIreactionaries--Nich II., Alex. III, Nich. IIindustrialization

Count Witte--gold standard, heavy industry, still only in pocketsopposition by peasantry

RussificationAlex. II assass.--rev. groups bent on destruction, only way to operatepol. groups--SRs, SDs (Bolsheviks/Mensheviks), Kadets

Rev. of 1905Russo-Japanese War (strikes, pol. discontent)Bloody Sunday and October ManifestoDuma and Stolypin reforms

World War IRussian weakness--casualties, econ. breakdowngovt. incompetence--Rasputin, Nich. II at frontFeb. 1917 Rev.--Prov. Govt (Lvov, Kerensky)

Revolutionorganization is key--Bolsheviks

"peace, bread, land"; "all power to soviets!" Petrograd soviet--dual govt.

mistakes/problemsJuly DaysKornilov rebellioncontinue war

Bolsh. Rev.--Nov. 1917Trotsky and Leninredist. land, end war (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk--heavy losses)

Consolidationannul electionsRed Terrorredist. landCivil War (1918-22)--war communism, Western aid for Whites, faminestructure of government

parallelism of party and statedemocratic centralism--Politburo and Central Committeenationalities--USSR formed in 1922

StalinNew Economic Policythe man and rise to power--controlled party machinery, ruthless

killed opponents--Trotsky, Bukharin, Zinoviev"socialism in one country"

Five-Year Plans and Gosplan (Stakhanov)collectivization of agri. and kulaksaccomplishments and caveatsrole of women--legal equality but sacrificed by state interests

Great PurgesBeria assassinated (1934)show trials

International CommunismCominternalliances with parties across Europe

Crisis of Europe--Interwartheme: democ. fight for survival w/economic breakdown, challenge by fascism & communism; resentment of postwar settlement leads to conflict/lack of coop.

Postwar settlementE. Europe

not unified internally/nationality problemsunderdeveloped indust. baselittle experience w/democ.

U.S.withdraw from pol/dipl. after Versaillesonly nation able to lead--refuses to narrow pursuit of econ. interests

FranceMaginot LineE. European allies/G.B. and U.S. fail to guarantee

Germany--a stung bear, still strong (demographics)weakness of Weimar Republic (Gustav Stresemann)

Economic Nationalism and DiplomacyTreaty of Rappallo (1922)--Germany/Russia to avoid isolationinvasion of Ruhr (1923)

outcry against Frenchpassive resistance and hyperinflation

econ. problemsreparations

drained German economycaused currency fluctuationscreated circular flow of capital (dep. on U.S.)

trade--needed to pay off reparations/debt, yet tariffs (esp. by U.S.)low commodity pricesdisrupted markets (colonies advance)currencies--devalued

Locarno Pact (1925)--spirit of compromise at mid-decadeKellogg-Briand Pact (1928)--no political commitment

Fascismideology

glorification of state, leader, militarismstruggle among nations (based on race)anti-democ., anti-comm., anti-modern

Italy--at end of WWI, MussoliniMussolini and March on Romeconsolidation of power

corporate state/deal w/ industrialistsBlack Shirts/SquadristiMatteoti incidentConcordat w/Church (Lateran Treaty)

WeimarHitler--Beer Hall putsch, Mein Kampf (anti-Semitism, Lebensraum)breakdown by 1930

Cultural Experimentation"Lost Generation"--alienation amid noise of funphysics--Einstein and Heisenbergfunctionalist architecture (Bauhaus)dadaismliterature--James Joyce, Brecht (Threepenny Opera), Virginia Woolffilm, radio, jazz, promiscuity (Cabaret and Berlin)

Great Depression--stock market crash, bank failures, unemployment, tariffs

World War IIfocus: caused by unresolved issues of WWI, belief in state power, econ. collapse, Hitler's policies; most costly in history, technology

Totalitarianism (only 5 democ. of 40 nations)Soviet Union--successful model of econ. development (appeal of Comm.)Italy

"trains run on time"stagnation, so invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 (weak League response)

Nazi Germanylegality strategy--H. appt. by Pres. Hindenberg, Brownshirtsrearm, recover, Lebensraumautarky (prepare for war), corporate statesocial/pol policies

Hitler Youthwomen rolepolice state, censorship

manip. of masses--rallies, prop.racism--euthanasia, Nuremburg Laws, Kristallnacht

Democracies--ineffective response to DepressionGreat Britain

National Government--off gold standard, tariffsFrance--failed Popular Front of Leon Blum

malaise and Maginot mentalitySpain

trad. elements/Falange attack Republicans Nationalists and Francobecomes continental war (USSR v. fascism)democracies too weak

Way to Warwithdraw from League (1935)remilitarize Rhineland (1936)annex Austria (1938)Sudetenland and Munich--appeasementPrague (1939)--stiffen public opinionNazi-Soviet Pact and Poland (1939)

Course of WarStage One--Nazi control

Poland, Norway, Denmark, Benelux, France (sitzkrieg)turning point--Battle of Britain (RAF v. Luftwaffe, Churchill)

Stage Two--Hitler's mistakesinvasion of USSR (Stalingrad, Leningrad)U.S. and Japan (Midway)El Alamein

Stage Three--closing ringD-DayRussian advance in Great Patriotic Warisland-hopping in Pacific atomic bomb

Holocauststages: restriction of rights, expulsion/ghettoes, exterminationinvasion of USSRWannsee Conf.--decision to use resources for killing of Jewsdeath camps and who knew

Wartime ConferencesTeheran (1943)Yalta, Potsdam (1945)--trouble on the horizon

The Cold War theme: Europe caught between superpowers recovers through unity; interests; social changes reflect challenge of the war

Causes of Cold WarU.S. atomic policy (USSR gets in 1949)Soviet need for securityideological conflict

Areas of conflictYalta and Potsdam--what was agreed toGermany

different plans/visionscurrency reform and Western unif. of zonesBerlin blockade and airliftBerlin Wall--1961

containmentGreece and Turkey, Korea--Truman Doctrine, NSC-68

E. Europe: Poland and elections, Czech. coup in 1948arms raceCuban missile crisis (1963)---peaceful coexistence

decolonizationcomp. models: British (India/Commonwealth), Dutch (Indonesia)France--Indochina and AlgeriaAfrica by 1961

Reconstruction and RecoveryEurope in ruins (buildings, cities, transport, factories gone; DPs)Marshall Plan (U.S. motives, USSR view and response)economic miracle

new econ. theories--J.M KeynesBeveridge report and British problems

European integrationEuropean Coal and Steel Community (1951)--inner sixTreaty of Rome (1957)--EEC1992 and difficulties

Postwar governmentsWestern Europe (first: coalitions, then breakdown)

Christian Democrats (Gaspari, Adenauer)France and Fourth Republic, Fifth Republic

E. Europe (Stalinization model: heavy indust., collect. agri., repression)recovery but benefit to USSR

Welfare State and Youth Cultureconsumerism and U.S. influenceWestern Europe

Germany more laissez-faireold age, illness, unemployment, accident, etc.--securitypronatalism--France and G.B. policies toward women/family

E. Europeprovide basics but few consumer goods

youth culture and protest--sex and drugs and rock 'n rollwomen's liberatoin--de Beauvoir and Frieden, birth controlprotests of 1968--in U.S. also (Berkeley Free Speech in 1964)

motives--critique of consumer society, Finding Autonomy

E. Europe--de-Stalin. (Hungary--1956, Czech.--1968, Poland--1956, 1980)Yugoslavia

W. Europe (Gaullism--third force, force de frappe; Ostpolitik--Treaty of Moscow, Helsinki accord