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APPROVAL SHEET

Complete report of General Biology Experiment with title “Heredity”

arranged by:

Name : Hikmawati

ID : 1112040178

Class/Group : ICP of physics / I

After checked and consulted by Assistant and Assistant Coordinator, so it was

accepted.

Makassar,November 2011Assistant Coordinator, Assistant,

(Djumarirmanto, S.Pd) ( Asniati Samad ) ID: 091404153

Known by ,

Lecturer Responsibility,

(Dr. Ir. Muh. Wiharto Caronge, M.Si)ID. 19660930 199203 1 004

CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION

A. Background

Have you ever thought why you have straight hair like dad's hair, and

curly hair like a mother instead? Or maybe you also observe that most cats that

have three color-sex female, why. Such things as above relating to heredity or

inheritance from parent to child through genes. This inheritance was to follow a

certain pattern. What if the pattern was not followed? Whether it will mislead

abnormalities or defects in individual?. You can find out the answer in this lab

that talks about immortality.

Heredity means the reduction of genetic traits from parent to child. The

science which deals with heredity is called genetics. Theory of inheritance or the

laws of heredity was first coined by Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), son of

a small farmer in North Moravia. Mendel argued that the properties can be

passed down from generation to generation through the deciding factor. At the

time of the opinion he recognized the truth, he is dead. That's because at the time

of publication of books that make his opinion in 1886, the world of science has

not been able to show the shape and arrangement of the nature of heredity which

Mendel referred to as the deciding factor. Through heredity, variations exhibited

by individuals can accumulate and cause a species to evolve. The study of

heredity in biology is called genetics, which includes the field of epigenetics.

In this experiment we will compare the physical characteristics of a

person with a group of friends, or with classmates. Judging from the dimple chin

or not, the child leaves the ears that hang or stick, whether the form of the left

little finger shoved into it or not, whether or not hair jutted jutting forehead, the

hair on the finger or not, the presence of dimples or not, whether the tongue can

be rolled lengthwise or can not be rolled up lengthwise, and whether he has the

upper incisors are gaps or no gaps. So, by means this experiment we hope, we

know what our friends characteristic, and their genotype.

B. Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to prove the comparing of genotype

and phenotype from Mendel’s law and fundamental genotype for several

characteristic of human heredity.

C. Benefit

According to the purpose above the benefit of this experiment is the

student of university able to prove the comparing of genotype and phenotype

from Mendel’s law and fundamental genotype for several characteristic of

human heredity.

CHAPTER IIPREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity or variation.

Hereditary units that are transmitted from one generation to the next (ie inherited) are

called genes. gene is located in long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

present in all cells . DNA together with a matrix of proteins, forming a nucleoprotein

and organized into structures called chromosomes that are found in the nucleus or the

cell nucleus. A gene contains the code information for protein production. Normally

DNA is a stable molecule with the capacity to perform its own application (Fried and

Hademenos, 2000).

According to Tim Pengajar (2011), in the inheritance of properties or crosses,

there are principles that we have to remember are:

1. Genes that play a role in regulating and determining the nature of the given

symbols letters

2. Dominant gene that is expressed in capital letters.

Recessive gene that is expressed primarily to lower case, for example, genes

that determine the nature of the short stem is written with the letter "t". Thus, it can

be interpreted that the high-dominant stem loss of credit for short rod, short rod and

vice versa recessive to stem height. In humans and vertebrate animals, the union of

sperm and ovum, each of which are haploid (n) will form a zygote. Zygotes grow and

develop into individuals who are diploid (2n), so that individual properties are

represented by two letters. (Tim Pengajar, 2011).

Each chromosome contains many genes. End since each chromosome is

paired the genes residing on homologous chromosome are also paired. One gene of

each pair is inherited from each parent. Normally, each member of a gene pair

occupies the same locus or position on the homologous chromosome. Most genes we

recognize come in the list two and sometimes three or more alternative alleles. Of

course normal individuals never possess more than two alleles of any given genes,

because they have only two of each kind of chromosome. An individual is said to be

homozygous for a particular trait if determining gene pair consist of identical genes.

