Kripamayee Farms

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Chaudhari Bhushan Anil G I C E D ABM

University of Mumbai

Garware Institute of Career Education and Development

Vidyanagari, Kalina, Santacruz (E) 400 098

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Bhushan A. Chaudhariis a student of ABM second semester in

Garware Institute of Career Education and Development .He has carried out the research

work entitled, A STUDY MODERN AGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOLLOWED BY

KRIPAMAYEE HI-TECH FARM for the duration of the academic session 2010-11.

This research work has been carried out under my administration and is of sufficiently

high standard to authorization its presentation for the examination leading to the Degree of

Agri Business Management at G I C E D Mumbai.

(Prof. Ashok Govande)

Project Guide

G I C E D Mumbai

(Dr. Shirish Patil)

Co-ordinator Director

G I C E D Mumbai G I C E D

Mumbai


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DDEECCLLAARRAATTIIOONN

I hereby declare that this dissertation entitled A STUDY ON MODERN AGRICULTURE

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOLLOWED BY KRIPAMAYEE HI-TECH FARMS.

Is the outcome of my original research work and the same has not been previously

submitted to any examination of this university or any other university. That study shall be

liable to be rejected and / or cancelled if found otherwise.

Date: 15/7/2011

Mr.Bhushan A. Chaudhari

Place:Mumbai ABM 145


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A STUDY ON MODERN AGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES FOLLOWED BY KRIPAMAYEE HI-TECH FARMS.

By

BHUSHAN CHAUDHARI

Summer Internship

PGDABM 2010-2011

Submitted to

KRIPAMAYEE HI-TECH FARM

JUNE-JULY: 2011

CENTRE FOR MANAGEMENT EDUCATION


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GARWARE INSTITUTE OF CAREER EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

MUMBAI

Website: Mu.ac.in/garware

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my gratitude to Kripamayee Hi-tech Farm (Jalgaon) for allowing me to do

my project work in their organisation and enable me to conduct Management practices on

their farm.

I express my sincere thanks to Sri.Subhash Chaudhari, Chairmen and Sri.

A.R.Chaudhari, vice chairmen, Kripamayee Hi-Tech Farms for sparing their invaluable time

to give their useful suggestions during my project work.

I am grateful to my project director Sri. Ashok Govande and Sri. Shirish Patil, Sr.

Faculty Associate for his inspiring guidance, wholehearted interest and critical evaluation

of the work for the successful completion of the project work.

I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Sri.Rambhau Barode, Director of

Garware Institute Of Career Education and Development and other faculty members.

It is a pleasure to me to thank my Parents and other family members whole heartedly

who extended their support in doing this project as well as the course.

Finally, I would like to record my thanks to all my well wishers.

INDEX

Chapter NO Content Page No


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1. INTRODUCTION 6 - 26

2. About group3. Objectives of study4. Proper Management Practices5. I)Soil testing6. II)Tillage operations7. Iii) Bed Preparation8. Iv)Spreading of Mulch paper9. Seed treatment, sowing/transplanting10.Fertigation and Drip irrigation11.Intercultural operations12.Use of Herbicides,Pesticides,Fungicides13.Harvesting and post harvest operations

14.MarketingFindings and suggestions


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1. Introduction15.Croplands offer many opportunities to impose practices that reduce net

emissions of GHGs. In the past century there has been increasing concern to

identify and quantify various forms of agriculture practices. The most common

practice is identified with the term of conventional agriculture. In the past few

decades, a move towards sustainability in agriculture has also developed,

integrating ideas of socio-economic justice and conservation of resources and

the environment within a farming system. This has led to the development of

many responses to the conventional agriculture approach, including

conservation agriculture and organic agriculture among the others in terms of

natural resource and environment conservation.

16.Conservation Agriculture (CA) is an approach to managing agro-ecosystems forimproved and sustained productivity, increased profits and food security while

preserving and enhancing the resource base and the environment. CA is

characterized by three linked principles, namely reduced/no-tillage (continuous

minimum mechanical soil disturbance), cover crops (permanent organic soil

cover), and crop rotation (diversification of crop species grown in sequences or

associations).

17.Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as croprotation, green manure, compost (cover crops) and biological pest control to

maintain soil productivity and control pests on a farm. Organic farming excludes

or strictly limits the use of manufactured fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth

regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and

genetically modified organisms. Organic farming usually involves mechanical

weed control (via cultivating or hoeing) rather than herbicidal weed control.

18.Within the same conventional agriculture is required a further distinctionbetween intensive and extensive agriculture. Regarding the GHG emissions, the

main differences concern with the intensity of use of fertilizers, pesticides and

mechanization. Intensive agriculture is an agricultural production system

characterized by the high inputs of capital, labour, or heavy usage of

technologies such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area. It is

associated with the increasing use of agricultural mechanization, which has

enabled a substantial increase in production, yet has also dramatically increased

environmental pollution by increasing erosion and poisoning water with


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agricultural chemicals. Extensive agriculture (as opposed to intensive farming) is

an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labour, fertilizers,

and capital, relative to the land area being farmed. In order to construct the

business as usual, detailed information on each practice is required. First of all

it is important to have ideas about the extent for a correct evaluation of the

global net emissions.

Sustainable Agriculture: The Basics

Some terms defy definition. "Sustainable agriculture" has become one of them.

In such a quickly changing world, can anything be sustainable? What do we

want to sustain? How can we implement such a nebulous goal? Is it too late?

With the contradictions and questions has come a hard look at our present food

production system and thoughtful evaluations of its future. If nothing else, theterm "sustainable agriculture" has provided "talking points," a sense of

direction, and an urgency, that has sparked much excitement and innovative

thinking in the agricultural world.

The word "sustain," from the Latin sustinere (sus-, from below and tenere, to

hold), to keep in existence or maintain, implies long-term support or

permanence. As it pertains to agriculture, sustainable describes farming systems

that are "capable of maintaining their productivity and usefulness to society

indefinitely. Such systems... must be resource-conserving, socially supportive,

commercially competitive, and environmentally sound." [John Ikerd, as quoted

by Richard Duesterhaus in "Sustainabilitys Promise,"Journal of Soil and WaterConservation (Jan.-Feb. 1990) 45(1): p.4. NAL Call # 56.8 J822]

"Sustainable agriculture" was addressed by Congress in the 1990 "Farm Bill"

[Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (FACTA), Public Law

101-624, Title XVI, Subtitle A, Section 1603 (Government Printing Office,

Washington, DC, 1990) NAL Call # KF1692.A31 1990]. Under that law, "the term

sustainable agriculture means an integrated system of plant and animal

production practices having a site-specific application that will, over the longterm:

y satisfy human food and fiber needs;y enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon

which the agricultural economy depends;

y make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farmresources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles andcontrols;

y sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and


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y Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole."

2. ABOUT KRIPAMAYEE GROUP:

Kripamayee Hi-Tech Farms is a group of farmers from a village for

each other welfare and conducted by farmers under the guidance ofAgriculture Department and Agronomist of different nominated companies

in agriculture sector.

Primary aim of this group is adopt innovations in agriculture and

increased yield. This group generally follows sustainable agricultural

practices for their farms.

Reduce as possible as labour and input cost by using machineries and new

technologies.

Group having Govt. Reg. Also conduct Nursery for self use and selling of

seedlings of various vegetables, fruit crops, Banana Hardening etc.

All farmers belongs this group are co-operative. Use Drip Irrigation

System, Herbicides to reduce time required and labour cost which indirectly

enhance crop yield. Having adequate market facility of New Mumbai, Surat,

Delhi, Indore, Ahmadabad etc.

Whole farmers involve in this group used Micro-irrigation system,

fertigation, tissue culture seedlings, HTP pumps for spraying, micronutrients

as per soil test report and also keep in mind avoiding soil erosion, soil and airpollution etc.

Maximum operations are performed by machines like tillage, spraying,

fertilizer applications etc.

Fruits like Banana(50%), custard apple, lime and vegetables like Brinjal,

Tomato, Chilli, Drumsticks, Bitter guard, Sponge guard, cucumber etc. Are


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certified by MOFF(Maharashtra organic food formation). A farmer having

jiggery (Gul) production is certified by ECO-CERT and export to

Germany. Nursery is waiting for ISO certification.

Remaining details are in detail project.

3. Objectives of study:

-To study overall Farm Management practices.

-To study importance of soil testing.

-To study Nursery management.

-To attained farmers meetings organized by Agri. Dept., Private companies technicians.

-To study seed treatment, sowing/Transplanting methods.

-To share experience with farmers about current market situation.

-To study importance of use of pesticides. Fungicides,Herbicides,Hormones etc.

-To aware a farmers about different markets for specific crops.

-To study post harvest handling of produce like cleaning, grading, packaging, transporting

etc.

-To study cost of cultivation calculated by farmers of each crop.


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4. Proper Management Practices-

i) Soil Testing:

In agriculture, a soil testis the analysis of a soil sample to determine nutrient content,

composition and other characteristics, including contaminants. Tests are usually

performed to measure the expected growth potential of a soil. A Soil test measures fertility,

indicates deficiencies that need to be remedied and determines potential toxicities from

excessive fertility and inhibitions from the presence of non-essential trace minerals. The

test is used to mimic the function of roots to assimilate minerals. The expected rate of

growth is modeled by the Law of the Maximum.

Soil sampling

Labs, such State University, recommend that you take between 10-20 samples for every 40

acres (160,000 m2) of the field. Tap water or chemicals could change the composition of the

soil, and may need to be tested separately.

Soil characteristics can vary significantly from one spot to another, even in a small garden

or field. Taking samples everywhere in the field is crucial to get the most accurate

measurement of nutrients and other organisms. An example of this is along gravel roads

where the soil could have more lime from the dust from the roads settling down in the soil,

or an old animal feedlot where phosphorus and nitrogen counts could be higher than the

rest of the field.


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Sample depth is also a factor for various nutrients, and other soil components vary during

the year, so sample timing may also affect results. Usually the best time when soil tests can

be done is spring. Mixing soil from several locations to create an "average" (or "composite")

sample is a common procedure but it must be used judiciously as it can artificially dilute

quantities/concentration, and may not meet government agency requirements for

sampling. Make a reference map for your filing system so you know where you took them,

and how many samples you took in the field. All of these considerations affect the

interpretation of test results.

Storage and handling

Because certain characteristics of soil change with time it is essential that soil is analyzed

as soon as practical. If it cannot be tested within 24 hours of sampling soil should be frozen

to reduce changes due to biological and chemical activity. Longer periods between

sampling and testing may require the soil to be air dried. Properly dried soil may be stable

for periods of 6 months or more.

Soil testing

Soil testing is often performed by commercial labs that offer an extensive array of specific

tests. Choosing the test lab site is just as important as the test results. There are many soil

testing labs in the United States, but finding the right one for you will take some research. It

is most beneficial for the producer to find the local most lab, as the workers will have a

greater knowledge and more experience working with the local soils.

Tests include, but aren't limited to, major nutrients - nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),

and potassium (K), secondary nutrients - sulphur, calcium, magnesium, minor nutrients -

iron,manganese, copper, zinc, boron, molybdenum, aluminum.

Soil testing can be an easy, cost effective way to manage agronomic as well as horticultural

soils. It tells key nutrient levels, as well as pH levels, so the producer can make the best

choice when purchasing fertilizers and other nutrients.

Recently (2004) new prepaid mail-in kits have come to market that offer two specific

benefits to small acreage farmers, urban homeowners and the lawn care industry: first is

an inexpensive and quick manner to transfer soil samples directly


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to an accredited laboratory for analysis; and second, the process translates raw data

findings into workable and practical nutrient management/fertilizer reports. One such kit

can be viewed atGrass Roots. This particular process provides an actual 'prescription' of

fertilizers that are readily available in the global market for two complete seasons.

Less comprehensive do-it-yourself kits are also available, usually with tests for three

important plant nutrients - nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) - and for soil

acidity (pH). Do-it-yourself kits can usually be purchased at your local cooperative or

through the university or private lab you choose. Often, hardware stores will have some of

these tests, as well as electrical meters intended to estimate the pH, water content, and

sometimes nutrient content of the soil. Prices of the tests will vary depending on where you

purchase it from and also on what kind of test you want to do. Lab tests are more accurate,

though both types are useful. In addition, lab tests frequently include professional

interpretation of results and recommendations. Always refer to all proviso statementsincluded in a lab report - these may outline any anomalies, exceptions and shortcomings in

the sampling and/or analytical process/results.

To kripamayee groups Soil Testing facilities provided by Coromandel Internationals,

Vanita Agrochem, JISL and Oilseed research station Jalgaon.

ii) Tillage Operations:


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Farmers perform tillage when they prepare soil for the raising of crops. Soil tillage hasthree primary purposes. Prior to planting, farmers use tillage to mix compost, manure, and

other fertilizers into the root zone where growing plant roots may reach it. Tillage also aidsseed germination by creating a smooth, uniform soil surface for planting. After planting,

farmers use tillage to control weeds between crop plantsincluding vegetable, fruit, forest,

medicinal, and farm crops. Since early agriculture, tillage has been the first step in the

process that makes it possible to harvest food from plants. However, soil tillage has come

under close scrutiny since soil is recognized as a natural resource that deserves protection.

Agronomists (scientists who study crop production and soil management) are concerned

because erosion (soil loss) from tillage is one of the most significant problems in

agriculture. If leftunchecked, soil erosion leads to loss of soil productivity, as well as off-

site deposition of sediments and farm chemicals that pollute surface and groundwater.

Early History of Tillage

Soil tillage had its beginnings ten to twelve millennia ago in the Near East, as early farmers

used a digging stick to loosen the soil before planting seeds. The tool evolved from digging

stick to spade to triangular blade, and was made of wood, stone, and ultimately metal. One

or more people likely used their bodies to pull the first wooden plows. Animals began

pulling plows around 3000 B.C.E. in Mesopotamia. Jethro Tull (16741741), a pioneering


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British soil physicist, was the first to recognize that loosening soil helps to supply plant

roots with nutrients.

In North America, agricultural innovators copied European trends. Charles Newbold

patented the first cast-iron plow in the late 1700s. In 1837, John Deere and Leonard Andrus

began manufacturing steel plows. By the 1840s, the growing use of manufacturedequipment had increased the farmers' need for cash, thus encouraging the rise of

commercial farming. Agriculture, society, and economics were closely linked, as George

Marsh said in an address delivered in 1847 to the Agricultural Society of Rutland County,

Vermont: "Pure pastoral life, as I have said, advances man to but an humble stage of

civilization, but when it is merged in agriculture, and the regular tillage of the soil

commences, he is brought under the dominion of new influences, and the whole economy

of domestic and social life is completely revolutionized." Marsh explained that once

cultivation of soil begins, all aspects of society are affected by changes: "Hence arises the

necessity of fixed habitations and store houses, and of laws which shall recognize and

protect private exclusive right to determinate portions of the common earth,

and sanction and regulate the right of inheritance, and the power of alienation and devise,in short the whole frame work of civil society."

Horses and mules had taken over the work of draft oxen by the late 1800s. As agriculture

became increasingly mechanized and commercialized, tractors became more common andreplaced most draft animals by the early to mid-1900s. Until then, the size of most family

farms was restricted to the land that a man could work using several horses. With the

advent of the light, gasoline-powered tractor, both family and commercial farms addedcrop area and prospered.

The Dust Bowl

Tractors helped to create farm fields that stretched far westward, setting the stage for the

Dust Bowl in the 1930s. Open grassland in the southwestern Great Plains region of theUnited States was settled and farmed by homesteaders who planted row crops and grazed

their cattle. Before farmers came, the region was covered by hardy grasses that held the

soil in place despite long droughts and torrential rains. Tillage combined with droughtleftthe soil exposed to wind erosion. Lightweight soil componentsorganic matter, clay, and

siltwere carried great distances by the winds, while sand and heavier materials driftedagainst houses, fences, and barns. This drifting debris buried farm buildings and darkened

the sky as far as the Atlantic coast. Over a period of ten years, millions of acres of farmland

became useless, and hundreds of thousands of people were forced to leave their homes.

The Dust Bowl gave impetus to the soil conservation movement; nevertheless,

mechanization continued to spread. In 1938, Hugh Bennett and Walter Lowder-milk of the

United States Soil Conservation Service wrote in the Yearbook of Agriculture: "Soil erosion

is as old as farming. It began when the first heavy rain struck the firstfurrow turned by a

crude implement of tillage in the hands of prehistoric man. It has been going on ever since,

wherever man's culture of the earth has bared the soil to rain and wind."


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Conservation Tillage and Sustainable Agriculture

By 1954, the number of tractors on farms exceeded the number of horses and mules for the

first time. The increasing availability of agricultural chemicals in the midto late-1900s,

including weed killers that did not harm crop plants, further changed crop and soil

management practices. "Conservation tillage"a broad spectrum of farming methods thathelp to reduce soil erosion due to wind and water and help to reduce labor and fuel

gained a following among farmers in the 1980s. Early methods of conservation tillage, such

as no-tillage, were un sustainable since they relied heavily on chemical weed killers

called herbicides. The no-tillage method worked well to control both soil erosion and

weeds, while requiring less energy. However, herbicides were highly toxic to people and

wildlife and their manufacture and use caused environmental pollution. Tillage reduction

methods were fine-tuned to suit local conditions throughout the United States.

By 1989, a far-sighted handful of new-generation farmers became interested in lowering

costs, avoiding agricultural chemicals, and saving soil. They started the agricultural

movement that became known as "sustainable agriculture." Low-input methods meet theneeds of more farmers each year. They are promoted by a program of the United States

Department of Agriculture called Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE).Farmers practicing sustainable agriculture produce food and fiber while enhancing

environmental quality and natural resources, make the most efficient use of nonrenewableresources and on-farm resources. Further, they integrate natural biological cycles

and pestcontrols and sustain the economic viability of farm operations.

Today's tillage practices reflect society's concern with environmental quality, and the

farmer's need to reduce costs while preventing soil erosion and compaction. However,significant amounts of soil are still lost annually around the world where soil is not

protected.

All farmers used Tillage operations with two or three blade tractor driven tillagefollowed by one or two cultivators or harrowings. Add FYM before last cultivator for better

incorporation of FYM in soil (FYM@ 12-13 trolly load/Ha.)

Harrowing crush the plant debris of previous crops and improves soil porosity.


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iii) Seed bed Preparation:

A seedbed or seedling bed is the local soil environment in which seeds are planted. Often

it comprises not only the soil but also a specially prepared cold frame, hotbed or raised bed

used to grow the seedlings in a controlled environmentinto larger young plants

before transplanting them into a garden or field. A seedling bed is used to increase thenumber of seeds thatgerminate.

The soil of a seedbed needs to be loose and smoothed, without large lumps. These traits are

needed so that seeds can be planted easily, and at a specific depth for best germination.

Large lumps and uneven surface would tend to make the planting depth random. Many


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types of seedlings also need loose soil with minimal rocky content for best conditions to

grow their roots. (For example, carrots grown in rocky soil will tend not to grow straight.)

Seedbed preparation in farm fields often involves

secondary tillage via harrows and cultivators. This may follow primary tillage (if any)

by moldboard plows or chisel plows. No-till farmingmethods avoid tillage for seedbed

preparation as well as later weed control.

Seedbed preparation in gardens often involves secondary tillage via hand tools such

as rakes and hoes. This may follow primary tillage (if any) by shovels, picks,

or mattocks. Rotary tillers provide a powered alternative that takes care of both primary

and secondary tillage.

The preparation of a seedbed may include:

1. The removal ofdebris. Insect eggs and disease spores are often found in plant debrisand so this is removed from the plot. Stones and larger debris will also physically

prevent the seedlings from growing.

2. Levelling. The site will have been levelled for even drainage.3. Breaking up the soil. Compacted soil will be broken up by digging. This allows air

and water to enter, and helps the seedling penetrate the soil. Smaller seeds require

a finer soil structure. The surface the soil can be broken down into a fine granular

structure using a tool such as a rake.

4. Soil improvement. The soil structure may be improved by the introductionoforganic matter such as compostor peat.

5. Fertilizing. The nitrate and phosphate levels of the soil can be adjustedwith fertilizer. If the soil is deficient in any micro nutrients, these too can be added.

The seedlings may be left to grow to adult plants in the seedbed, perhaps after thinning to

remove the weaker ones, or they may be moved to a border as young plants.

Seed bed preparation done by Bed Raiser tractor implement. All crops are on Raised type

beds because uppermost layer of soil is most fertile due to Raised Bed remaining soil of in

between rows comes on actual crop rows which increase fertile soil layer and helps to

increase yield, reduce weed population and simplify Polythene Mulching.


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iv) Polythene Mulching (Agro-Textile):

Plastic mulch is a product used, in a similar fashion to mulch, to suppress weeds and

conserve water in crop production and landscaping. Certain plastic mulches also act as a

barrier to keep methyl bromide, both a powerful fumigant and ozone depleter, in the soil.

Crops grow through slits or holes in thin plastic sheeting. Plastic mulch is often used in

conjunction with drip irrigation. Some research has been done using different colors of

mulch to affect crop growth. This method is predominant in large-scale vegetable growing,

with millions of acres cultivated under plastic mulch worldwide each year. Disposal of

plastic mulch is cited as an environmental problem; however, technologies exist to provide

for the recycling of used/disposed plastic mulch into viable plastic resins for re-use in the

plastics manufacturing industry.

History

The idea of using polyethylene film as mulch in plant production saw its beginnings in the

mid 1950s. Dr. Emery M. Emmert of the University of Kentucky was one of the first to

recognize the benefits of using LDPE (low density polyethylene) and HDPE (high density

polyethylene) film as mulch in vegetable production. His work in this area was done at


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theUniversity of Kentucky. Dr. Emmert also wrote on other topics such as the use of plastic

for greenhouses instead of glass and plastic in field high tunnels. Today Dr. Emmert is

considered the father of plastic greenhouses. He was jokingly also called the plastic

surgeon due to his use of plastic instead of glass for greenhouses and his use of clear and

black plastic as mulch in vegetable production. Approximately, 2,500 square miles

(6,500 km2) of agricultural land utilize polyethylene mulch and similar row covers for crop

production in the world.

Benefits

The use of plastic mulches along with the use ofdrip irrigation has many benefits such as:

Earlier planting dates

The use of plastic mulch alters soil temperature. Dark mulches and clear mulches applied to

the soil intercept sunlight warming the soil allowing earlier planting as well as encouragingfaster growth early in the growing season. White mulch reflects heat from the sun

effectively reducing soil temperature. This reduction in temperature may help establish

plants in mid-summer when cooler soil might be required.

Soil moisture retention

Plastic mulches reduce the amount of water lost from the soil due to evaporation. This

means less water will be needed for irrigation. Plastic mulches also aid in evenly

distributing moisture to the soil which reduces plant stress.

Weed managementPlastic mulches prevent sunlight from reaching the soil which can inhibit most annual

and perennial weeds. Clear plastics do not prevent weed growth. Holes in the mulch for

plants tend to be the only pathway for weeds to grow.

Reduction in the leaching of fertilizer

The use ofdrip irrigation in conjunction with plastic mulch allows one to reduce leaching of

fertilizers. Using drip irrigation eliminates the use of flood and furrow irrigation that

applies large quantities of water to the soil which in turn tends to leach nitrogen and other

nutrients to depths below the root zone. Drip irrigation applies lower amounts of waterwith fertilizers injected and thus these fertilizers are applied to the root zone as needed.

This also reduces the amount of fertilizer needed for adequate plant growth when

compared to broadcast fertilization.


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Improved crop quality

Plastic mulches keep ripening fruits off of the soil. This reduced contact with the soil

decreases fruit rot as well as keeps the fruit and vegetables clean. This is beneficial for the

production of strawberries, for example.

Reduction in soil compaction

The plastic mulch covering the soil decreases the crusting effect of rain and sunlight. The

reduction in weed quantity means a decreased need for mechanical cultivation. Weed

control between beds of plastic can be done using directly applied herbicides and through

mechanical means. The soil underneath the plastic mulch stays loose and well aerated. This

increases the amount of oxygen in the soil and aids in microbial activity.

Reduction in root damage

The use of plastic mulch creates a practically weed free area around the plant, removing the

need for cultivation except between the rows of plastic. Root damage associated with

cultivation is therefore eliminated. Due to these factors, the use of plastic mulch can lead to

an improvement in the overall growth of the plant.

Disadvantages

There are a few disadvantages to using plastic mulches in crop production as well.

Cost

The benefits from using plastic mulch come at a higher cost than planting in bare soil.

These costs include equipment, the plastic film used as the mulch, transplanters designed

for plastic beds, and additional labor during installation and removal of mulch films.

Specialized Mulch Application equipment must be used to install plastic mulch beds into a

field. These machines shape the soil and apply the plastic to the prepared soil.

Transplanters designed for plastic mulch can be used to plant the desired crop. Hand

transplanting is an option but this is rather inefficient. The removal of plastic mulch also

contributes to a higher cost through additional labor and equipment needed. Specialized

designed undercutting equipment can be used to remove the plastic from the field after

harvest.

Disposal

Although biodegradable plastic mulches exist, non-biodegradable plastics are more

widespread. These non-biodegradable plastic mulches must be removed from the field and

disposed of properly. Motes and McCraw ofOklahoma State University state that

approximately 8 hours of labor is required to remove 1-acre (4,000 m2) of plastic mulch.


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There is one company, Crain Associates, Inc. that specializes in the building of plants

designed to recycle agricultural film and other hard to clean plastics.

Application

The use of plastic mulch requires a unique application process to insure proper placementof the plastic film. This application process begins with the preparing the field the same

way one would for a flat seed bed. The bed must be free of large soil clods and organic

residue. A machine called a plastic layer or a bed shaper is pulled over the field creating a

row of plastic mulch covering a planting bed. These beds can be a flat bed which simply

means the surface of the plastic mulch is level with the inter-row soil surface. Machines

that form raised beds create a plastic surface higher than the inter-row soil surface. The

basic concept of the plastic bed shaper is a shaping box which creates the bed that is then

covered by plastic via a roller and two coulters that cover the edges of the plastic film to

hold the plastic the soils surface. These plastic layers also place the drip irrigation line

under the plastic while the machine lays the plastic. It is somewhat important that the

plastic is rather tight. This becomes important in the planting process.

Planting

Planting also requires specialized planting equipment. The most common planting

equipment is a waterwheel type transplanter. The waterwheel transplanter utilizes a

rotating drum or drums with spikes at set intervals. The drum or drums have a water

supply that continuously fills the drum with water. The transplanter rolls the spiked drum

over the bed of plastic. As the drum presses a spike into the plastic a hole is punched a

water flows into the punched hole. A rider on the transplanter can then place a plant in the

hole. These drums can have multiple rows and varied intervals to create the desired

spacing for that particular crop.


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v) Seed Treatment, Sowing/Transplanting:

Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide, or a combination of both,

to seeds so as to disinfect and disinfect them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic

organisms and storage insects. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy

exposure, immersion in conditioned water, etc. The seed treatment is done to achieve the

following benefits.

Benefits of Seed Treatment:

1) Prevents spread of plant diseases

2) Protects seed from seed rot and seedling blights

3) Improves germination

4) Provides protection from storage insects

5) Controls soil insects.

Types of Seed Treatment:

1) Seed disinfection: Seed disinfection refers to the eradication of fungal spores that have

become established within the seed coat, or i more deep-seated tissues. For effective

control, the fungicidal treatment must actually penetrate the seed in order to kill the fungus

that is present.


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2) Seed disinfestation: Seed disinfestation refers to the destruction of surface-borne

organisms that have contaminated the seed surface but not infected the seed surface.

Chemical dips, soaks, fungicides applied as dust, slurry or liquid have been found

successful.

3) Seed Protection: The purpose of seed protection is to protect the seed and youngseedling from organisms in the soil which might otherwise cause decay of the seed before

germination.

Conditions under which seed must be treated

1) Injured Seeds: Any break in the seed coat of a seed affords an excellent opportunity for

fungi to enter the seed and either kill it, or awaken the seedling that will be produced from

it. Seeds suffer mechanical injury during combining and threshing operations, or from

being dropped from excessive heights. They may also be injured by weather or improper

storage.

2) Diseased seed: Seed may be infected by disease organisms even at the time of harvest, or

may become infected during processing, if processed on contaminated machinery or if

stored in contaminated containers or warehouses.

3) Undesirable soil conditions: Seeds are sometimes planted under unfavourable soil

conditions such as cold and damp soils, or extremely dry soils. Such unfavourable soil

conditions may be favourable to the growth and development of certain fungi spores

enabling them to attack and damage the seeds.

4) Disease-free seed: Seeds are invariably infected, by disease organisms ranging from no

economic consequence to severe economic consequences. Seed treatment provides a goodinsurance against diseases, soil-borne organisms and thus affords protection to weak seeds

enabling them to germinate and produce seedlings.

Equipments used for Seed Treatment:

1) Slurry Treaters

2) Direct Treaters

3) Home-made drum mixer

4) Grain auger

5) Shovel

Precautions in Seed Treatment:


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Most products used in the treatment of seeds are harmful to humans, but they can also be

harmful to seeds. Extreme care is required to ensure that treated seed is never used as

human or animal food. To minimise this possibility, treated seed should be clearly labelled

as being dangerous, if consumed. The temptation to use unsold treated seed for human or

animal feed can be avoided if care is taken to treat only the quantity for which sales are

assured.

Care must also be taken to treat seed at the correct dosage rate; applying too much or too

little material can be as damaging as never treating at all. Seed with a very high moisture

content is very susceptible to injury when treated with some of the concentrated liquid

products.

If the seeds are to be treated with bacterial cultures also, the order in which seed

treatments should be done shall be as follows

i) fungicide

ii) bacterial cultures.

The first step in growing from seeds is to determine if they should be started inside

or direct sown outside. Some seeds are best planted directly into the garden, while

others really should be started indoors. Most seeds can be started inside, even thosewhich require a cold treatment first can be"tricked" to germinate inside. Direct

seeding with many annuals is a matter of choice. To determine whether you shouldstart seeds indoors or out consider the growing season in your area. If it is shorter

than the time the plant needs to produce flowers or vegetables then you should start

indoors. Generally seeds of a manageable size are sown directly outdoors. Really

small seeds need the extra attention sowing indoors in a controlled environmentprovides. Some gardeners start seedlings indoors to extend the harvest. Many

vegetables and flowers will produce much earlier if started indoors. You will lose

more seedlings to the elements, insects and bad weather when direct seeding.

Growing Medium

When starting seeds indoors, always use a soilless, pre-mixed growing medium. Such

mixes are generally made up of peat, perlite and vermiculite along with some

nutrients. These mixes are for the most part free from disease, insects and weed

seeds. We also recommend you can spray your seeds or growing medium with a

fungicide product such as "No-Damp" to prevent "Damping Off" disease on your

seedlings. Damping off is a disease caused by several different fungi that rot theseeds during germination or kill the seedlings after emergence.

Sowing Seeds

We provide sowing instructions with all our seed varieties. Some large seeds can be

seeded directly into the pot where they will grow until transplanting outdoors. For

most small seeds it is best to simply scatter the seed thinly over the surface of the

soil and then cover with an appropriate amount of soil. Some seeds only need to be


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left on the soil surface and not covered. After germination the tiny seedlings can be

separated and transplanted into larger containers.

Soil Temperature

Most seeds require a warm soil temperature to initiate germination. Generally, seeds

germinate best at a soil temperature of 64-72 F (18-22 C). Keeping the temperaturewithin this range can be hard, especially for seeds which take several days or even

weeks to germinate. Air temperature is generally warmer that the soil temperature,

and is not sufficient enough to warm the soil. Bottom heat from specially designedmats or cables are ideal but you can also place your containers on top of the fridge,

or radiator, etc.

Soil MoistureWhen sowing seeds inside, soil moisture is equally as important as temperature.

Seeds need water to help soften the seed coat and stimulate the root development. If

your soil is allowed to dry, the germination will be delayed or, in most cases, ended.

To keep the soil moist, mix the growing medium with water, enough so that if ahandful is squeezed, a small amount of water will run out. After mixing, sow your

seeds according to directions and then cover the containers with clear plastic. We

really like those "mini-greenhouse" units that come with clear domes and holding

trays. You can also use sealed bags or plastic wrap to keep your medium from drying

out. If your medium begins to dry out too fast, use a water bottle which will provide a

fine mist or watering can with a gentle nozzle, as to not disturb the seeds. After

germination, be sure to remove the plastic and place plants under grow lights or in

another bright light location.

Lighting

Lighting for your seedlings is extremely important. Without sufficient light, youryoung plants will become tall or "leggy", which will make them weak and easy to

break. Ideally, you should use adjustable fluorescent lights when growing plants

indoors. Have your light suspended from the ceiling, or use a table top or shelf style

of lighting stand to hang over the seedlings. Your lights and the plants must be only

3-4" from the lights at all times for proper growth. You should keep your lights on for

about 16 hours a day - we recommend you use an automatic timer to turn on and offyour lights. If you don't have lights, you should grow in a bright south facing window.

Water

Watering young seedlings can be a tricky job as you do not want your medium to dry

out but you don't want it too wet either. Usually when the top " of the soil appearsdry, you should water. Use a mister or a fine stream watering can to water seedlings.

We recommend that whenever possible to water your seedlings from below to helpto prevent "Damping Off" disease. To water from below, place your containers in a

tray filled with water until the soil becomes moist (not soggy) and then remove.

FeedingFeeding your seedlings is important, especially if you have them in cell packs for an


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extended period before transplanting. You should start fertilizing young seedlings

with a mild or small dose of a balanced fertilizer such as 20-20-20 or 15-30-15.Which ever fertilizer you use, be sure to dilute to half the strength for the first few

feedings and then gradually work up to full strength. You should feed plants at least

once a week.

Transplanting Outside

Now that you have nice healthy seedlings it is time to transplant to your garden. The

most common mistake by beginner gardeners is to rush this process. Before plantingyour tending seedlings outside you must subject them to a "hardening off" period.

Inside grown plants must be gradually exposed to outside conditions or they are

likely to be stunted or die before they adapt to their"harsh" environment. The

process of "hardening off" requires approximately two weeks but this can vary

depending on the method you prefer to use. A couple of weeks out from yourplanned transplant date you should reduce the amount of water the seedlings get.

Let the soil become a bit dry-looking between watering. At least a week out from

transplant time, start exposing the plants to outside conditions. You want that firstexposure to be numbered in hours. Put them out in a shady, protected place for a few

hours (say, mid-morning to early afternoon). If you live in cold climate you may want

to have a shaded cold frame available. After a couple of days of short exposure, you

should be able to leave the seedlings out for the day, still in the shade. Each day,

nudge them closer to a spot that gets full sun, or uncover more of the cold frame.

Within a few days leave your seedlings fully exposed to the elements, day and night.

Only then should you transplant to the garden.

Plant Hardiness Zones

Plant Hardiness Zone Maps are often referenced when determining if a specific plant

variety will successfully grow in your area. The lower the zone number a plant has,the hardier the plant. The zone number is a general guide to hardiness. Many otherfactors affect how well a plant will thrive, such as snow cover, freeze-thaw cycles and

strong winds. Often there are micro-climates within zones and even within your own

garden. To find out which zone you live in, please click appropriate link below. Werecommend you only use the maps as reference and you should also check with your

local agriculture department or other gardeners to see what grows best in your zone.

Plant Hardiness Zones of USA

Plant Hardiness Zones of Canada

Seed GerminationThe following data is provided by Thompson & Morgan Successful Seed Raising

Guide. This guide is out of print.

A seed is an embryo plant and contains within itself virtually all the materials and

energy to start off a new plant. To get the most from one's seeds it is needful to


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understand a little about their needs, so that just the right conditions can be given

for successful growth.

One of the most usual causes of failures with seed is sowing too deeply; a seed has

only enough food within itself for a limited period of growth and a tiny seed sown too

deeply soon expends that energy and dies before it can reach the surface. Our seedguide therefore states the optimum depth at which each type of seed should be sown.

Another common cause is watering. Seeds need a supply of moisture and air in the

soil around them. Keeping the soil too wet drives out the air and the seed quicklyrots, whereas insufficient water causes the tender seedling to dry out and die. We

can thoroughly recommend the Polythene bag method (No. 11) which helps to

overcome this problem. Watering of containers of very small seeds should always be

done from below, allowing the water to creep up until the surface glistens.

Most seeds will of course only germinate between certain temperatures. Too low and

the seed takes up water but cannot germinate and therefore rots, too high and

growth within the seed is prevented. Fortunately most seeds are tolerant of a widerange of temperatures but it is wise to try to maintain a steady, not fluctuating

temperature, at around the figure we have recommended in our guide. Once several

of the seeds start to germinate the temperatures can be reduced by about 5 degrees

F and ventilation and light should be given.

Some perennials and tree and shrub seeds can be very slow and erratic in

germination. This may sometimes be due to seed dormancy, a condition which

prevents the seed from germinating even when it is perfectly healthy and all

conditions for germination are at optimum. The natural method is to sow the seeds

out of doors somewhere where they will be sheltered from extremes of climate,

predators, etc. and leave them until they emerge, which may be two or three seasonslater. Dormancy, however, can be broken artificially and our section Nos. 12-16 deals

with this.

HINTS ON SEED RAISING

1. Strelitzia and similar

Do not chip or mark the seedcoat at all but merely remove the orange tuft and soak

for up to 2 hours, or even overnight. Sow the seeds in moist sand, pressing them into

the sand until only a small part of the black seed is visible and grow in a temperature

of 75 degrees F in the dark and ensure that the sand always remains moist. From 7

days onwards inspect the container once a week and as soon as any bulges, roots orshoots are seen remove the germinated seed and pot up in a compost of half peat andhalf sand. We find that Strelitzias often produce a root without a shoot and we have

also found that the young shoots and roots are susceptible to fungal attack.

Therefore as soon as possible pot up and provide light and fresh air. Germinationcan start within 7 days and carry on for 6 months or more.


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vi) Fertilizer Application & Drip Irrigation:

Fig. All filtration and fertigation implements.

The Drip Store provides the most economical method of applying fertilizer through the

irrigation system by utilizing fertilizer injectors that operate without any external power

supply. this method called fertigation. Fertigation use soluble fertilizer that flow directlytowards the plant root zone through the drip system, drip emitters or micro sprinkler

system. A liquid fertilizer solution or soluble fertilizer is injected into the system at the

desired rate. The Drip Stores line of applicators can be attached to the faucet (hose bib) or

to PVC pipe to feed the plants through a sprinkler or drip system. The dilution rate is

completely adjustable, so the user can feed in minutes on the fast setting or months on theslow setting every time the system is turned on. The mixing ratio is constant even with

changes in the flow rate or water pressure and with flow as low as 2.5 gallons per hour and

5 pounds per square inch (PSI) of pressure.

Fertilizer Applicators


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Fertilizer

Applicator Accessories

Soluble Fertilizer

Fertilizer is generally available in dry, soluble, suspension or solution forms. The Drip Store

offers dry and soluble formulas. When using soluble material, only water-solublecompounds should be used; the dry water-soluble fertilizer must be dissolved into the

water before it can be injected. Solution forms of fertilizer come completely dissolved.Fertilizer solutions are available in many different blends.

Note: Some solutions may require dilution with water in order to provide an adequate

volume for uniform distribution thru your irrigation system.

Fertigation is the application of fertilizer or other water soluble product through the

irrigation system using one of many methods of injection system available.

Fertigation is the application offertilizers, soil amendments, or other water soluble

products through an irrigation system.

Chemigation, a related and sometimes interchangeable term, is the application of chemicals

through an irrigation system. Chemigation is considered to be a more restrictive and

controlled process due to the potential nature of the products being delivered -

pesticides, herbicides, fungicides - to cause harm to humans, animals, and the

environment. Therefore chemigation is generally more regulated than fertigation.

Usage

Fertigation is used extensively in commercial agriculture and horticulture and is starting to

be used in general landscape applications as dispenser units become more reliable and

easy to use.

Fertigation is used to spoon feed additional nutrients or correct nutrient deficiencies

detected in plant tissue analysis

Usually practiced with high value crops such as vegetables, turf, fruit trees, and

ornamentals

Injection during middle one-third or the middle one-half of the irrigation recommended

for fertigation using micro propagation

Water supply for fertigation kept separate from domestic water supply to avoid

contamination


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Change of fertilizer program during the growing season in order to adjust for fruit, flower,

and root development.

Commonly Used Nutrients

most plant nutrients can be applied through irrigation systems

Nitrogen is most commonly used nutrient

Other nutrients include nitrate, ammonium, urea, phosphate and potassium.

Determining which nutrient is used

A soil fertility analysis is used to determine which of the more stable nutrients should be

used

Advantages

Benefits of fertigation over traditional broadcast or drop fertilizing methods include:

Increased nutrient absorption by plants Reduction in fertilizer and chemicals needed Reduced leaching to the water table and, Reduction in water usage due to the plant's resulting increased root mass being able to

trap and hold water

Application of nutrients at the precise time they are needed and at the rate they areutilized

Disadvantages

Concentration of solution decreases as fertilizer dissolves, leading to poor nutrient

placement

Results in pressure loss in main irrigation line

Limited capacity

Use ofchemical fertilizers of low-sustainability, instead oforganic fertilizers.

Dependent on water supply not being restricted by droughtrationing.

Controls

Because of the potential risk in contaminating the potable (drinking) water supply,

a backflow prevention device is required for most fertigation systems. Backflow

requirements vary greatly so it is very important to understand the proper level of


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backflow prevention required by law. In the United States the minimum backflow

protection is usually determined by state regulation but each city or town may increase the

level of protection required.

Methods Used in Fertigation

Drip irrigation which reduces per water and nutrient application rates relative to

sprinklers

Sprinkler systems increase leaf and fruit quality.

Other methods of application include lateral move, traveler gun, and solid set systems

All systems should be placed on a raised and/or sealed platform, not in direct contact

with earth

Fitted with chemical spill trays Continuous application- fertilizer is supplied at a constant rate Three stage application-

irrigation starts without fertilizers and then the later in process fertilizers are applied

Proportional application-injection rate is proportional to water discharge rate

Quantitative application-nutrient solution is applied in a calculated amount to each

irrigation block

To determine the injection rate for the particular fertilizer being used use the formula:

Maximum injection rate = (5 x Q x L) / (f X 60).

- Q = irrigation pump discharge in liters per second - L = fertilizer tank volume in liters - F =

amount of fertilizer in grams

System Design

Fertigation assists distribution of fertilizers for farmers. The simplest type of fertigation

system consists of a tank with a pump, distribution pipes, capilaries and dripper pen.

What should be considered

Water quality

Soil type

Nutrient consumption (daily)

Appropriate nutrient materials


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Possible Strategies to be used

Injecting for short time periods at the beginning, middle, and end of irrigation cycle

Injecting during middle 50% of the irrigation cycle

Continuous irrigation

Postering index Imex

Drip Irrigation:

Usage of plastic emitter in drip irrigation was developed in Israel by Simcha Blass and his

son Yeshayahu. Instead of releasing water through tiny holes, blocked easily by tiny

particles, water was released through larger and longer passageways by using velocity to

slow water inside a plastic emitter. The first experimental system of this type wasestablished in 1959 when Blass partnered with Kibbutz Hatzerim to create an irrigation

company called Netafim. Together they developed and patented the first practical surface

drip irrigation emitter. This method was very successful and subsequently spread to

Australia, North America, and South America by the late 1960s.[citation needed]

In the United States, in the early 1960s, the first drip tape, called Dew Hose, was developed

by Richard Chapin of Chapin Watermatics (first system established during 1964)[1].

Beginning in 1989, Jain irrigation helped pioneer effective water-management through drip

irrigation in India[2]

. Jain irrigation also introduced the `Integrated System Approach, One-Stop-Shop for Farmers, `Infrastructure Status to Drip Irrigation & Farm as Industry. The

latest developments in the field involve even further reduction in drip rates being delivered

and less tendency to clog. In Pakistan it has been promoted by the Pakistan Atomic Energy

Commission, the Agriculture Development Bank as well as successive governments.[citation

needed]

Modern drip irrigation has arguably become the world's most valued innovation

in agriculture since the invention of the impact sprinkler in the 1930s, which offered the

first practical alternative to surface irrigation. Drip irrigation may also use devices calledmicro-spray heads, which spray water in a small area, instead of dripping emitters. These

are generally used on tree and vine crops with wider root zones. Subsurface drip irrigation

(SDI) uses permanently or temporarily buried dripperline or drip tape located at or below

the plant roots. It is becoming popular for row crop irrigation, especially in areas

where water supplies are limited or recycled water is used for irrigation. Careful study of


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Most large drip irrigation systems employ some type offilter to prevent clogging of the

small emitter flow path by small waterborne particles. New technologies are now being

offered that minimize clogging. Some residential systems are installed without additional

filters since potable water is already filtered at the water treatment plant. Virtually all drip

irrigation equipment manufacturers recommend that filters be employed and generally

will not honor warranties unless this is done. Last line filters just before the final delivery

pipe are strongly recommended in addition to any other filtration system due to fine

particle settlement and accidental insertion of particles in the intermediate lines.

Drip and subsurface drip irrigation is used almost exclusively when using recycled

municipal waste water. Regulations typically do not permit spraying water through the air

that has not been fully treated to potable water standards.

Because of the way the water is applied in a drip system, traditional surface applications of

timed-release fertilizer are sometimes ineffective, so drip systems often mix liquid fertilizer

with the irrigation water. This is called fertigation; fertigation and chemigation (application

ofpesticides and other chemicals to periodically clean out the system, such

as chlorine orsulfuric acid) use chemical injectors such as diaphragm pumps, piston pumps,

or venturi pumps. The chemicals may be added constantly whenever the system is

irrigating or at intervals. Fertilizer savings of up to 95% are being reported from recent

university field tests using drip fertigation and slow water delivery as compared to timed-

release and irrigation by micro spray heads.

Through a buried plastic bottle

If properly designed, installed, and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water

conservation by reducing evaporation and deep drainagewhen compared to other types of

irrigation such as flood or overhead sprinklers since water can be more precisely applied to

the plant roots. In addition, drip can eliminate many diseases that are spread through


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water contact with the foliage. Finally, in regions where water supplies are severely

limited, there may be no actual water savings, but rather simply an increase in production

while using the same amount of water as before. In very arid regions or on sandy soils, the

preferred method is to apply the irrigation water as slowly as possible.

