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Korea’s Emission Trading System: An Attempt of a Non-Annex I
Country
to Reduce GHG Emissions Voluntarily
Hyungna Oh * and Junwon Hyon **
Abstract
In this study, we aim to describe the background for design
characteristics of Korea’s Emission
Trading System (KETS) and derive policy implications for
developing economies or non-Annex I
countries that are considering adoption of a cap-and-trade
scheme. A non-Annex I country may face
unique hardships such as fierce opposition from carbon-intensive
industry sectors, the presence of a
power imbalance between the Ministry of Environment (MOE) and
ministries that are in charge of
supporting economic growth and regional development, and the
absence or incomplete development
of financial markets and auctioning mechanisms. To overcome
these hardships, the government
legislated laws that defined timelines for every stage of KETS
development, established a strategic
governance architecture to make up the weak position of the MOE,
offered strong market-stabilizing
measures focused on maintaining the allowance price below a
certain level, and provided support
packages to make low-carbon-transition easy by compensating for
losses caused by KETS. These
policy instruments that made it easier to adopt KETS can be
obstacles to making KETS efficient.
There is a need for collective efforts to make a self-regulating
ETS market, instead of adding
regulations and government intervention to control the allowance
price at a low level. Of course, there
should exist a consensus among civil participants that global
warming is real and there are new
growth opportunities in low-carbon productions and
technologies.
*Associate Professor and a member of the Allocation Committee,
College of International Studies, Kyung Hee
University, 1732 Deogyoung-daero, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si,
Gyeonggi-do, Korea, Phone: 82-31-201-2160,
Fax: 82-31-201-2281, Email: [email protected] .
**Fellow, Korea Legislation Research Institute, 1934
Hannuri-daero, Sejong-si, Korea, Phone: 82 -44-861-0300
Fax.82-44-868-9913, Email: [email protected]
mailto:Email:%[email protected]
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1. Introduction
As the trading of carbon emission rights became available on
January 1st 2015, South Korea
(henceforth, Korea) launched a national emission trading system,
Korea’s ETS, or KETS, with a cap
of 573 MtCO2e for 2015. Covering roughly two-thirds of the
country’s total emissions, KETS is the
world’s second largest carbon market after the EU ETS, and the
second nationwide “cap-and-trade”
scheme in operation after that for Kazakhstan in Asia. Under
KETS, 525 business entities in 23 sub-
sectors of 5 sectors have been designated as covered entities
and given a fixed amount of emission
permits. The cap for the first commitment period (2015-2017) is
1,687 million tons of CO2e.
KETS was a tough sell in Korea. It has been considered the
principal policy instrument to keep
the government’s pledge submitted to the Copenhagen Accord in
2010, a reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions of 30 percent below the business-as-usual (BAU) level
by the year 2020. When the
government announced the plan to implement the scheme in Korea,
it faced strong opposition from
the business sector. For instance, the Korean Chamber of
Commerce claimed that Korea’s target of a
30 percent emissions cut is too ambitious and that adopting KETS
will most likely slow down
economic growth. Resistance was so strong that the introduction
was rescheduled from January 2013
to 2015.
Since the adoption was not discarded but delayed, the course of
legislation associated with it
proceeded steadily. The Act on the Allocation and Trading of
Greenhouse Gas Emission Permits
(henceforth, the ETS Act) and its Enforcement Decree were
legislated in 2012. At the same time, its
institutional framework was established in sequence. In January
2014, the government designated the
Korea Exchange (KRX) as the sole carbon emissions trading market
and the Ministry of Strategy and
Finance (MOSF) released the first Master Plan, a legal step
toward the delivery of the Allocation Plan
for the first commitment period.
Five months later, in June 2014, the Ministry of Environment
(MOE) laid out the “National
Emissions Permit Allocation Plan” (henceforth, the Allocation
Plan), as part of a follow-up. This plan
was intended to elaborate on details for the operation of KETS
for the period of 2015 to 2017,
including the total number of emissions allowances (cap) in
circulation, and allocation methods. As
the Allocation Plan was released, the Korea Chamber of Commerce
and the Federation of Korean
Industries requested a full-scale reconsideration of KETS and a
further postponement of the launch
date to 2020. This request again provoked harsh debates, and the
apex of opposition was seen in the
summer of 2014, six months prior to the second scheduled
launch.
Against this backdrop, the first meeting of the Emission Permits
Allocation Committee
(henceforth, the Allocation Committee) chaired by the Minister
of the MOSF, was delayed several
times. According to the ETS Act, the implementation of KETS
becomes effective only after the
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Allocation Plan is finalized. The Allocation Plan, drafted by
the MOE, has to be reviewed and
approved by the Allocation Committee, and then finalized by the
Green Growth Committee (GGC)
and through the Cabinet meeting. In other words, delaying the
first meeting of the Allocation
Committee held up the legal process for launching KETS.
The media reported a growing likelihood of cancellation due to
the appointment of Kyung-Hwan
Choi as the new minister of the MOSF and designated chair of the
Allocation Committee meetings,
who was to convene the first meeting to ratify the Allocation
Plan, just as the date for the first meeting
was being fixed. He had opposed the adoption of KETS when
serving as a minister of the Ministry of
Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE), an authority responsible for
trade, industrial output growth and
energy policies. Whether or not this concern was justified, the
MOSF delayed the first meeting and
monitored the tide of public opinion concerning KETS.
In late August, the government finally decided to launch KETS as
scheduled. This decision was
mainly driven by two factors. One was concerns about the
nation’s credibility and dignity associated
with a possible second delay when the KETS had inspired a
considerable amount of praise from the
international community and was considered an important part of
a green growth framework. It was
also practically impossible to cancel or delay the KETS just
four months prior to its launch on 1st
January 2015. In order to soothe the business sector, the
government modified the Allocation Plan,
adjusting the cap slightly upward and inserting a clause in the
Allocation Plan describing policies and
procedures for high allowance prices. Finally, the first
Allocation Committee meeting was held in
September 2014 and the revised Allocation Plan was approved,
followed by approval the GGC and
the Cabinet meeting on 11th September 2014. Implementation
became official on January 1st 2015.
There are many papers that describe how a cap and trade system
has been prepared in Annex I
countries and compare differences in systems between Annex I and
non-Annex I countries (Newell,
Pizer and Raimi, 2013; Cantala, McKnight and Sempere, 2013;
Zhang, 2014). However, few studies
have explained unique hardships that a non-Annex I country may
face in the process of adopting the
system, and reasons that a cap and trade system in non-Annex I
country is different from that of
Annex I countries. With the present study, we attempt to fill
this gap by describing the background for
salient characteristics of KETS and derive policy implications
for non-Annex I countries that are
considering adoption of a cap-and-trade scheme.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section II
reviews the government’ efforts to make
up for KETS’ weak base, including legal preparations, the
strategic institutional framework adoption
and clearly stated enhanced policy measures to make it less
incumbent on participants, Section III
illustrates key contents such as the scope, the cap, allocation
methods and policy measures to stabilize
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allowance prices and minimize carbon-leakage, and compares KETS
with the EU ETS. Section IV
summarizes this study.
II. Institutional Framework for KETS
In 2010, then president Lee Myung-bak, announced a national
emission reduction target of 30
percent by 2020 under the BAU scenario at the Copenhagen
meeting. This commitment was based on
both external and internal motives. The external motive was
outside pressure to reduce GHG
emissions. In spite of increasing trends in both GHG emissions
and GDP shown in Figure 1, Korea, as
a non-Annex I party country under the Kyoto Protocol, was
excluded from the emissions abatement
obligation. However, Korea’s GDP and emissions rankings (16th
and 7th in terms of size, respectively)
have placed the nation under growing pressure to join global
efforts to tackle climate change by
limiting GHG emissions.
Figure 1. GDP and GHG Emissions
GDP CO2 emissions
Source: Economic Statistics
System(http://ecos.bok.or.kr/flex/EasySearch_e.jsp), Bank of
Korea.
This pledge was also motivated by two internal motives: it would
function as a tool to promote
the creation of new growth engines, and as a symbol of Korea
standing at the forefront of green
growth initiatives. The green growth strategy, first announced
in August 2008, was regarded as a
central piece of the Lee Administration. Lee proposed green
growth as an alternative growth path for
Korea, amidst concerns about Korea’s slowdown in economic growth
and extremely high dependence
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on imported energy. Lee argued that Korea’s growth rate could be
7 percent annually if the current
energy-and-CO2 intensive economy would be transformed into a low
carbon green economy. Korea’s
pledge to cut back GHG emissions in line with the BAU baseline
of 30 percent by 2020 was, thus, one
of the national mid-term targets associated with green growth,
and the creation of an ETS scheme was
regarded as the most important step in promoting green
investment and green growth.