It’s the genes of a pair is different alleles, the individual is said to be heterozygous

for that trait (Stanley, 1984).

Often one allele of a one masks the expression of another allele of the gene.

This is the phenomenon of dominance. The gene that is expressed is said to be

dominant to the other recessive allele. If one gene result in the production of enough

enzyme to make sufficient product it matters little whether the allele on the other

chromosome codes for this functional enzyme or for a useless protein (Stanley,

1984).

The genes for certain traits are passed down in families from parents to

children. This has been known for thousands of years--even in Biblical times--and

has allowed farmers to breed better crops and animals. For example, parents with

black hair will likely give birth to children with black hair, just as parents with long

noses will have kids with long noses. Once in awhile, though, this doesn’t work and

parents with black hair will give birth to a blond. This discrepancy can be explained

by the principle of segregation, first noted by Austrian monk Gregor Mendel over

100 years ago. The principle has three parts: The genes for certain traits are passed

down in families from parents to children. This has been known for thousands of

years--even in Biblical times--and has allowed farmers to breed better crops and

animals. For example, parents with black hair will likely give birth to children with

black hair, just as parents with long noses will have kids with long noses. Once in

awhile, though, this doesn’t work and parents with black hair will give birth to a

blond. This discrepancy can be explained by the principle of segregation, first noted

by Austrian monk Gregor Mendel over 100 years ago. The principle has three parts:

Hereditary traits are determined by specific genes, Individuals carry two genes for

each trait, one from the mother’s egg and one from the father’s sperm, andWhen an

individual reproduces, the two genes split up (segregate) and end up in separate

gametes (Anonymousa, 2011).

According to Anonymousa (2011), The principle of segregation applies to all

organisms, including humans :

1. Hereditary traits are determined by specific genes. Within the DNA molecule,

genes exist that specify a certain, single characteristic; there is a gene for height, a

gene for weight, and a gene for eye color, etc. Variations of the gene relating to

the same trait are called alleles.

2. Individuals carry two genes for each trait, one from the mother’s egg and one from

the father’s sperm. One of these two genes is dominant over the other. The

dominant allele will mask the other, called the recessive allele. For example, if the

father gives a tall allele of the height gene, and the mother gives a short allele, the

offspring will be tall. This is because tall is dominant and short is recessive.

The British mathematician/biologist R.C. Punnett devised a method of

picturing this concept on a graph called a Punnett Square. Punnett Squares graph the

father’s genotype (the genetic information concerned with a specific trait: for

example, two alleles for tall, or two for short, or one for each) crossed with the

mother’s. Punnett Squares show the probability of having children who have a

certain trait (Anonymousa, 2011).

When only one trait is a Punnett Square is graphed, it is called a monohybrid cross.

But when two or more traits are graphed, it’s called a dihybrid cross. This illustrates

the law of Independent Assortment, meaning that one trait doesn’t affect another. In

other words, having red hair has nothing to do with also having bad eyesight. The

genes are independent of each other.

Sometimes two genes will be co-dominant that is, neither masks the other. In

this case, both genes will show. An example is skin color: the child of dark-skinned

and fair-skinned parents will be a mixture of the two. Breeding red geraniums with

white geraniums gives you pink flowers. When an individual reproduces, the two

genes split up (segregate) and end up in different gametes. This is explained by the

process called meiosis. Meiosis is like mitosis (normal cell division), but instead

produces sex cells (gametes: sperm and egg). Sex cells have only 23 chromosomes

(called a haploid, meaning “one set”), instead of 46 (called a diploid, meaning “two

sets”) so that when fertilization occurs, a new cell with 46 chromosomes will form.

For example, when a sperm with 23 chromosomes unites with an egg with 23

chromosomes, the cell they form will have 46. In meiosis, the cell divides normally

(as in mitosis) after copying its chromosomes. The chromosomes also undergo

crossing-over. When the chromosomes pair up, sometimes they will switch genetic

data. This ensures that the genes from both parents will be present. Immediately after

dividing, it divides again, this time without copying the chromosomes. This creates

four sex cells, where only one existed before, each with only 23 chromosomes

(Anonymousa, 2011).

