Dr. Anna-Maria Balbach Institute of German Studies Department of Linguistics University of Münster, Germany E-Mail: [email protected] LaKisha, Tamika, DeShawn, and Anan Linguisc Strategies of Culral Reconstrucon in Today’s African-American First Name Pracces “ In the hands of the earlier slave traders, slaves seem to have been simply merchandise en masse, not distinguished by individal names. ” (PUCKETT 1975: 472) The beginning of the African-American naming history is nameless. Slaves are not registered with names, but as “one negar”18 or “2 negro boys 14 years old a piece”13. » Only names of 65 slaves have been preserved. » Mainly Christian Spanish and English names, few African names. John Francisco Joseph Couchazello Andrew Figure 1: Slave names. Size represents frequency. “ Free Blacks eschewed the most frequently used names of their slave brothers. ” (PUCKETT 1975: 10) Names of slaves and “free Blacks” show a strong orientation towards the Anglo-American names – African and Spanish influences diminish. But there are differences between names of slaves and free Blacks: » Slave names are temporary: new owner = new name. » Free Blacks avoid the most common slave names. » Slaves: short or mocking names ( Cato, Caesar, Jupiter). » 40% of slave names, 30% of free Blacks’ names are unusual (old fashioned, inappropriate). Jack 5,9% Tom 4,8% Harry 3,5% Sam 3,1% Will 2,4% Caesar 2,2% Dick 2,1% Peter 2,1% John 1,9% Robin 1,9% 4,3% John 3,9% James 3,7% George 3,7% Sam 3,6% William 3,4% Peter 2,9% Dick 2,8% Jacob 2,6% Jack 2,6% Tom 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bet 6,3% Mary 3,6% Jane 3,0% Hannah 2,7% Betty 2,5% Sarah 2,5% Phillis 2,3% Nan 2,2% Peg 2,0% Sary 2,0% 5,9% Sarah 4,7% Hannah 4,7% Rachael 3,0% Bet(t) 3,0% Mary 3,0% Phillis 2,5% Jane 2,0% Ann 2,0% Elizabeth 2,0% Nancy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Figure 2: Top 10 names of slaves and free Blacks. “ Free Blacks tend to employ names with sound patterns less staccato and names more dignified and elevated than those employed by, or foisted upon, their slave contemporaries. ” (PUCKETT 1975: 45) Short, mocking, and other typical slave names become less frequent; free Blacks completely avoid them. Therefore, unusual names significantly decrease, to 26% (slaves) and 18% (free Blacks). » Biblical and saints’ names are most common. » Female names become more diverse (flowers, literature, antiquity). 52% identical names 52% identical names 32% identical names 88% identical names 18th Century 19th Century Free Blacks Slaves Whites Whites ↓ ↓ Figure 3: Progress of assimilation of male first names. “ The strongest tradition among Blacks at the present time is the giving of completely original names. ” (BlaCK 1996: 109) » Striking feature of African-American names: huge diversity and uniqueness.12 , 28 , 6 » Orientation to African naming practices. » Diversity and uniqueness increased after 1970 (Civil Rights Movement), still does until today.21 , 26 , 5 » In 2000: 44% of African-American names are newly coined, mostly female names. Shaniqua LaKeisha Laqueta Makayla Tanisha Zarita Kimani Alysha Jayla Ayana Tiana Figure 4: Popular female African-American names. 1. Name creation by certain morphological patterns Affixation » Most frequent morphological name pattern. » Used since 19 th century, very popular after 1970.23 , 21 » Affixation for word and name creation is inspired by African languages. Suffixation » Female suffixes: -ika, -etta, -onda, -sha. » Male suffixes: -el/ell, -on/onn, -ett, -ess. -sha Lakeysha Tamisha Kerisha Kiesha Latesha Tyhisha Crishell Mandell Devell Remell Carnell Marshell -ell Figure 5: Examples of name creation by suffixation. Prefixation » Female prefixes: La-, Lo-, Le-, Lu-, Da-, Ra-. » Male prefixes: De-, Da-, Te-, Ta-, Ke-, Ka-, Na-. Lacinda Latasha LaKeysha Ladora LaVonda Latonda La- Deshawn Deonte Deroy D’Shawn De- Delane Deandre Figure 6: Examples of name creation by prefixation. Name Variation by Affixation