Korea’s reduction target by 2020 was the highest reduction level
recommended by the IPCC for
non-Annex I party countries (UNEP 2010). Therefore, Korea has
been seen by the international
community as a country at the forefront of green growth
initiatives. This helped Korea to host the
headquarters of the Global Climate Fund in 2012. The
international community hailed Korea’s efforts
to attain the national reduction target and a decision of
adopting KETS with headlines trumpeting “the
highest reduction target among developing countries” and
“adoption of a nationwide ETS, the first-
ever among developing countries.” When the final decision to
launch KETS was made in 2014, most
green growth policies, including green financing, were
downsizing or had been cancelled by President
Park Geun-hye, who tried to distance herself from her unpopular
predecessor1. Her decisions were
supported by citizens’ skepticism concerning the validity of
green growth as a new path to enable
high growth rates. At the same time, there were pessimistic
views about the likelihood of reaching a
legally binding deal on GHG emissions, internationally. This
caused the first two motives, complying
with the international pressure and implementing a policy in
pursuit of green growth, to fade out. On
the other hand, the third motive, being at the forefront of
green growth, was strong enough to
encourage the Park Administration to maintain the announced
national reduction target and initial
schedule for the KETS. It was accepted as a fact that its
reversal would undermine Korea’s standing
in the international community, and that this would be more
damaging than the negative impacts of
KETS. In addition, Park, who took on her duties in 2013, had
received a lot of praise during the
president’s overseas trips because of green growth and the plan
for KETS. This might have
discouraged her from canceling or putting off its adoption.
Thus, Korea’s commitment to limit GHG emissions and launch KETS,
not mandated by the
Kyoto Protocol but set voluntarily, was welcomed by the
international community. However, this
voluntary action was not based on a nationwide consensus. This
left the entire designing process and
detailed contents of KETS vulnerable to the consistent
counter-attacks. Moreover, environmental
ministries often have smaller budgets and weaker political
voices than those that directly work with
business sectors or determine growth policies. As noted in
Patrinos and Bamzai (2005), this is
particularly true in developing countries like Korea. The MOE
has less ministerial power than the
1 John Burton, What happened to green growth, The Korea Times,
2013-07-17
(http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/opinon/2013/07/197_139423.html)
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MOTIE, and the capacity of the MOE was not enough to carry out
core actions associated with KETS,
alone. A comprehensive and strategic approach was taken by the
government in order to make up for
the KETS’ weak base. This approach consisted of three
complementary elements: strong legal bases,
a strategic governance framework and a comprehensive policy
package to compensate for loss
associated with KETS and ease opposition to it.
2.1. A Need for Solid Legal Bases
The Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth (2010)
Once the policy decision on emissions reduction was made, the
Lee Administration made it an
incontestable fact by signing it into a law. The first and
highest legal base for green growth and
implementation of KETS was the Framework Act on Low Carbon,
Green Growth (Framework Act).
It was established in 2010 with the aim of achieving the
national emissions reduction target set a year
earlier and then submitted to the Copenhagen Accord in 2010. As
shown in Table 1, various policy
tools were stipulated in the Framework Act, and the
implementation of the ETS was one of them.
Table 1. Abatement Policies Stipulated in the Framework Act
(2010)
Policy Means Article Framework
Act Target management system 42
Emission Trading System 46
Basic energy plan 39, 41
Environment-friendly taxation system (carbon tax included)
30
Other
policies · Supportive
policies
Promotion of environment-friendly agriculture and fisheries
and
expansion of carbon sinks 55
Transportation: Management of GHG emissions in transportation
sector
47
Establishment of low-carbon traffic systems 53
Management of GHG emissions in building sector 54
Water management 52
Reporting on quantity of GHGs emitted and establishment of
integrated information management system for GHGs 44, 45
Supportive policies
- Technical support for green innovation 31, 32
- Development of clusters and complexes for green technology
and
industries 34
- Support for SMEs that are engaged in green technology and
business 33
- Creation of green jobs and green industries 35
- Financial support for green growth 28
Regulation and countermeasures for international norms 36, 37,
61
Promotion of green life style 49, 56~59
Greening land-management 51
Source: Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth (2010).
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The following provision, “the government may utilize market
functions in accomplishing the
national GHG reduction target and operate a cap-and-trade
scheme,” in Article 46 of the Framework
Act, gave the ETS a solid legal ground for implementation. Based
on this provision, the Emission
Trading Act and its Enforcement Decree were established in 2012
(see Figure 2). These two laws
stipulated important steps and timelines for KETS. Once they
were legislated by the National
Assembly, the cancellation of KETS became very difficult, since
it would require a series of legal
procedures which would involve significant time and effort. With
these two laws, institutional
infrastructure for KETS was established: the Korea Energy
Management Corporation (KEMCO) and
the Korea Environment Corporation (KECO) are responsible for
supervising measurement, reporting,
and verification (MRV) of emission data; and the Korea Exchange
(KRX) was designated as the sole
market for carbon emissions trading.
Figure 2. Legal Procedure for the Korea Emission Trading
System
*Full name: the Act on Allocation and Trading of Greenhouse Gas
Emissions Allowances
Source: The Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth
(2010).
As Article 44 of the Framework Act mandates that large emitters
report quantities of GHGs
produced, the Greenhouse Gas Inventory & Research Center of
Korea (GIR) was established to
manage emission data and relevant research. Article 44 is
critical in operating KETS since it enables
collection and registry of micro-level emissions data.
2009
A reduction target
announced (GHG
emissions cut of 30%
by 2020 under the
BAU scenario)
2010
Establishment of
“Framework Act” and
its Enforcement
Decree
A comprehensive plan
to achieve reduction
targets
January 2014
“1st Master plan” for the ETS finalized
2011
Emission forecasts
and reduction targets
of major emission
sectors announced.
September 2014
“1st Allocation Plan” for the ETS finalized
2012
Establishment of
Emission Trading Act*
and its Enforcement
Decree (2012)
Legal bases for the
implementation of the
ETS
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Pursuant to Article 42 of the Framework Act, the Target
Management Scheme (TMS) was
initiated in 2012. Under the TMS, companies and facilities with
high GHG emissions and energy
consumption are designated as Controlled Entities and subject to
government control. Controlled
entities are obligated to submit reports on their emissions
levels to the managing authorities and set
their emissions targets with the corresponding authority; then,
their targets are reviewed by the MOE
(in fact, the GIR) to detect double counting or omissions. If
the amount of emissions exceeds the
target level, the entity will be charged a lump sum penalty
regardless of the excess amount. However,
if emissions are below the allowance amount, the entity will not
be incentivized. As discussed in
Section III, the TMS serves as a stepping stone to KETS in that
it enables the collection of verified
emissions data and the MRV process of Controlled Entities, which
have become important
components of KETS.
As the energy sector is a major source of GHG emissions and, the
national emission reduction
goal is very unlikely to be achieved without greening the energy
sector, Article 41 of the Framework
Act stipulates that the Basic Energy Plan should be created to
reflect the intention of low-carbonizing
the power sector.
The Emission Trading Act and its Enforcement Decree (2012)
While the Framework Act addressed only the legal basis for the
introduction of a cap-and-trade
scheme, in Article 46(4) (Figure 2), details will be further
laid out in a separate act. The Emission
Trading Act and its Enforcement Decree ratified by the National
Assembly in 2012 as the legal
procedures for implementation of KETS were finalized.
As summarized in Tables 2, 3 and 4, the Act on Allocation and
Trading of Greenhouse Gas
Emissions Allowances (hereafter, the Emission Trading Act) and
its Enforcement Decree stipulated
government actions, institutions, timelines and other key issues
associated with the adoption of KETS.
In this regard, a failure to keep any of these should become a
legal violation.
However, as seen in Table 2, details of KETS, such as the ETS
cap, its distribution, allocation
formula and a list of covered entities were not defined in the
Emission Trading Act, nor was its
Enforcement Decree. In Korea’s legal context, it seems
reasonable to define these details by legal
provisions. However, details of KETS were written in a master
plan and an implementation plan
rather than legal provisions (see Table 3). This decision
reflected the nature of the scheme. Since
participating entities and their emissions levels change over
time, the cap and the allocated allowances
need to be adjusted accordingly. However, it is impractical and
highly unusual to revise a law in the
current legislative culture of Korea. Defining key contents of
KETS through a law causes inflexibility.
Thus, plans established by government ministries were designated
to define the detailed contents of
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KETS. In short, the Emission Trading Act and its Enforcement
Decree only provide the legal basis for
the delegation of authority (the MOE), thereby letting the
Allocation Plan define further details
concerning allocation (see Tables 2, 3 and 4). In addition to
the Allocation Plan, the Emission Trading
Act requested the establishment of the Master Plan to provide
medium-and-long-term visions (i.e., 10
year visions) of KETS and coordinate it with other policies, and
designated the MOSF the responsible
authority for the Master Plan (see Table 2).