According to Anonymousb(2011), leaders laid the basic principles of genetics

was a monk Gregor Johan Mendell and plant investigators Austrian nationality. In

1866 Mendell reported the results of investigations over the years on peas / pea

(Pisum sativum). To study the properties of peas decreased Mendell uses the

following reasons:

- Has a pair of flashy nature

- Can perform self-pollinating

- Soon produce offspring or short lived

- Able to produce many offspring, and

- Easily crossed

The first Mendell law also known as the Law of Segregation states: 'the

formation of gametes which is the second gene pairs will be separated into two

daughter cells'. This law applies to monohybrid crosses (single crosses with different

properties). Examples of applied Law Mendell I was with dominance monohybrid

crosses. Crosses with dominance is a cross of a different nature in which one trait is

more powerful than other trait. Robust nature of so-called dominant trait and is

covered, while the weak / closed is called a recessive trait (Anonymousb, 2011).

CHAPTER IIIOBSERVATION METHOD

A. Time and Place

1. Day/Date : Thursday / 8th December 2011

2. Time : at 1:20 pm - 3:00 pm

3. Place : Biology Laboratory at 3rd floor, Biology Department of

Makassar State University

B. Tool and Material

1. Tool

a) Phenotype list

2. Material

a) Probandus

C. Work Procedure

1. Looked into the phenotype of each heredity characteristic that there is of list

phenotype in our self. If couldn’t deal please got help to friend in your

group. Then, recorded the result to table form

2. If they have phenotype was dominant, so gave the sign (-) for the second

gene.

3. Recorded and observed the characteristic of friends for the other group and

calculated its presentation.

CHAPTER IVRESULT AND DISCUSSION

A. Observation Result

Privacy/self data

a. Dimple of chin : dd

b. Free ear lobes : EE

c. Left thumb on the upper : FF

d. Pinkie manipulate into : bb

e. Widow’s peak : ww

f. Hairs at the finger : mm

g. Dimple of cheek : pp

h. Furl length tongue : LL

i. Gap on the upper incisor : gg

2. Group Data

NAMEA B C D E F G H I

D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R

HIKMAWATI  +  +   +      +     +    +   +   +      +

A. ADHA LESTARI A

   +  +    +      +    +  +      +      +

NURHIDAYAH   +  +     +   +      +  +       +     +

RAHMAT SABIRIN

  +   +   +    +    +  +  +      +    +

MUH. IHSANUL A

   +    +   +     +    +  +        +    +

3. Class Data

GROUPNAME

A B C D E F G H I

D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R D R

I 0 5 3 2 4 1 1 4 0 5 4 1 1 4 2 3 0 5

II 0 4 2 2 1 3 3 1 0 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 4

III 0 4 0 4 3 1 4 0 2 2 4 0 0 4 3 1 2 2

IV 0 5 2 3 1 4 3 2 0 5 5 0 1 4 4 1 0 5

V 0 5 2 3 1 4 5 0 4 1 5 0 1 4 4 1 1 4

VI 0 3 1 2 3 0 1 2 0 3 3 0 0 3 1 2 1 2

VII 0 5 4 1 3 2 3 2 2 3 5 0 0 5 3 2 1 4

SUM 0 3 14 1 1 15 2 1 8 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 5 26

B. Data Analysis

1. Group Data

Equalization

% Dominant = Σ dominant of groupΣ member of group

x 100 %

% Recessive = Σ resesif of group

Σ member of group x 100 %

a) Dimple of chin

% Dominant (D) = 05

x 100 % = 0 %

% Recessive (d) = 55

x 100 % = 100 %

b) Free ear lobes

% Dominant (E) = 35

x 100 % = 60 %

% Recessive (e) = 25

x 100 % = 40 %

c) Left thumb on the upper

% Dominant (F) = 45

x 100 % = 80 %

% Recessive (f) = 15

x 100 % = 20 %

d) Pinkie manipulate into

% Dominant (B) = 15

x 100 % = 20 %

% Recessive (b) = 45

x 100 % = 80 %

e) Widow’s peak

% Dominant (W) = 05

x 100 % = 0 %

% Recessive (w) = 55

x 100 % = 100 %

f) Hairs at the finger

% Dominant (M) = 45

x 100 % = 80 %

% Recessive (m) = 15

x 100 % = 20 %

g) Dimple of cheek

% Dominant (P) = 15

x 100 % = 20 %

% Recessive (p) = 45

x 100 % = 80 %

h) Furl length tongue

% Dominant (L) = 25

x 100 % = 40 %

% Recessive (l) = 35

x 100 % = 60 %

i) Gap on the upper incisor

% Dominant (G) = 05

x 100 % = 0 %

% Recessive (g) = 55

x 100 % = 100 %

2. Class Data

Equalization

% Dominant = Σ dominant of classΣ member of class

x 100 %

% Recessive = Σ resesif of class

Σ member of class x 100 %

a) Dimple of chin

% Dominant (D) = 0

31 x 100 % = 0 %

% Recessive (d) = 3131

x 100 % = 100 %

b) Free ear lobes

% Dominant (E) = 1431

x 100 % = 45.2 %

% Recessive (e) = 1731

x 100 % = 54.8 %

c) Left thumb on the upper

% Dominant (F) = 1631

x 100 % = 51.6 %

% Recessive (f) = 1531

x 100 % = 48.4 %

d) Pinkie manipulate into

% Dominant (B) = 2031

x 100 % = 64.5 %

% Recessive (b) = 1131

x 100 % = 35.5 %

e) Widow’s peak

% Dominant (W) = 8

31 x 100 % = 25.8 %

% Recessive (w) = 2331

x 100 % = 74.2 %

f) Hair at the finger

% Dominant (M) = 3031

x 100 % = 96.7 %

% Recessive (m) = 1

31 x 100 % = 3.3 %

g) Dimple of cheek

% Dominant (P) = 3

31 x 100 % = 10%

% Recessive (p) = 2831

x 100 % = 90 %

h) Furl length tongue

% Dominant (L) = 2131

x 100 % = 67.7%

% Recessive (l) = 1031

x 100 % = 32.3%

i) Gap on the upper incisor

% Dominant (G) = 531

x 100 % = 16.1 %

% Recessive (g) = 2631

x 100 % = 83.9 %

C. Discussion

1. Privacy/self data

From the observation we get that, I didn’t have or recessive dimple of chin,

pinkie manipulate into, widow’s peak, hairs at the finger, dimple of cheek,

and Gap on the upper incisor. But I dominant in free ear lobes left thumb

on the upper, and furl length tongue. All of that characteristic are the

characteristic queath by my parents.

2. At group data analyze

Based on the observation above, we have gotten:

a) Dominant percentage of chin dimple is 0%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of chin mortar is 100%. It’s mean that there are have not

dimple of chin in this group. The phenotype is 0 : 5. It is relatively

because the participant has a difference parents.

b) Dominant percentage of free ear lobes is 60%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of ear hanging is 40%. It’s mean the ear hanging in this

group is smaller than adhere ear. The phenotype is 3 : 2. It is relatively

because the participant has a difference parents.

c) Dominant percentage of left thumb on he upper is 80 %, meanwhile

recessive percentage of the upper left hand thumb is 20 %. It’s mean

that upper left hand thumb in this group is more than upper right hand

thumb. The phenotype is 4 : 1. It is relatively because the participant

has a difference parents too.

d) Dominant percentage of pinkie manipulate into is 20 %, meanwhile

recessive percentage of pinkie manipulate into is 80%. It’s mean that

phalanx of little finger that manipulate into in this group is smaller than

phalanx of little finger that manipulate out. The phenotype is 1 : 4. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

e) Dominant percentage of widow’s peak is 0%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of sordid forehead hair is 100%. It’s mean that most of our

group doesn’t have the widow’s peak. The phenotype is 0 : 5. Still

remember It is relatively because the participant has a difference

parents.

f) Dominant percentage of hair at finger is 80%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of hair at finger is 20%. %. It’s mean that hair at the finger

in this group is smaller than no hair at the finger. The phenotype is 4 : 1.