Pulsed irrigation is sometimes used to decrease the amount of water delivered to the plant

at any one time, thus reducing runoff or deep percolation. Pulsed systems are typically

expensive and require extensive maintenance. Therefore, the latest efforts by emitter

manufacturers are focused toward developing new technologies that deliver irrigation

water at ultra-low flow rates, i.e. less than 1.0 liter per hour. Slow and even delivery further

improves water use efficiency without incurring the expense and complexity of pulsed

delivery equipment.

Drip irrigation is used by farms, commercial greenhouses, and residential gardeners.

Drip irrigation is adopted extensively in areas of acute water scarcity and especially for

crops such as coconuts, containerized landscape

trees, grapes, bananas, ber, brinjal, citrus, strawberries, sugarcane, cotton, maize,

and tomatoes.

[edit]Drip Irrigation for Garden

Drip irrigation for garden available in drip kits are increasingly popular for the homeowner

and consist of a timer, hose and emitter. Hoses that are 4 mm in diameter are used to

irrigate flower pots.

Advantage and disadvantages

Banana plants with drip irrigation in Maharashtra, India

The advantages of drip irrigation are:

Minimized fertilizer/nutrient loss due to localized application and reduced leaching.


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High water application efficiency. Levelling of the field not necessary. Ability to irrigate irregular shaped fields. Allows safe use of recycled water. Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field capacity. Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation. Minimized soil erosion. Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by output of each nozzle. Lower labour cost. Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers. Fertigation can easily be included with minimal waste of fertilizers. Foliage remains dry thus reducing the risk of disease. Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurised irrigation, reducing

energy costs.

The disadvantages of drip irrigation are:

Expense. Initial cost can be more than overhead systems. Waste. The sun can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life.

Longevity is variable.

Clogging. If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not properlymaintained, it can result in clogging.

Drip irrigation might be unsatisfactory if herbicides or top dressed fertilizers needsprinkler irrigation for activation.

Drip tape causes extra cleanup costs after harvest. You'll need to plan for drip tapewinding, disposal, recycling or reuse.

Waste of water, time & harvest, if not installed properly. These systems require carefulstudy of all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water, crop and agro-climatic

conditions, and suitability of drip irrigation system and its components.

Germination Problems. In lighter soils subsurface drip may be unable to wet the soilsurface for germination. Requires careful consideration of the installation depth.

Salinity. Most drip systems are designed for high efficiency, meaning little or noleaching fraction. Without sufficient leaching, salts applied with the irrigation water

may build up in the root zone, usually at the edge of the wetting pattern. On the other


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hand, drip irrigation avoids the high capillary potential of traditional surface-applied

irrigation, which can draw salt deposits up from deposits below.

Emitting Pipe

A Emitting Pipe is a type of drip irrigation tubing with emitters pre-installed at the factory

with specific distance & flow per hour as per crop distance.

Emitter

Horticulture drip emitter in a Pot

An emitter is also called a dripper and is used to transfer water from a pipe or tube to the

area that is to be irrigated. Typical emitter flow rates are from 0.16 to 4.0 US gallons per

hour (0.6 to 16 L/h). In many emitters, flow will vary with pressure, while some emitters

arepressure compensating.

These emitters employ siliconediaphragms or other means to allow them to maintain a

near-constant flow over a range ofpressures, for example from 10 to 50 psi (70 to 350

kPa).


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vii) Intercultural operations:

A tractor mounted cultivator designed at Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore can

be used for intercultural operations like loosening soil, harrowing, and weeding. The tynes

are fixed in two lanes just back of each rear tyre of tractor. The width of each lane is 53 cm.

An adjustment is necessary in the position of tractors wheels. The rear wheels of tractor is

fixed in reverse position, thereby increasing the inter-wheel space from 102 cm to 144 cm.

With 144 cm inter-wheel space, the tractor can easily pass through sugarcane planted at 90

cm spacing. To maintain weed free crop, intercultural operations are carried out 3 times

i.e.at 45-50, 65-70 and 95-100 days after planting. The cultivator can be operated without

damage to the crop up to 100-120 days after planting. It has an out turn of 1.5 acre / hour.

Another tractor mounted, peg-type cultivator suitable for inter-culture and weeding insugarcane planted at 70 cm.It has tynes in 3 lanes. In one pass of a tractor 3 rows is

harrowed and weeded. This cultivator can be operated by any tractor and without

changing the tractors rear wheel position at 60 cm row spacing. The out turn of the

cultivator is 2 acre /hr.


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The two or three-

row ridger for providing earthing up to the standing crop designed at SBI Coimbatore is

also useful. To use the two-row ridger in sugarcane planted at 90 cm space, the position of

tractors rear wheels is changed reverse. The three row ridger can be used at 75 cm inter-

row spacing without changing tractors wheel position.

viii) Use of Pesticides, Fungicides and Herbicides:

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined the term ofpesticide as:


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any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or

controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species

of plants or animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the

production, processing, storage, transport or marketing of food, agricultural

commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances which may

be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on

their bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth

regulator, defoliant, desiccant or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature

fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to

protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport.

Type of Pesticide Target Pest Group

Algicides or Algaecides Algae

Avicides Birds

Bactericides Bacteria

Fungicides Fungi and Oomycetes

Insecticides Insects

Miticides or Acaricides Mites

Molluscicides Snails

Nematicides Nematodes

Rodenticides Rodents


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Virucides Viruses

Subclasses of pesticides

include: herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, pediculicides, and biocides.

Pesticides can be classified by targetorganism, chemical structure, and physical

state. Pesticides can also be classed as inorganic, synthetic,

or biologicals (biopesticides), although the distinction can sometimes

blur. Biopesticides include microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides. Plant-

derived pesticides, or "botanicals", have been developing quickly. These include

thepyrethroids, rotenoids, nicotinoids, and a fourth group that

includes strychnine and scilliroside.

Many pesticides can be grouped into chemical families. Prominent insecticide families

include organochlorines, organophosphates,

and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons (e.g. DDT) could be separated into

dichlorodiphenylethanes, cyclodiene compounds, and other related compounds. They

operate by disrupting the sodium/potassium balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the

nerve to transmit continuously. Their toxicities vary greatly, but they have been phased

out because of their persistence and potential to

bioaccumulate. Organophosphate and carbamates largely replaced organochlorines.

Both operate through inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase,allowing acetylcholine to transfer nerve impulses indefinitely and causing a variety of

symptoms such as weakness or paralysis. Organophosphates are quite toxic to

vertebrates, and have in some cases been replaced by less toxic

carbamates. Thiocarbamate and dithiocarbamates are subclasses of carbamates.

Prominent families of herbicides include pheoxy and benzoic acid herbicides (e.g. 2,4-

D), triazines (e.g. atrazine), ureas (e.g. diuron), and Chloroacetanilides (e.g. alachlor).

Phenoxy compounds tend to selectively kill broadleaved weeds rather than grasses.

The phenoxy and benzoic acid herbicides function similar to plant growth hormones,

and grow cells without normal cell division, crushing the plants nutrient transport

system. Triazines interfere with photsynthesis.Many commonly used pesticides are not

included in these families, including glyphosate.

Pesticides can be classified based upon their biological mechanism function or

application method. Most pesticides work by poisoning pests.A systemic pesticide

moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. With insecticides and most


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fungicides, this movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward.

Increased efficiency may be a result. Systemic insecticides, which

poison pollen and nectar in the flowers, may kill bees and other needed pollinators.

In 2009, the development of a new class of fungicides called paldoxins was announced.

These work by taking advantage of natural defense chemicals released by plants called

phytoalexins, which fungi then detoxify using enzymes. The paldoxins inhibit the

fungi's detoxification enzymes. They are believed to be safer and greener.