Table 2. Legal Basis related to the Roles of Authorities from
the Emission Trading Act
Roles Authority Legal basis
- Establishment of the Master Plan (1 year prior to the
beginning
of each commitment period)
- Public hearings
MOSF Article 4
- Establishment of the Allocation Plan (six months prior to
the
beginning of each commitment period) - Public hearings and
meetings with business representatives and
environmental NGOs and other interest groups
Competent authority (MOE,
stipulated by the following
Enforcement Decree)
Article 5
- Ratifying and finalizing the Allocation Plan Allocation
Committee →
PCGG → the Cabinet
meeting
Article 5
- Establishment of the Emission Permits Allocation Committee
(including matters concerning the establishment of the
Allocation
Plan, market stabilization measures, policy coordination and
support related to certification and offset, and deliberation
in
relation to the international link and cooperation; the
Allocation
Committee shall be comprised of vice-ministerial level
government officials and experts.
Chairman of the Emission
Permits Allocation
Committee: MOSF Minister,
Secretary: MOE
Article 6
(Establishment)
Article 7
(Organization
and Operation)
- Designation of business entities eligible for allocation
(five
months prior to the beginning of each commitment period).
Designation of new entrants (due to establishment of a new
facility or the alteration or expansion of a facility) as
business
entities eligible for allocation
Competent authority (MOE) Article 8~10
- Establishment and operation of the Emission Permits
Register
(GIR) Article 11
- Emission permits: allocation, application for allocation
and
notice of allocation Article 12~14
- Recognition of outcomes of earlier reduction, adjustments to
and
revocation of allocated emission permits Article 15~17
- Emission permits in reserve Article 18
- Exchange and trading of emission permits Article 19~22
- Stabilization of markets for trading emission permits
Implemented by the competent authority after the
deliberation by the Allocation
Committee
Article 23
- Reporting, verification and certification of amounts of
emissions,
Emissions Certification Committee Competent authority (MOE)
Article 24~26
- Surrender, carryover, borrowing, offset, and termination
of
emission permits, offset register Article 27~31
- Banking, borrowing and offsetting Article 28~30
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- Termination of emission permits Article 32
- Penalty surcharges Article 33
Source: Act on the Allocation and Trading of Greenhouse-Gas
Emission Permits
Two Principal Plans: The Master Plan and the Allocation Plan
(2014)
Under the Emission Trading Act, the MOSF is expected to
establish a Master Plan no later than
one year prior to the launching of each commitment period, and
before the Allocation Plan for the
same period. The Master Plan is a ten-year plan to provide
medium-and-long-term visions for KETS.
Since other countries’ ETSs do not have separate plans on the
sidelines of their allocation plans,
Korea’s Master Plan seems to be atypical. However in Korea, it
is required that two separate plans, a
master plan and an action plan, must be set up in the process of
adopting a national policy. In the case
of KETS, the former is the Master Plan, and the latter the
Allocation Plan. While the Allocation Plan
focuses on practical operations, the Master Plan provides a
blueprint and guides the design of KETS
in order to harmonize it with other policies. As listed in Table
3, the Master Plan must contain eight
components defined by Article 4 of the Emission Trading Act.
These include a close description of
the economic climate and international policy architecture for
the Post-Kyoto Era, principles and
directions on how to operate the KETS for the coming ten years,
related manpower and fiscal policies,
and a support policy package to compensate for losses caused by
KETS. In this regard, Korea’s
Master Plan is similar to Germany’s Macro Plan, which was
included in its National Allocation Plan.
The Minister of the MOSF is in charge of establishing the Master
Plan by reflecting
heterogeneous opinions from government agencies, business
sectors and citizens. It is notable that the
MOSF Minister is the designated chair of the Allocation
Committee and Deputy Prime Minister who
is responsible for economic policies and
policy-coordination.
The first Master Plan, spanning a decade from 2015 to 2024,
encompasses three commitment
periods, excluding the last year of the third period. The Master
Plan was drafted by the MOSF and
announced through a public hearing. Then, it was ratified by the
GGC (Green Growth Committee, the
former PCGG), and then through the Cabinet meeting in January
2014, eight months ahead of the
Allocation Plan.
According to the fourth item of the Master Plan, in Table 3, the
Master Plan should evaluate the
appropriateness of the national GHG reduction target and the
cap. In order to evaluate the cap, both
BAU emission levels and reduction targets need to be provided
prior to the Master Plan. Both were
intended to be set by the National GHG Emissions Reduction
Roadmap (hereafter, the Roadmap). The
Roadmap was not finalized until the end of December 2013—in line
with the legal timeline for the
-
formulation of the first Master Plan. With this time constraint,
the Master Plan could not evaluate the
appropriateness of the national emissions target. Meanwhile, the
cap for each commitment period will
be defined by the Allocation Plan.
The Allocation Plan is essential to KETS since it defines its
key contents. The Emission Trading
Act states that the Allocation Plan shall be provided, at the
latest, six months prior to the beginning of
each commitment period and it should address the eleven issues
presented in Table 3. The Allocation
Plan shall be made in compliance with the national GHG reduction
target (Article 5 of the Emission
Trading Act and Article 3 of the Enforcement Decree) and take
into account the business status of
covered sectors and their international competitiveness (Article
5 of the Act). Then, Article 6 (1) of
the Enforcement Decree identifies the MOE as the authority
responsible for establishing or modifying
the Allocation Plan. However, the approval of the Allocation
Committee must be obtained in order to
put it and changes to it into practice.
The Allocation Plan ratified in September 2014 defines the
following aspects of KETS: KETS
caps for the corresponding commitment period and each compliance
year; its scope (sectors and
entities covered by it), allocation standards and the amount of
allowances allocated to sectors, sub-
sectors and business entities; methods for free allocation and
non-free allocation, criteria for
recognition of earlier actions; rules and operation guidelines
for banking, borrowing and offsets; the
amount of reserves, its distribution and operation rules; key
timelines.
Table 4 summarizes when and how key information in regard to
KETS was announced. Under
the initial version of the Allocation Plan, participating firms
were first informed of the most important
and sensitive figures, the target emission levels for each
compliance year (caps) and their distribution
among covered entities, in June 2014. This was only six months
ahead of the scheduled launch date
for KETS. Since the Allocation Plan was established by laws, a
series of legal actions were also
needed to abolish it, which could not be accomplished within six
months.
Table 3. Contents of the Master and the Allocation Plan (defined
by the Emission Trading Act)
Eight components that the Master Plan shall address (defined by
Article 4 of the Emission
Trading Act):
1. State the current and future domestic and international
conditions associated with the emission trading system including
projections on international policy architecture for the
Post-Kyoto Era, carbon markets and other ETS schemes;
2. Provide basic directions on how to operate KETS; 3. Offer
operation principles of KETS for corresponding commitment periods
in
consideration of the national GHG reduction target
4. Predict GHG emissions by sectors in consideration of growth
and investment across sectors;
5. Estimate economic impacts of KETS on inflation, energy
prices, employment and other economic variables;
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6. Propose policy measures for supporting domestic industries,
considering trade and carbon intensities;
7. Provide preparations and plans for linking up KETS with other
carbon markets and for international cooperation;
8. Other issues related to efficient operation of KETS:
constructions of fiscal plans, human resource policies, public
service systems about education and information for KETS.
Eleven issues that the Allocation Plan shall address (defined by
Article 5 of the Emission
Trading Act)
1. KETS cap; 2. The number of permits for the pertinent
commitment period and for each compliance year; 3. Scope of KETS
(sectors and sub-sectors covered by KETS); 4. Allocation method and
the number of allowances for covered sectors (and sub-sectors); 5.
Allocation method and the number of allowances allocated for each
compliance year; 6. Standards to determine covered entities and the
allocation method for them; 7. Non-free allocation method if it is
needed; 8. Criteria for recognition of early (abatement) actions;
9. The amount of reserves and its distribution rules; 10. Standards
and operation guides for banking and borrowing of allowances, and
those for
offsets;
11. Others that might be addressed by a presidential decree.
Source: The Emission Trading Act (the version of 2013-03-23,
available at http://www.law.go.kr)
Table 4. Important Steps and Timelines Defined by Laws
Adoption Procedures1)
(year, lead authority)
Legal
Time
line2)
Nationwide
GHG reduction target3)
KETS
Total Sector
level
Entity
level
Target
rate
(%)
BAU
2009
BAU
2013 Cap
Design
-ation
/Alloc-
ation
Design
-ation
/Alloc-
ation
Pledge at the Copenhagen meeting
(2010, President) - ◯ ◯
Framework Act
(2010, PCGG) - ◯
Emission Trading Act and its
Enforcement Decree (2012, PCGG) - ◯
Roadmap (January 2014, Multiple
authorities with the MOE’s lead) 2013 ◯ ◯
Master Plan (January 2014, MOSF) Jan 1,
2014 ◯ ◯ ◯ △4)/◯
Allocation Plan (September 2014,
MOE)
Jul 1,
2014 ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯/◯5)
Allocation Approval Committee
(November 2014, MOE)
Sep.,
2014 ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯/◯5) ◯/◯5)
Note: 1) The Framework Act stipulates adoption of the ETS. In
pursuant to the Framework Act, the Emission
Trading Act and its Enforcement Decree were legislated. Then,
following the Enforcement Decree, the
MOSF and MOE drafted the Master Plan and the Allocation Plan,
respectively. 2) Timelines are stipulated
by the Enforcement Decree. 3) BAU2013 is the same as BAU2009. 4)
Drafts of the scope and coverage
were announced. 5) When news of the matter was announced,
business sectors registered strong
opposition to it.
-
2.2. Strategic Governance Architecture
The second device to supplement the weak base of the KETS was
the strategic formation of a
governance framework. Every economy experiences a trade-off
between economic growth and CO2
reductions. Ideally, all government agencies should have a
common perspective on policies, and
engage in a process of appropriate dispute resolution when
interests of stake-holders conflict. In
reality, a government agency develops its own views for a policy
issue under consideration. Since
GHG emissions are highly correlated with output growth, policy
conflicts are likely to arise at any
time between the MOE and growth-oriented authorities, such as
the MOTIE that has developed a
deeper understanding of the concerns that its civilian
counterparts (i.e., firms and investors) may have.
As represented by the size of the diagram in Figure 3, the MOE
has had less ministerial power than
the MOTIE in Korea. This is common in developing countries,
where the influence of environmental
ministries is usually weak (Patrinos and Bamzai 2005). In short,
the capacity of the MOE was not
enough to carry out the core actions associated with KETS by
itself. Even if the MOE were strong, it
might be difficult for a single ministry to lead the entire
process on its own, since KETS involves
conflicting interests of various stakeholders and government
agencies.
To compensate for this, KETS’ governance structure was formed
with multiple-government
authorities, all of which have played important roles in
developing KETS. As depicted in Figure 3, the
division of labor among them is as follows: the Presidential
Committee on Green Growth (PCGG)
was responsible for developing legislation, rules and procedures
associated with KETS; the MOSF
coordinates KETS policies with other policies, drafts Master
Plans, operates the Allocation
Committee and provides support packages for industrial sectors’
potential losses associated with
KETS; the MOE becomes a responsible authority for operating and
administering KETS.
Both the PCGG’s lead and the MOSF’s engagement contributed to
easing the opposition from
business sectors: the involvement of the PCGG was understood as
a strong signal that the government
truly intended to implement KETS, and that of the MOSF
alleviated the concerns of business sectors,
as the MOSF was allowed to chair the Allocation Committee and
coordinate joint operations between
the MOE and other related ministries.
-
Figure 3. Governance Architecture of the KETS
Growth/Employment
Note: The size of diagrams represents authority power.
Boundaries with a solid line imply that the
authority took a significant function in the development or
operation of KETS.
Presidential Committee on Green Growth (PCGG): Legislation
In Korea, the process of a new legislation is generally handled
by a single ministry, and the
Presidential Committee on Green Growth (PCGG) handled KETS (see
Figure 3 and Tables 5 and 6).
Until the PCGG was transformed downward into a committee headed
by the Prime Minister’s Office
in 2013, it worked as an advisory body for the President
concerned with promoting the national
agenda on green growth. It is co-chaired by the Prime Minister
and a private-sector representative,
Environment/Abatement
MOSF
▷Coordination
▷Chair of the EPAC(Allocation
Committee)
▷Drafting Master Plans
▷Support package to compensate losses
associated with
KETS
Alleviating
oppositions of the
business sector
▷Responsible for
trade, industry and
energy policies
▷Engaged in the Roadmap, EPAC
and Allocation
PCGG→ GGC
▷Leading green growth policies
(i.e., KETS)
▷Ratifying Plans associated with
KETS
▷Legislation
▷Coordination
MOE
▷Responsible authority of KETS
▷Drafting Allocation Plans
▷Chair of the Allocation Approval
Committee
▷Operating KETS
▷Providing guidelines associated with
KETS
MOTIE
-
and its members consist of government officials from different
ministries. Its strong position as the
Presidential Advisory Committee and the diversity of member
composition have allowed the PCGG
to coordinate conflicts of interest among ministries and
stakeholders.
On May 14th 2012, the Emission Trading Act drafted by the PCGG
was ratified by the National
Assembly. This legislative procedure was very unusual. In Korea,
a special committee such as the
PCGG does not have the authority to draft legislation. Normally,
a legislative bill submitted to the
National Assembly is brought to the concerned standing committee
(such as the Environment and
Labor Committee) for deliberation before the regular session of
the National Assembly. However, the
Emission Trading Act was treated as an exception. Considering
possible conflicts of interests among
members of the standing committee and ministries in the drafting
process of the Emission Trading Act,
the newly established Special Committee on Climate Change
submitted the draft written by the PCGG
for deliberation to the National Assembly. The Enforcement
Decree of the Emission Trading Act was
legislated in the same way by the PCGG and enacted on November
15th 2012.
When the PCGG wrote the bill, the MOSF also proposed ideas
concerning the contents of KETS
to the PCGG in 2011. This was based on the fact that the MOSF
was designated by the draft of the
Emission Trading Act to serve as the chairman of the Allocation
Committee and officially came into
being as the second authority, next to the PCGG, involved in the
adoption of KETS. Under the
Enforcement Decree, the MOE was made the responsible authority
in charge of operating KETS.
In making the PCGG the responsible authority for the Emission
Trading Act and its Enforcement
Decree, the government intended to avoid potential conflicts
that would arise during the adoption
process of KETS by a single authority. However, by the time
(2013-2014) the national GHG
emissions reduction road map and the ETS’ two principal
plans—the Master Plan and the Allocation
Plan, were being made, the status of the PCGG in charge of the
Framework Act and climate policies
weakened due to the policy regime change from Lee to current
president Park. Finally, the PCGG was
reorganized as a deputy-level committee of the Office of the
Prime Minister, the Green Growth
Committee (GGC). Thereafter, the coordinating function of the
PCGG was transferred to the MOSF,
which is the conventional responsible authority for economic
matters and policy coordination.
Although the MOSF is the most powerful ministry in Korea, it
cannot replace a presidential
committee such as the PCGG. Since that time, more emphasis has
been placed on industrial and
economic growth in the implementation process of KETS, and the
national emissions reduction target
engraved in the Framework Act as a top policy priority has not
been realized.
-
Table 5. Major Decision Makers and Their Roles in the KETS
Decision making authority Responsible Bureau
or Division
Affiliated
Institution of the
KETS ETS Functions
Central
government
agency
Presidential
Committee/OPM
PCGG or GGC
(Climate Change
Bureau)
- Legislation (the Framework
Act and the ETS Act)
- Approval of Master Plans and
Allocation Plans
MOSF (initially) Policy
Coordination
Bureau → (now)
Future and Social
Policy Bureau
- Policy coordination associated
with KETS
- Drafting Master Plans
- Operating Allocation
Committee meetings
MOE ETS TF
(ETS Task Force)
- Responsible authority for
KETS
- Drafting Allocation Plans
- Operating Allocation Approval
Committee meetings
GIR - Registry - Research
KECO/KEMCO - MRV
Public
institution KRX - Operates the centralized market
for permit trading
- Reports market outcomes
4 financial
institutions
- 3rd-party market participants
- Assists the MOE in stabilizing
the ETS market
Covered entity
Firms &
Facilities
- Complies with KETS
regulations * OPM = Office of the Prime Minister, GGC = Green
Growth Committee, MOSF = Ministry of Strategy and Finance, MOE
= Ministry of Environment, ETS TF = ETS Task Force, GIR = GHG
Inventory and Research Center of Korea, KECO =
Korea Environment Cooperation, KRX = Korea Exchange, 4 (public)
Financial institutions = Industrial Bank of Korea,
Korea Development Bank, Korea Exim Bank, Korea Financial
Cooperation
Table 6. Key Decision-making Agencies Associated with KETS
Decision-Making
Institution (Lead Authority) Functions, Chair and Members
Green Growth
Committee & the
Cabinet Meeting*
GGC (within the
office of the Prime
Minister)
▷Function: approve Master Plans drafted by the MOSF and
Allocation Plans drafted by the MOE
▷The GCC was initially a Presidential Committee but became a
committee under the Office of the Prime Minister when the
Master Plan was made.
▷The Cabinet meeting is the highest body for policy
deliberation
and resolution in the executive branch of Korea.
↓
Allocation
Committee MOSF
(the Ministry of
Strategy and Finance)
▷Functions: approves National Allocation Plans (NAPs*)
drafted
by the MOE and makes the final decision on market
stabilization measures. * NAPs includes the ETS cap, sectoral
caps, the new entrant
-
reserve (NER), allocation methods, operation rules for
offset, early action, emission banking and borrowing and
etc.
▷Chaired by the minister of the MOSF
▷Committee members - 12 vice-ministers of relevant
government
authorities and 8 exterior experts
↓
Allocation Approval
Committee MOE
(the Ministry of
Environment)
▷Function: approves entity-level allocations prepared by the
▷Allocation Working Group*
* The Allocation Working Group is chaired by the president
of
the GIR and consists of exterior members. The GIR is a
branch of the MOE.
▷Chaired by the vice-minister of the MOE
▷Committee members - director generals of relevant
government
authorities and exterior experts
Source: Modified from “Korean Emission Trading Scheme: Scheme
Design and the Road Ahead (ETS
Task Force of the Ministry of Environment, 2013).”
The Ministry of Strategy and Finance (MOSF): Coordinating
Disputes and Developing Policy
Measures to Make KETS Less Cumbersome to Participants.
Given the high degree of interdependence among GHG emissions,
energy use and industrial
outcomes, it was obvious that furious discrepancies among
government agencies would arise in regard
to not only details of KETS (i.e., caps, allocations and support
packages) but also the adoption, itself.
To handle this, the function of coordinating discrepancies and
resolving disputes related to KETS was
given to the MOSF. The MOSF is a government agency responsible
for overall economic growth,
inflation and fiscal policies, rather than policies for
environmental soundness. At the same time, it has
historically played the key role in coordinating and resolving
discrepancies associated with policies
and plans that central government agencies carried forward for
implementation. Similar other
economies, the MOSF is known as the most powerful government
branch in Korea.
Given the weak base for KETS, fierce resistance from business
sectors and power imbalance
between the MOE and MOTIE, the MOSF’s role was particularly
critical in the early adoption stages.
To reconcile resistance from industrial sectors and vulnerable
social groups, the MOSF also proposed
support packages to make low-carbon-transition easy by
compensating for losses caused by KETS. As
the MOSF has led the introduction, business sectors were less
concerned about negative economic
impacts than if the MOE had done so. MOSF activities for
introducing KETS included the following:
combining efforts with the PCGG to draft the Enforcement Decree,
establishing the Master Plan,
providing plans for KETS-related fiscal and human resources,
operating and chairing the Allocation
-
Committee (EPAC) and alleviating business sector opposition by
providing a support package to
compensate for losses (see Figure 3 and Tables 5 and 6).
The Ministry of Environment (MOE): An Authority Responsible for
KETS
As illustrated in Tables 5 and 6, the MOE is the competent
authority that shall formulate
Allocation Plans, operate KETS and assume responsibility for its
details. This is stipulated by the
Enforcement Decree. Interestingly, before the enactment of the
Enforcement Decree, the MOE did not
appear in the governance architecture. As noted above, the PCGG,
with strong cross-ministerial
power, played a leading role in legislating laws for
implementing KETS, and the MOSF coordinated
policies associated with KETS and chaired the Allocation
Committee (EPAC). In other words, two
strong government authorities, the PCGG and MOSF, rather than
the MOE had impetus in the early
development stages. This governance framework reflects a strong
will to purse a policy of “GHG
reduction” set by the President of Korea and fortifies the weak
position of the MOE in adopting KETS.
Suggestions made by the MOE are still subject to approval by the
Allocation Committee (EPAC)
chaired by the MOSF minister, first, and then the upper
governance bodies, the GGC (formerly, the
KCGG) and the Cabinet Meeting, to be finalized.
For KETS, the functions of the MOE are multi-faceted: 1) the
establishment of Allocation Plans
and revision of relevant laws or legislations; 2) the actual
operation of KETS, which includes
decisions, notice and verification of allocation, monitoring of
trading markets, promotion of market-
stabilizing measures and operation and management of the
emission permits register; 3) hearing
opinions from industries, experts and civic groups (through the
Allocation Deliberation Committee,
Certification Committee and public hearings), and taking these
into account in operating KETS; 4)
evaluating accomplishments and improving KETS.
Some of these overlap with functions of the GIR (Greenhouse Gas
Inventory and Research
Center of Korea), a government center under the auspices of the
MOE in accordance with the
Enforcement Decree, Article 36 of the Framework Act. To
implement KETS efficiently, the MOE
linked some of its divisions to counterparts of the GIR, as
shown in Figure 4. It is notable that the
MOE built the ETS Task Force team which functioned as a
headquarters in preparing the entire
adoption process. After the KETS began in 2015, the ETS Task
Force team became the Climate
Change Mitigation Division under the Environmental Policy Office
of the MOE. At the same time,
the GIR, which had been heavily involved in the preparation of
KETS, became focused on the
national GHG emission budget management and its designing works
associated with KETS became a
minor part of the GIR.
-
Figure 4. KETS Governance within the Ministry of Environment
(MOE)
: MOE and GIR (GHG Inventory & Research Center)
Source: Lee and ETS Task Force of the Ministry of Environment
(2013).
III. Salient Features of KETS
3.1. Inheritance from a Precursor, the GHG and Energy Target
Management System (TMS)
Before KETS was adopted, several attempts were made to reduce
GHG emissions and total
energy use. In 2010, the government launched a pilot project of
mandatory negotiated agreements on
energy use. This project reduced energy use by 3.7% (relative to
the average of 2007-09) between
2010 and 2012, which was greater than the 3% cut that they
originally proposed (OECD 2011). In
-
2012, this was replaced by the GHG and Energy Target Management
System (henceforth, TMS), a
mandatory negotiated agreement system aiming at curtailing
energy use and GHG emissions, as well.
Under this system, 468 entities in power generation,
manufacturing, building, agriculture, livestock,
waste management and transport negotiated targets with their
relevant government agencies, and this
covered more than 60 percent of total national GHG emissions.
They are also subject to penalties2 in
case of failure to meet the targets. The TMS enabled the
collection of verified emissions data and
training the MRV process of TMS entities, which had become
important components of KETS.
UNEP (2010) addresses the point that it is important to design a
new system to work in
harmonious ways with existing ones. Following this, KETS was
designed to be harmonized with the
previous scheme (in other words, the TMS) and the TMS passed its
characteristics down to KETS. As
a consequence, there are several similarities between the TMS
and KETS (see Table 7). Both attempt
to manage emissions from large emitters, set reduction targets
based on emission records for the last
three years, and have sector reduction target rates in addition
to the national reduction target rate. As
indirect emissions of covered entities, in addition to direct
emissions, are included in the TMS, KETS
used the same practice: taking indirect emissions into account
in setting an entire cap, sector caps,
base emission levels (or BAUs) of covered entities and
allocation across them. Inclusion of indirect
emissions emerged as a critical issue when KETS was adopted.
While KETS covers a facility whose annual GHG emissions exceeded
25,000 tons of CO2e, the
TMS uses a low emission threshold, 15,000 tons of CO2e, in 2015.
Thus, the TMS served as a
stepping stone for emitting facilities (or firms) for KETS (see
Table 8). According to the 1st Master
Plan, the proportion of emissions controlled by the TMS at the
national level was approximately 85%,
and 80% of emissions that had been managed by the TMS has become
the scope of KETS in 2015.
Considerable differences also exist between the two (see Table
7). While KETS designates a
covered entity based on its GHG emissions level, the TMS
considers the amount of energy use in
addition to its emissions level. Unlike KETS, however, the TMS
does not allow covered entities to
trade surpluses or shortages with each other, and penalties for
non-compliance do not increase with
the size of shortages.
Table 7. Comparison between KETS and the TMS Category KETS
Target Management System (TMS)
Reduction
method Market-based tool No market-function (trading is not
allowed)
Competent
authority MOE (competent
authority/establishment of the
Allocation Plan)
MOSF (Chairman of the Allocation
MOE (competent authority of the TMS)
Authorities which deal with controlled
entities (Ministry of Trade, Industry and
Energy; Ministry of Environment; Ministry
2 Ceiling on fine is KRW10,000,000 (approximately
US$10,000).
-
Committee/establishment of the
Master Plan) of Land, Infrastructure and Transport;
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural
Affairs)
Eligible entities All facilities in 5 sectors that have emitted
25,000 tons or more of GHGs
or companies that have emitted
125,000 tons of CO2e per year during
the preceding three years
All facilities (in all sectors) whose GHG
emissions level or energy use exceeds a pre-
defined threshold, which are scheduled to
reduce over time. TMS’s threshold level for
the GHG emissions is lower than that of
KETS Covered GHGs Six greenhouse gases
Direct and indirect emissions
Six greenhouse gases
Direct and indirect emissions Establishment
of emission
reduction targets
Defined by the Allocation Plan
Should reflect the national GHG
emission reduction targets
Emissions target determined in collaboration
with competent authorities in each sector
(MOAFRA, MOTIE, MOLIT and MOE)
Covered entities Determination of entities eligible for the
commitment period (3-5 years)
Eligible entities selected for each pertinent
year Excess reduction Transactions (sale) or banking Terminated
at the end of the compliance
year (no incentive) Treatments when
emissions level
was less than the
emissions certified
Transaction (purchase) or
borrowing/offsetting Recognition of GHG reductions from an
external project (green credit)
Failure to comply
with rules Penalty of not more than three-fold of
the market price of 100,000 won per
ton
Fine for negligence (max. 10 million won)
Table 8. Criteria for Designation of the TMS' Controlled
Entities
2010-2011 2012-2013 Beginning 2014 Company Facility Company
Facility Company Facility GHG emission
(CO2-eq ton)
125,000
or higher
25,000
or higher
87,500
or higher
20,000
or higher
50,000
or higher
15,000
or higher Energy consumption
(Tera Joule)
500
or higher
100
or higher
350
or higher
90
or higher
200
or higher
80
or higher Source: GIR(http://www.gir.go.kr).
As shown in Figure 5, the TMS has a more de-centralized
institutional architecture than KETS. In
the case of KETS, the MOE is exclusively responsible for
implementing the system and manages
emissions from all covered entities. On the other hand, each
controlled entity of the TMS is assigned
to a GHG reduction and energy savings goal, and its fulfillment
is managed by the government. As the
managing agencies of each sector, the Ministry of Agriculture,
Food and Rural Affairs (MOAFRA:
agriculture, forestry, and livestock), Ministry of Trade,
Industry and Energy (MOTIE: industry and
power generation), Ministry of Environment (waste), and Ministry
of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport (MOLIT: buildings and traffic) designate controlled
entities, set goals for each, and directly
manage implementation by each entity by checking implementation
performance and statements. As
these managing agencies set their own sector reduction goals in
favor of their civilian counterparts
(Ben-Gera, 2009), reduction targets of the TMS have been quite
marginal.
http://www.gir.go.kr/
-
Figure 5. Operation of the Target Management System
Source: Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea
(http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=207)
3.2. Inclusion of Direct and Indirect Emissions
In general, either direct or indirect emissions can be subjects
of the ETS, but not both
simultaneously. Most countries do not account for indirect
emissions in the calculation of the cap or
reduction target because of the following reasons: 1) where the
power sector is included in the
calculation of the cap or reduction target rates, the inclusion
of indirect emissions is contrary to the
economic principle of being charged only once for each action;
2) in particular, if the power sector
shifts the burden of buying emissions permits toward the
electricity rate, large electricity-consuming
businesses will be double-burdened, contrary to the principle of
fairness; 3) the quantity of emissions
is double-calculated, making calculation of BAU and reduction
amounts more complicated, hence
damaging the simplicity of the system.
In this sense, it is unique for KETS to include both direct and
indirect emissions associated with
the power sector. Rational grounds for this are as follows.
First, since the proportion of indirect
emissions in Korea is high (above 20%) compared to other
countries, KETS should develop a tool to
reduce indirect emissions. Second, since the electricity price
in Korea is low and does not reflect
changes in costs, covered entities might not reduce their
electricity consumption if only direct
emissions are covered, and could even consume more electricity,
since price competitiveness
improves for electricity as prices of other fuels increase due
to KETS. Given that CO2 intensity is
Ministry of Trade,
Industry and Energy
(industry and power
generation)
management and
supervision)
Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and
Transport
(buildings, traffic)
and power
generation)
management and
supervision)
Ministry of
Agriculture, Food
and Rural Affairs
(food)
Ministry of
Environment
(waste)
GHG Information
(statements, implementation plans, implementation performances,
etc.)
Controlled entities
Verification Institution (3rd party verification)
Ministry of Environment
Managing Agencies
(general management and supervision)
GHG
Inventory
and Research
Center
http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=207
-
highest for electricity production, regulators at the MOE felt
pressure to do something to cut indirect
emissions associated with power generations. Reflecting this,
the Framework Act stipulated inclusion
of indirect emissions, so that the scope of the TMS covers
direct emissions as well as indirect
emissions, following the Framework Act.
However, this has caused controversy regarding double burden on
a single release of emissions—
along with opposition from industrial sectors. Nevertheless, the
MOE did not discard indirect
emissions. See Kim and Lim (2014) for details on the basis for
the inclusion of indirect emissions and
the reflection of indirect emissions on the cap. As expected, in
fall 2014, the industrial sector showed
strong opposition to the Allocation Plan and criticized the
inclusion of indirect emissions in the scope
of KETS. Responding to this opposition, the MOE lowered the
reduction rate for indirect emissions
and, therefore, the cap level finalized in September 2014 was
increased compared to the previous
level released in June.
3.3. Cap-setting based on BAU Scenarios
The cap, the upper limit of an aggregate GHG allowance budget on
covered entities in a scheme,
is an essential component of a scheme. In Korea, setting a cap
became an extremely difficult task and
triggered a lengthy and fierce dispute. The KETS cap for the
first commitment period was derived
through the following steps: calculating target emission levels
for 2020 drawing a grand map for
2020 to curb nation’s emissions setting the KETS cap for the
first commitment period covering the
2015-2017 period.
National emission target for 2020
In Annex 1 countries, national target emission levels were set
in relation to historical emissions,
often referred to as a base year. As noted above, Korea’s
national reduction target for 2020 was set in
relation to a projected future emission level in 2020 (e.g.,
against a business-as-usual scenario). In fact,
a national reduction target in the BAU scenario reflects a
difficult position faced by the Korean
government. Given Korea’s high CO2-intensity, it was almost
impossible for regulators to set a
national target that both the international community and
citizens could agree on. Difficulties were
encountered in presenting a reduction target lower than those of
other developing countries, which
promised reduction cuts of 30~40 percent by 2020. A series of
discussions were held among
government experts and business representatives, and various
reduction scenarios were considered.
Then, regulators chose “4% of 2005 GHG emissions” as the
national reduction target, taking into
account the domestic industrial structure and international
economic trends. The target of 4 percent,
-
however, was lower than that for other countries—the EU
announced a reduction target of 6 percent
of 1990 GHG emissions. Strongly motivated by a desire to present
to the international community
with a formidable figure, the Korean government eventually
adopted the concept, “business as usual,”
to its pledge. Under this concept, a reduction of 4 percent of
2005 emissions by 2020 is actually
equivalent to the reduction of 30 percent of projected 2020
emissions. The two-digit figure was
effective in asserting Korea’s active commitment. In addition,
the target level declared by Korea was
among the highest of the IPCC recommendations for Non-Annex I
economies—a decrease of 15~30
percent of GHG emissions, and likely to be accepted without
difficulty by the international
community. It is worth noting that this national reduction
target was stipulated in Article 25(1) of the
Enforcement Decree of the Framework Act and, therefore, the
target became solidified in 2010.
This pledge to utilize the concept of BAU, however, has invited
many problems. Although a
reduction target in relation to a historical level (“4% of 2005
GHG emissions”) was the base for
Korea’s pledge in relation to a projected level (“30 percent
reduction by 2020 under the BAU
scenario”), a national target emissions level is viewed as a
figure that can be updated as a new
projection becomes available, instead of a fixed number. As
predictions of future emission levels
largely depend on forecasting methods and data used, it is
unavoidable to have disputes on the figure
related to setting caps for KETS as well as the INDC (intended
nationally determined contributions)
of Korea.
Roadmap to curve national GHG emissions
Although the Framework Act stipulated a 30 percent reduction
compared to the BAU scenario,
the BAU emissions level itself remained incomplete by late 2013.
In fact, an initial version of the
BAU level had been estimated in 2009 at 7.76 billion tons of
CO2e when Korea’s pledge for the
Copenhagen Meeting had been prepared. However, as the year 2015
approached, the industrial sector
requested to use the latest data and to re-estimate the BAU
level as of 2013, and their request was
accepted. Accordingly, the government was expected to release a
revised 2020 emissions forecast
under a BAU scenario in 2013, prior to the release of the Master
Plan in December 2013.
In order to complete this mission, the government formed an
inter-ministerial expert working
group led by the MOE in 2013. The mission of the working group
was not only to re-estimate the
BAU level but also to draw the “National Greenhouse Gas
Emissions Reduction Roadmap 2020
(henceforth, the Roadmap).” The Roadmap is the national action
plan reducing GHG emissions to the
target emissions level in 2020 and identifying reduction
capacity and abatement methods by emission
sectors. Due to data limitation and insoluble conflicts among
stakeholders, it was next to impossible to
-
fix total national BAU levels as well as sector BAUs with strong
empirical evidence. At last, the draft
of the Roadmap was finalized in November 2013, and the final
version in January 2014.
According to the Roadmap, compared to the BAU estimates in 2009,
the amount of anticipated
emissions from the industrial sector decreased, while a large
increase was seen from power generation.
In spite of these changes in the distribution of emissions, a
gap in the aggregate between old and new
estimates was minute, approximately 3 percent. The government
concluded that the benefits of
updating would not be significant enough to compensate for the
burden of altering the BAU estimate
and adjusting Korea’s pledge to the international community.
Thus, the government decided to abide
by the BAU estimate for 2020 that was estimated in 2009 (7.76
billion tons of CO2). The Roadmap
also projected BAU estimates and national emissions targets for
the first commitment period (2015-
2017), as shown in Table 9. These national emissions targets
became bases of KETS caps.
One of the salient features of Korea’s emissions reduction
targets and KETS is that it defines
emissions reduction targets by sectors and industries. After the
announcement of the nation’s
reduction in 2010, the government organized groups of experts
consisting of industry specialists,
economists and mitigation scientists and predicted 2020 BAU
emission levels and mitigation capacity
for each sector. Table 10 summarizes the results of this work.
For example, industrial sectors
contributed 53.7 percent of the nation’s GHG emissions in 2014
and its target emission level in 2020
is 434.6 million tons of CO2e (56 percent of the national BAU of
2020, 776.1 million tons of CO2e).
To achieve the target emission level in 2020, industrial sectors
should reduce GHG emissions by 18.5
percent below the BAU level by the year 2020. In 2011, the
government announced these figures,
sector BAU projections and sector GHG target reduction rates
(see appendix tables, Table A1 and
A2)3. Since then, these figures have been used as references for
abatement policies such as the TMS
and KETS.
In 2013 when the total 2020 BAU level was re-estimated, sector
levels of 2020 BAU emissions
were also re-calculated and founded to be largely different from
those estimated in 2011. However, as
the initial estimate of 2010 for the national BAU emission level
of 2020 was maintained, no updates
were made for sector target emission levels and target reduction
rates. This partitioning of the national
BAU as well as target emissions into sector BAUs and emission
targets is also applied in the cap
setting scheme for KETS. The KETS cap is divided into sector
caps which sector-specific emission
targets, and reduction rates determined in 2010 were
applied.
3 As in Table 8, transportation and building were identified as
sectors which had large potential to reduce GHG
emissions while reduction potentials of agriculture, forestry
and fishing and waste management were pretty limited.
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Table 9. National BAU level, Emissions Targets and the KETS Cap
for the First Commitment Period
Category (unit) / year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2020
National BAU
(1 million tons of CO2e) 694.5 709.0 720.8 733.4 776.1
National reduction rate
(% to BAU) 5.1 10.0 13.8 16.2 30.0
National emissions target
(1 million tons of CO2e) 659.1 637.8 621.2 614.3 569.0
Yearly reduction rate
(%) - 3.2 2.6 1.1
Cap*
(1 million tons of CO2e) - 573.5 562.2 550.9 -
Note: * The KETS cap includes the amount of indirect emissions,
while others do not. Source: The Allocation Plan (2014).
Table 10. The Distribution of GHG Emissions in 2020 across
Sectors and Target Reduction Rates
Category Industry* Transportation Building
Agriculture,
Forestry
and Fishing
Waste
Management
Public
Sector Total
Proportion of each
sector to the total BAU
of 2020 (BAU) (%)
56.0 13.2 22.0 3.6 1.7 2.3 100
Sector reduction rate
compared to the BAU
estimate of 2020 (%)
18.5 34.3 26.9 5.2 12.3 25.0 30.0**
Proportion of each
sector to the total BAU
of 2014 (BAU) (%)
53.7 13.7 22.2 4.3 2.1 2.5 100
Note: *The reduction target for industrial energy is 7.1%. **
The national reduction rate was calculated by
adding the reduction amount (68.19 million tons) from conversion
(power sector) to the reduction rate of each
sector. Source: National GHG Emissions Reduction Roadmap; Press
release by MOE (28th January 2014).
This creates a number of fairness concerns. Suppose that there
are ten entities in a sector and,
according to predictions in 2010, its sector cap was set at 10
million tons of CO2e each year during
2015-17. However, predictions in 2010 are incorrect and its
sector BAU during 2015-17 is much
lower than predicted and there are only 2 entities in that
sector. Under this situation, 5 million tons of
CO2e will be allocated to two entities and they can enjoy
over-allocation.
Previously, a study for drafting the 1st Master Plan raised
concerns about drawing clear lines of
demarcation between sectors since such is likely to result in
inefficiency and inflexibility in the
operation of KETS. In 2015, elimination of sector caps has
become one of major improvement points
for the second phase of KETS.
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The KETS Cap for the first Commitment Period
There are several references related to cap-setting of KETS.
First, the Enforcement Decree stated
that the KETS cap and sector caps shall be set by taking into
account sector-specific GHG reduction
rates and proportions of sector emissions to national emissions,
which were determined in 2010
(Article 5-4-1). Second, the Enforcement Decree stated that the
Master Plan shall provide cap-setting
principles to the Allocation Plan, considering the national GHG
reduction goal, economic growth and
competitiveness of industrial sectors in international markets.
Key principles suggested by the first
Master Plan are as follows: the formula to set the cap should be
simple and accountable; a linear
reduction schedule should be considered; the principle of
fairness should be applied, which implies
that emitters should have the same burden in achieving the
national GHG reduction goal, regardless of
inclusion in KETS. This was interpreted by the Allocation Plan
to mean that the proportion of sector
emission cap for sector J in the KETS shall be equal to that of
sector target emissions for sector J in
the national target for emission. With minor modifications, this
was reflected when total cap and
sector caps for the first commitment period were determined.
Method ① shown in Table 11 is close to the original formula
suggested by laws. The cap for
sector J in the first commitment period is calculated as
follows: 1) the emissions target for 2020 is
calculated by applying the pre-determined reduction rate by
sector ( ) to the estimate of 2020 BAU
emissions in sector J addressed in the Roadmap, 2) in compliance
with a linearity reduction rule
proposed by the Master Plan, the annual linear reduction factor
( ) between 2015-2020 is computed,
3) target emissions or the sector cap for sector J in year t, ,
is obtained as a product of
and sector J’s emission level in 2015, , 4) by adding indirect
emissions for
sector J in year t, the cap of sector J is computed. Once the
sector cap is calculated, the amount of
allowances allocated to a covered entity x of sector J in year t
can be computed as the modified target
emissions of sector J (i.e., the sector cap, ) in year t and ,
the proportion of x’s average
emissions to the average total emissions of sector J during base
years (i.e., 2011-2013).
In this approach, the calculation of needs the sector growth
rate until 2020 and a target
reduction rate ( ) is based on the mitigation capacity of sector
J. Since these parameters (i.e., sector
J’s growth rate and the mitigation capacity until 2020) are not
conclusive but estimates, there are
uncertainties associated with the calculation. While the sum of
BAU estimates, , does
not vary across researchers, there are notable differences in
sector estimates. Several industrial groups
including the Korean Association of Steel Manufacturers are
planning to sue the Korean government
by challenging the current Allocation Plan specifically
regarding the appropriateness of calculations
of the sector BAU and cap.
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Table 11. Calculation Methods for the First Commitment Period
for ETS cap
Formula reflecting Framework Act
and the ETS Act (Method ①)
Formula used in the Allocation Plan
(Method ②)
Nation
-wide
BAU in 2000
= Estimated Estimated
BAU in 2015
= Estimated Estimated
National reduction rate
= Announced in 2010 Announced in 2010
Target emissions in 2020
=
Annual reduction rate
= Target emissions in year t
=
Modified target emissions
in year t =
Historical (base year)
emissions =
Observed
(including indirect emissions)
Sector
J in
KETS
①
BAU in 2020
= Estimated Estimated
BAU in 2015
= Estimated Estimated
Reduction rate
= Announced in 2011 Announced in 2011
Target emissions in 2020
=
Annual reduction rate
=
Target emissions in year t
=
Modified target emissions
in year t =
KETS①
KETS②
Historical (base year)
emissions = Observed
(including indirect emissions)
Proportion of the KETS
= r
/
Total cap in year t
=
Sector
J in
KETS
②
Historical (base year)
emissions = Observed
(including indirect emissions)
Observed
(including indirect emissions)
ETS Cap for Sector J in
year t = ] ]
Note: Estimates and targets in the shaded areas had been
determined before the Allocation Plan was made. They
are determined in 2010 and 2011, and re-addressed by the
Roadmap. denotes the nation’s
annual average amount of modified emissions in 2011~2013.
Source: Authors summarized the cap setting process and
allocation formula of the 1st Allocation Plan.
-
To reduce the degree of uncertainty and possible conflicts
associated with ambiguity in the
allocation formula, a different method, Method ②, was employed
in the Allocation Plan. In this
approach, uncertainty is less reflected. As shown in Table 11,
the KETS entire cap and sector caps are
calculated as follows: 1) the proportion of total emissions
covered by KETS to national emissions, r,
is computed based on a base three year average of historical
emissions of all covered entities in KETS
and that of the nation, / , 2) Then, the total cap of KETS in
year t, , is
computed as a product of r and the modified national target
emissions level, . Here, is defined
in the Roadmap and computed as , where is the predicted BAU
emissions level in 2015 and is the national reduction target
rate to achieve Korea’s pledge
submitted to the Copenhagen Accord in 2010, a reduction of 30
percent of greenhouse gas emissions
below the business-as-usual (BAU) level by the year 2020, 3) The
cap of Sector J in year t, , is
obtained as a product of and the proportion of emissions
produced by covered entities in Sector
J to the total emissions of all covered entities during the 3
base years, . The
amount of allowances allocated to a covered entity x of sector J
in year t is the same as that of Method
①, a product of and .
With the KETS cap for the first three years of KETS (2015~17),
the Allocation Plan can adjust
yearly targets, taking into consideration burdens on the
industrial sector, while clarifying that the
principle of medium-to-long-term linear reduction should be met.
Final outcomes of the BAU and
sector caps are shown in Table A3, at the end of this paper.
3.3. Other Components of KETS
Other key contents of KETS are summarized and compared with
those of the EU ETS in Table
12. In Table 12, similarities between the EU ETS and KETS are
easily found. KETS has been
designed to be suitable for domestic situations as well as to be
compatible with international standards.
Since the EU ETS is generally considered as an explicit
reference, details of the EU ETS were studied
carefully by Korean policy makers and scholars who conducted a
series of studies on designing KETS.
In fact, benchmarking the EU ETS provides several advantages,
avoiding mistakes and disagreements
that may arise in the process of creating a new policy, saving
costs and architectural details of a policy,
and learning lessons from an existing scheme in practice.
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Coverage and Scope
According to Article 42(5) of the Framework Act, an entity
previously controlled by the TMS
becomes a subject of KETS. This implies that 23 sub-sectors in 5
sectors controlled by the TMS come
under the scope of the KETS.
Unlike the EU ETS, which uses an installation as its compliance
unit, the compliance unit for
KETS is either a firm or a facility. In Act 8 of the Emission
Trading Act, two criteria to designate
covered entities for allocation are listed: a firm that releases
not less than 125,000 tonnes of CO2e on
an annual basis and a facility that releases not less than
25,000 tonnes of CO2e on an annual basis.
This has triggered several questions; for instance, a business
entity operating several facilities, some
of which release not less than 25,000 tonnes of CO2e on an
annual basis, but all of which release not
more than 125,000 tonnes of CO2e. Should each be treated as a
single business unit, or should all be
treated as one business entity? In the Act, “a business entity
with a facility” that has produced 25,000
tonnes of CO2 equivalents (CO2e) is regarded as a business
entity eligible for allocation, implying
that the unit is “a business entity.” In this sense, it should
be understood that in the case of a business
entity with a facility that has produced 25,000 tonnes of CO2e
per year, no matter how many facilities
it has, the business entity shall be treated as a single
unit.
Another question arises in the case of a business entity with
one facility whose annual emission
amount is not less than 25,000 tonnes of CO2e and another whose
annual emission amount is slightly
less than 25,000 tonnes of CO2e. When the Act is applied, the
former would be subject to KETS, and
the latter would be subject to the TMS, even though both belong
to a single business entity (a firm). In
this case, should the business entity fall under KETS and TMS,
respectively? Or, should all facilities
of a firm be taken under the coverage of the KETS so that the
business entity would be responsible
only for the regulations under KETS? There would be, of course,
no problem at all if the entity is
willing to implement both KETS and the TMS, respectively,
according to the amount of emissions
released by its places of business. However, an entity that
finds this cumbersome could turn its place
of business, whose emissions do not exceed 25,000 tonnes of
CO2e, into a voluntary participant under
Article 8 (1) 2 of the Emission Trading Act by filing an
application for designation as a business
entity eligible for allocation. In doing so, the business entity
could make both of its places of business
eligible for KETS; hence operational problems do not exist.
However, even if the compliance unit is either a firm or a
facility, the statement (a report on the
amount of GHG emissions produced) needs to be reformed in terms
of the unit of installation or
product, as in the case of the EU ETS. Otherwise, an
output-based free allocation scheme, such as
benchmarks, is difficult to adopt. It is well recognized that
investment in low-carbon technologies or
dynamic efficiency of the ETS increases as the allocation method
changes from grandfathering-based
-
free allocation to benchmarking-based free allocation and,
again, to auction. With the presence of a
limit of auctioned allowances, the first Master Plan required
extensive use of benchmarks in the 2nd
commitment period. To make benchmarks work, the reporting of
emissions and activity level should
be made at the product level. Thus, the current format of
statements reported at either a firm or facility
level should be changed, which seems to an administrative burden
for the near future.
Phases or Commitment Periods
As stated in Article 46(1) of the Framework Act, the
implementation of KETS was already under
consideration at the time of the enactment of the Framework Act
in 2010. Details were scheduled to
be defined in a separate law, since preparation for its
implementation was expected to take time.
Accordingly, the government initially planned for KETS to
commence on January 1st 2013, based on
the belief that three years would be sufficient to prepare KETS.
Industrial sectors, on the other hand,
opposed the schedule for reasons of delayed preparation and the
necessity of reviewing international
cases concerning implementation. The government, as well,
considered it partly necessary to postpone
the launch so that it would be able to gather more reliable
information on GHG emissions through the
TMS. Consequently, a two-year postponement from 2013 was agreed
on by the government as and
industrial sectors. This decision was stipulated in Article 2 of
the Emission Trading Act.
According to the Enforcement Decree, KETS is being implemented
in three phases: the first
commitment period (2015–2017), the second commitment period
(2018-2020) and a five- year
commitment period (2021–2025). Similar to the pilot period and a
general commitment period of the
EU ETS, KETS allotted 3 years for the first two commitment
periods and 5 years for every
commitment periods after the first two phases. The second
commitment period covers 3 years in order
to match the 2020 timeline associated with the government’s
pledge submitted to the Copenhagen
Accord. The first Master Plan covering the first three
commitment periods was intended to set period-
specific goals and primary focuses. As summarized in Table 13,
the most important goal in each
commitment period is slightly different: soft landing of KETS
for the first; full-scale GHG reductions
for the second and the third. By reflecting these main goals,
generous treatments of covered entities
are proposed for the first commitment period, while accurate and
strict application of MRV practices
and decreases in the ratio of allowances distributed free of
charge are planned for subsequent periods.
Plan for the Ratio of Allowances Distributed Free of Charge
The ratio of free allocated allowances originally envisioned by
the government was 90 percent of
the total allowances in the first commitment period (2015~2017)
and then zero percent in the third
-
commitment period, starting in 2021. This plan was considered
quite radical compared to the EU plan,
which intends the same (zero free allocation) starting in 2027.
Hence, opposition from covered
entities was so strong that a schedule of applying auctions
slowed down (in other words, the
proportion of free allocated allowances decreased). After a
series of revisions, the ratio of free
allocated allowances is set to be 100 percent and 97 percent for
the first and the second commitment
periods, respectively, with the percentage to be determined by
the Allocation Plan but not higher than
90 percent of total emission permits in subsequent periods.
When a sector qualifies as a vulnerable sector with the threat
of losing international price
competitiveness due to KETS, all entities within the sector will
receive free allowances continuously
equivalent to their target emission levels. As with the EU ETS,
vulnerability of a sector is assessed by
the MOE based on the sector’s carbon costs and exposure to
international trade. A sector is considered
to have a serious disadvantages due to the adoption of KETS if
it satisfies any of the following
criteria: 1) carbon cost criterion -