It is relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

g) Dominant percentage of cheek dimple is 20%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of cheek mortar is 80%. It’s mean that cheek mortar in this

group is smaller than cheek less mortar. The phenotype is 1 : 4. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

h) Dominant percentage of furl length tongue is 40%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of furl length tongue is 60%. It’s mean that furl length

tongue in this group is more than unfurl length tongue. The phenotype

is 2 : 3. It is relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

i) Dominant percentage of gap incisor is 0%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of gap incisor is 100%. It’s mean that all member of this

group have gap incisor in this group. The phenotype is 0 : 5. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

3. At class data analyze

According to observation that we have done, we got that:

a) Dominant percentage of chin dimple is 0%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of chin mortar is 100 %. Its mean that all people in this class

doesn’t have he dimple of chin. The phenotype is 0 : 31. It is relatively

depend of their parents.

b) Dominant percentage of free ear lobes is 45.2 %, meanwhile recessive

percentage of ear hanging is 54.8 %. It’s mean the ear hanging in this

class is smaller than adhere ear. The phenotype is 14 : 17. It is relatively

because the participant has a difference parents.

c) Dominant percentage of the upper left thumb is 51.6 %, meanwhile

recessive percentage of the upper left hand thumb is 48.4 %. It’s mean

that upper left hand thumb in this group is more than upper right hand

thumb. The phenotype is 16 : 15. It is relatively because the participant

has a difference parents.

d) Dominant percentage of pinkie manipulate into is 64.5 %, meanwhile

recessive percentage of pinkie manipulate out is 35.5%. It’s mean that

pinkie of left finger that manipulate into in this class is smaller than

pinkie of left finger that manipulate out. The phenotype is 20 : 11. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

e) Dominant percentage of widow’s peak is 25.8 %, meanwhile recessive

percentage of widow’s peak is 74.2 %. It’s mean that widow’s peak is

smaller than less of widow’s peak. The phenotype is 8 : 23. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

f) Dominant percentage of hair at finger is 96.7 %, meanwhile recessive

percentage of hair at finger is 3.3 %. It’s mean that hair at finger in this

class average is have hair at the finger. The phenotype is 30 : 1. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

g) Dominant percentage of cheek dimple is 10%, meanwhile recessive

percentage of cheek mortar is 90 %. It’s mean that cheek mortar in this

class is smaller than cheek less mortar .The phenotype is 3 : 28. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

h) Dominant percentage of furl length tongue is 67.7 %, meanwhile

recessive percentage of furl length tongue is 32.3 %. It’s mean that furl

length tongue in this class is more than unfurl length tongue. The

phenotype is 21 : 10. It is relatively because the participant has a

difference parents.

i) Dominant percentage of gap incisor is 16.1 %, meanwhile recessive

percentage of gap incisor is 83.9 %. It’s mean that gap incisor in this

group is smaller than gapless incisor. The phenotype is 5 : 26. It is

relatively because the participant has a difference parents.

CHAPTER VCONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion

According the purpose and the experiment that we have done we can

conclude that every character appears in living organisms is controlled by

hereditary factors called genes. Every organism has different phenotypes

according to their nature-derived immortal by its parents.

B. Suggestion

1) To the laboratory, there are so many equipments that is unorganized and also

begin dirty, like the box of human structure. So, all the better to redecorate

the laboratory, especially about the position of equipments.

2) To the assistant, assistant as a facilitator in this experiment, better to look at

our activities in the laboratory and surely to facilitate us.

3) To the apprentices, be a good apprentice, don’t make any noise, and optimally

this experiment by the beautiful in cooperation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anonymousa. 2011. http://library.thinkquest.org/28599/heredity.htm. Accessed on

Wednesday 14th 2011 at 08:00 pm

Anonymousb. 2011. http://biologimediacentre.com/genetika-hukum-mendel/.

Accessed on Wednesday 14th 2011 at 08:20 pm

Fried and Hademenos. 2000. Teori dan Soal-soal Biologi Edisi Kedua. Jakarta : Erlangga

Stanley, Melissa, dkk. 1984. Living an Introduction To Biology. California : Addison-wesley

Tim Pengajar. 2011. Penuntun Praktikum Biology Dasar. Makassar : FMIPA UNM