Uses

Pesticides are used to control organisms considered harmful. For example, they are

used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like west nile

virus, yellow fever, and malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause

allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be causedby parasites such asfleas. Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be

caused by moldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can be used to clear roadside

weeds, trees and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds that may cause

environmental damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to

control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like

swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.Uncontrolled

pests such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses Pesticides are

used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that

infest food such as grain. Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk. Proper

pesticide use decreases these associated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide

regulatory agencies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

and the Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) of Canada.

Pesticides can save farmers' money by preventing crop losses to insects and other

pests; in the U.S., farmers get an estimated fourfold return on money they spend on

pesticides.One study found that not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about

10%. Another study, conducted in 1999, found that a ban on pesticides in the United

States may result in a rise of food prices, loss of jobs, and an increase in world hunger.

DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochloride that has been used to

fightmalaria since the 1950s. Recent policy statements by the World Health

Organization have given stronger support to this approach.[16]Dr. Arata Kochi, WHO's

malaria chief, said, "One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual

house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house


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spraying, the most effective is DDT." However, since then, an October 2007 study has

linked breast cancer from exposure to DDT prior to puberty.Poisoning may also occur

due to use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons by entering the human food

chain when animal tissues are affected. Symptoms include nervous excitement,

tremors, convulsions or death. Scientists estimate that DDT and other chemicals in the

organophosphate class of pesticides have saved 7 million human lives since 1945 by

preventing the transmission of diseases such as malaria, bubonic plague, sleeping

sickness, and typhus.However, DDT use is not always effective, as resistance to

DDT was identified in Africa as early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of

mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT.A study for the World Health

Organization in 2000 from Vietnam established that non-DDT malaria controls were

significantly more effective than DDT use. The ecological effect of DDT on organisms is

an example ofbioaccumulation.Amounts

In 2006 and 2008,the world used approximately 5.2 billion pounds of pesticides with

herbicides constituting the majority of the world pesticide use at 40% followed by

insecticides and fungicides with totals of 17% and 10% respectively. The U.S. in 2006

and 2007, used approximately 1.1 billion pounds of pesticides accounting for 22% of

the world total. For conventional pesticides which are used in the agricultural sector as

well in industry, commercial, governmental and the home & garden sectors, the U.S.

used at total of 857 million pounds, with the agricultural sector accounting for 80% of

the conventional pesticide use total. Pesticides are also found in majority of U.S.

households with 78 million out of the 105.5 million households indicating that they use

some form of pesticide. Currently,there are more than 1,055 active ingredients

registered as pesticides, which are put together to produce over 16,000 pesticide

products that are being marketed in the United States

Costs

On the cost side of pesticide use there can be a cost to the environment and human

health, as well as the cost of the development and research of new pesticides.Health effects

Main articles: Health effects of pesticides andPesticide poisoning

Pesticides may cause acute and delayed health effects in those who are

exposed. Pesticide exposure can cause a variety of adverse health effects. These effects

can range from simple irritation of the skin and eyes to more severe effects such as


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affecting the nervous system, mimicking hormones causing reproductive problems, and

also causing cancer. A 2007 systematic review found that "most studies on non-

Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia showed positive associations with pesticide

exposure" and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be

decreased. Strong evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide

exposure including neurological, birth defects, fetal death, andneurodevelopmental

disorder.

The American Medical Association recommends limiting exposure to pesticides and

using safer alternatives: "Particular uncertainty exists regarding the long-term effects

of low-dose pesticide exposures. Current surveillance systems are inadequate to

characterize potential exposure problems related either to pesticide usage or pesticide-

related illnessesConsidering these data gaps, it is prudentto limit pesticide

exposuresand to use the least toxic chemical pesticide or non-chemical alternative."

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that

each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience

severe poisoning from pesticides, about 18,000 of whom die. According to one study, as

many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide

poisoning yearly.

One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides

worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of

pesticides that are most harmful to humans.

Environmental effect

Main article: Environmental effects of pesticides

Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed

insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species,

including non-target species, air, water and soil. Pesticide driftoccurs when pesticides

suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially

contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes ofwater pollution, and some

pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.

In addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fixation, contributes

to pollinator decline, destroys habitat (especially for birds), and threatensendangered

species.

Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide (pesticide resistance), necessitating a


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new pesticide. Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract

the resistance, although this will cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.

Benefits

There are two levels of benefits for pesticide use, primary and secondary. Primary

benefits are direct gains from the use of pesticides and secondary benefits are effects

that are more long-term.

Primary benefits

1. Controlling pests and plant disease vectors

Improved crop/livestock yields Improved crop/livestock quality Invasive species controlled

2. Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms

Human lives saved and suffering reduced Animal lives saved and suffering reduced Diseases contained geographically3. Prevent of control organisms that harm other human activities and structures

Drivers view unobstructed Tree/brush/leaf hazards prevented Wooden structures protectedSecondary benefits

1. Community benefits

Farm and agribusiness revenues Nutrition and health improved Food safety and security

2. National benefits

Workforce productivity increased Increased export revenues


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National agriculture economy3. Global benefits

Assured safe and diverse food supply Less greenhouse gas Reduced civil unrestMonetary

For every dollar (Rs.1) that is spent on pesticides for crops yields four dollars (Rs.4) in

crops saved. This means based on the amount of money spent per year on

pesticides,Rs.10 billion, that there is an additional Rs.40 billion savings in crop that

would be lost due to damage by insects and weeds. Generally speaking, farmers benefit

from having an increase crop yield and from being able to grow a variety of crops

throughout the year. Consumers of agricultural products also benefit from being able toafford the vast quantities of produce available year round.The general public also

benefits from the use of pesticides for the control of insect-borne diseases and illnesses,

such as malaria. The use of pesticides creates a large job market, which provides jobs

for all of the people who work within the industry.

Alternatives

Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use

ofbiological pest controls (such as pheromones and microbial pesticides), genetic

engineering, and methods of interfering with insect breeding. Application of composted

yard waste has also been used as a way of controlling pests.These methods are

becoming increasingly popular and often are safer than traditional chemical pesticides.

In addition, EPA is registering reduced-risk conventional pesticides in increasing

numbers.

Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types of plants), crop

rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing

planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use oftrap crops that

attract pests away from the real crop. In the U.S., farmers have had success controllinginsects by spraying with hot water at a cost that is about the same as pesticide spraying.

Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another example of an alternative to

pesticide use. These organisms can include natural predators or parasites of the

pests. Biological pesticides based on entomopathogenic

fungi, bacteria and viruses cause disease in the pest species can also be used.


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Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males of the

target species and releasing them, so that they mate with females but do not produce

offspring.This technique was first used on the screwworm fly in 1958 and has since

been used with the medfly, the tsetse fly,[41] and the gypsy moth. However, this can be a

costly, time consuming approach that only works on some types of insects.

Another alternative to pesticides is the thermal treatment of soil through steam. Soil

steaming kills pest and increases soil health. citation needed.

In India, traditional pest control methods include using Panchakavya, the "mixture of

five products." The method has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity due in

part to use by the organic farming community.

Push pull strategy

The term "push-pull" was established in 1987 as an approach for integrated pestmanagement(IPM). This strategy uses a mixture of behavior-modifying stimuli to

manipulate the distribution and abundance of insects. "Push" means the insects are

repelled or deterred away from whatever resource that is being protected. "Pull" means

that certain stimuli (semiochemical stimuli, pheromones, food additives, visual stimuli,

genetically altered plants, etc.) are used to attract pests to trap crops where they will be

killed There are numerous different components involved in order to implement a

Push-Pull Strategy in IPM.

Many case studies testing the effectiveness of the push-pull approach have been done

across the world. The most successful push-pull strategy was developed in Africa for

subsistence farming. Another successful case study was performed on the control

ofHelicoverpa in cotton crops in Australia. In Europe, the Middle East,

Kripamayee Farms

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