Combination of a name with a pre- or suffix.14 Shawnak Shawney Shawnti Shawnel Rashawn DeShawn DaShawn Leshawn Shawn Keyshawn Quashawn Shawnee Shawntel Shawntaye Lashawn Figure 7: Variation of the name Shawn by affixation. Blends Two established names blend to a new name: Marsh a + Michelle= Marshelle Maxi ne + Lucille = Maxille Consonant change and addition An established name is altered by exchanging or adding a consonant: Beatrice Deatrice Yvonne Dvonne Eva → Neva → → 2. Gender-Indicating Endings Female Anglo-American names often end in the vowel -a, male names end in consonants. Although in African languages, male names can also end in -a,27 , 17 newly created African-American male names follow the Anglo-American rules to indicate gender and end in consonants. 3. Stress and Sounds Creating exotic sounds by pronunciation » Anglo-American names: stressed on the first syllable, e.g. Tiffany [ ̍tıfɘnˌi]. » African-American names: stressed on the second syllable, e.g. [tıf ̍ʌ:ni]. Creating exotic sounds by spelling Antwon Anton Tiffonee Tiffany Shawn Sean Different sound structures: » Based on African sounds: “sha, ka, kwa, ki” and “t”.21 » Scrabble score method: African-American names have higher scrabble scores. Score: 18 Score: 8 Over 400 years of multifaceted African- American naming history begins nameless, continues with Spanish and English names, turns to short, mocking, and unusual names. Then it completely assimilates to the Anglo- American naming system and finally resolves with distinctive name practices of unique und creative names. The new creations use various linguistic strategies from African and Anglo-American languages. In a rule-governed linguistic way, African-American names reconstruct African culture and reconcile it with American culture: they are true African and American names. Today’s African-American names differ strongly from the Anglo-American names. But in what way and why do they differ? What are the linguistic features and how did the naming practices develop? This study offers a historical and linguistic approach to answer these questions. First, we trace African-American naming history to highlight external influences and social change to which the first names reacted. Second, we investigate the linguistic strategies of the invented African-American first names. Name data were collected from historical documents, modern census registers, and different studies23 , 17 , 10. 17 th Century Assimilation to the new habitation – English or Spanish Christian names predominate. 18 th Century Further assimilation to Anglo-American naming practices – differences between slave and free Blacks’ names. 19 th Century (until 1865) High similarity to Anglo-American names, male names even more so than female names 19 th /20 th Century (from 1865) Acculturation to Anglo-American names by choice, but male names conform stronger than female names. 20 th /21 st Century Newly created names: Diversity and uniqueness Naming History Research Questions Data and Methods Linguistic Strategies Conclusion “ After the coming of freedom all the people were agreed: that they must change their names. ” (WaSHINGTON 2012: 11) After the abolition of slavery (1865), the opportunity to freely choose a name is “one of the first signs of freedom”:29 Country-wide, former slaves take the chance to choose the same names as Anglo-Americans. » As early as 1877 and for the following 60 years, the top 10 African-American and Anglo-American male names are the same, only the order differs. » The end of slavery means the end of short male names. Therefore, unusual male names decrease to 10% (Anglo-Americans 4%). » In contrast, female African-American names strive for more diversity: even more short names, even more different names, many new names every decade. » Only assimilation to white women’s names: Unusual names become rarer (African-Americans 17% in 1877 to 11% in 1937; Anglo-Americans 10% to 8%). Download Poster and Literature here: