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Cover photo: Strain in graphene opens up apseudomagnetic gap. Generated by the CondensedMatter Physics Group at the University ofManchester, this image is a representation of thework at Manchester lead by Professor Andre Geim
FRS, a Royal Society Research Professor, andProfessor Konstantin Novoselov, a Royal SocietyUniversity Research Fellow. Professors Geim andNovoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physicsin 2010 for their groundbreaking experimentsregarding graphene, a form of carbon, which is thethinnest and strongest material ever isolated. Both
men have been cited since their award as global
scientists; both were born and studied in Russia,spent time in the Netherlands, and are now basedhere in the UK, attracting funding and accoladesfrom UK, European, and international sources. Paco Guinea 2010.
Knowledge, Networks andNations: Global scientificcollaboration in the 21st century
RS Policy document 03/11
Issued: March 2011 DES2096
ISBN: 978-0-85403-890-9
The Royal Society, 2011
Requests to reproduce all or part of this
document should be submitted to:
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Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 3
Executive summary .................................... 5
Recommendations ...................................... 8
The Advisory Group .................................. 10
Conduct of the study .................................11
Introduction: going global ........................ 14
Part 1: Scientific landscape in 2011 ......... 151.1Trendsanddevelopmentsinglobalscience...16 1.1.1 Emergingscientificnations.........................19 1.1.2Assessingresearchqualityandimpact.....24 1.1.3 Globalscientists...........................................26 1.1.4 Braingain,drainandcirculation.................26 1.1.5 Disciplinaryshifts?........................................28 1.1.6 Readingtheresearch...................................29 1.1.7 Openingaccess............................................301.2Applyingscience................................................31 1.2.1BusinessR&D...............................................31 Is business R&D recession proof?...............32 Location of business R&D............................32 1.2.2Patentgrowth...............................................331.3Driversofresearch.............................................34 1.3.1Securingprosperityand stayingcompetitive......................................35
1.3.2Addressingglobalchallenges.....................36 1.3.3Nationalscienceinaglobalage.................361.4Centresforscience............................................37 1.4.1Centresofresearchandinfrastructure......391.5Anewworldorder?........................................... 411.6Theworldbeyond2011.....................................42
Part 2: International collaboration............452.1Patternsofcollaboration....................................46 2.1.1 Collaborationinanationalcontext.............47 2.1.2Whoiscollaboratingwithwhom?.............492.2Regionalcollaboration.......................................54 2.2.1SouthSouthcollaboration: agrowingtrend............................................542.3Whycollaborate?...............................................57
2.3.1Seekingexcellence......................................57 2.3.2Thebenefitsofjointauthorship..................59 2.3.3Capacitybuildingthroughcollaboration....61 2.3.4Thegeopoliticalpotentialof scientificcollaboration.................................622.4Underlyingnetworks.........................................62 2.4.1Tappingintotheglobalnetworks ofscience......................................................632.5Enablingcollaborationtopromote excellentscience................................................64 2.5.1Technology....................................................64 2.5.2Fundingmechanisms..................................672.6Harnessingcollaboration...................................70
Contents
Designsofvasesandteapotsthat
wouldbefoundinahouseofamerchantinCanton,fromDesignsof Chinese buildings,byWilliamChambers,1757.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
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4 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Part 3: Global approachesto global problems .................................... 713.1Scientificsolutions.............................................733.2Globalresearchgovernance.............................74 3.2.1Challenge-ledresearchinitiatives...............75 3.2.2Integratingchallengesand maximisingresources..................................77 3.2.3Buildingcapacityandresilience.................78
3.3Casestudies.......................................................79 3.3.1Theworldslargestwarningsystem: theIntergovernmentalPanelon ClimateChange(IPCC)................................80 3.3.2Centresofexcellenceinagriculture: theConsultativeGrouponInternational AgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)....................83 3.3.3Atransformativeimpactonglobalhealth: theBillandMelindaGatesFoundation......86 3.3.4Towardssustainableenergy: theInternationalTokamak ExperimentalReactor(ITER).......................90 3.3.5CapturingtheinitiativeonCO
2:
theglobaleffortstodeploycarbon captureandstorage(CCS)technology......933.4Co-ordinatedeffortstotackle globalproblems..................................................97
Conclusions and recommendations:Cultivating the globalscientific landscape................................. 103
Glossary of acronyms ............................. 108
Acknowledgments ...................................110
MapofChina,fromAn embassy fromthe East-India Company of the UnitedProvinces to the Grand Tartar Cham,byJohnNieuhoff,1669.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
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Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 5
Scienceisaglobalenterprise.Todaythereareover7millionresearchersaroundtheworld,drawingonacombinedinternationalR&DspendofoverUS$1000billion(a45%increasesince2002),andreadingandpublishinginaround25,000separatescientificjournalsperyear.Theseresearcherscollaboratewitheachother,motivatedbywishingtoworkwiththeverybestpeopleandfacilitiesinthe
world,andbycuriosity,seekingnewknowledgetoadvancetheirfieldortotacklespecificproblems.
Knowledge, Networks and Nationsreviews,basedonavailabledata,thechangingpatternsofscience,andscientificcollaboration,inordertoprovideabasisforunderstandingsuchongoingchanges.Itaimstoidentifytheopportunitiesandbenefitsofinternationalcollaboration,toconsiderhowtheycanbestberealised,andtoinitiateadebateonhowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbeharnessedtotackleglobalproblemsmoreeffectively.FromSingaporetoSouthAfrica,newresearchers
andresearchcommunitiesarereshapingthelandscapeforscienceandinnovation,solongdominatedbytheUSA,JapanandEurope.Thisreportexploresthischanginggeographyofscienceandinnovation.InPart1,itmapsandinvestigateswhereandhowscienceisbeingcarriedoutaroundtheworldandthewaysinwhichthispictureis
changing. Science in 2011 is increasingly global,occurringinmoreandmoreplacesthaneverbefore.Scienceisaddressingquestionsofglobalsignificance.Itissupportedbygovernments,business,philanthropistsandcharities.
Thereareparticularcountrieswherethisincreasedactivityisespeciallystriking,withinvestmentandscientificproductivityoutstrippinggeneraltrendsofgrowth.TheriseofChinahasbeenespeciallynotable,overtakingJapanandEuropeintermsofitspublicationoutputinrecentyears.BeyondChina,rapiddevelopmentshavealsotakenplaceinIndia, Brazilandnew emergent scientific
nationsintheMiddleEast,South-EastAsiaandNorthAfrica,aswellasastrengtheningofthesmallerEuropeannations.
However,the traditional scientificsuperpowers still lead the field.TheUSA,WesternEuropeandJapanallinvestheavilyinresearchandreceiveasubstantialreturnintermsofperformance,withlargenumbersofresearcharticles,thelionsshareofcitationsonthosearticles,andsuccessfultranslation,asseenthroughtheratesofpatentregistration.
Thecontinuedstrengthofthetraditionalcentresofscientificexcellenceandtheemergenceofnewplayersandleaderspointtowardsanincreasinglymultipolar scientific world,inwhichthedistributionofscientificactivityisconcentratedinanumberofwidelydispersedhubs.
Beyond these hubs, science is alsoflourishing.Therecognitionoftherole
thatsciencecanplayindrivingeconomicdevelopment,andinaddressinglocalandglobalissuesofsustainability,hasledtoincreasedresearchactivityandtheapplicationofscientificmethodandresultswithinlessdevelopedcountries.
Executive summary
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6 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Part2revealstheshiftingpatternsofinternationalcollaboration.Internationalscienceislargelyconductedthroughbottom-up,informalconnections,asscientistsbecomemoremobileandaslargeandoftencomplexdataaresharedattheclickofabutton.Buttop-down,solutions-orientedinitiativesarealsohelpingtoshapetheresearchlandscape,asscientistsorganisethemselves,orarebeing
organised,totacklesharedconcerns. The scientific world is becoming increasinglyinterconnected,with internationalcollaboration on the rise.Todayover35%ofarticlespublishedininternationaljournalsareinternationallycollaborative,upfrom25%15yearsago.
Collaboration is growing for a variety ofreasons.Developmentsincommunicationtechnologiesandcheapertravelmakeiteasierthaneverbeforeforresearcherstoworktogether;thescaleofresearchquestions,andtheequipmentrequiredtostudydemandsthatresearchersaremobileandresponsive.Collaborationenhances the qualityofscientificresearch,improves the efficiencyand effectivenessofthatresearch,andisincreasingly necessary,asthescaleofbothbudgetsandresearchchallengesgrow.
However,the primary driver of mostcollaboration is the scientists themselves.Indevelopingtheirresearchandfindinganswers,scientistsareseekingtoworkwiththebestpeople,institutionsandequipmentwhichcomplementtheirresearch,wherevertheymaybe.
Theconnectionsofpeople,throughformalandinformalchannels,diasporacommunities,virtualglobalnetworksandprofessionalcommunitiesofsharedinterestsareimportantdriversofinternationalcollaboration.These networksspan the globe. Motivated by the bottom-up
exchange of scientific insight, knowledge
and skills, they are changing the focus of
science from the national to the global level.Yetlittleisunderstoodaboutthedynamicsofnetworkingandthemobilityofscientists,howtheseaffectglobalscienceandhowbesttoharnessthesenetworkstocatalyseinternationalcollaboration.
Collaboration brings significant benefits,bothmeasurable(suchasincreasedcitationimpactandaccesstonewmarkets),andlesseasilyquantifiableoutputs,suchasbroadeningresearchhorizons.Thefacilitationofcollaboration,therefore,hasapositiveimpactnotonlyonthescienceconducted,butonthebroaderobjectivesforanysciencesystem(bethatenhancingdomesticprosperityoraddressingspecificchallenges).
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Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 7
Part3ofthisreportexplorestheroleofinternationalscientificcollaborationinaddressingsomeofthemostpressingglobalchallengesofourtime.Thereportconcentratesonfivecasestudies,andconsidersthestrengthsandshortcomingsofexistingmechanismswhichbringscientificcommunitiestogethertoaddressglobalchallenges.IPCC, CGIAR, the Gates Foundation, ITER and
efforts to deploy carbon capture and storagetechnologydemonstratehowscienceisalreadybeingusedtorespondtothesechallenges,andprovidemodelsandlessonsforhowitmightbebetterdeployedinthefuture. Theglobalscientificcommunityisincreasinglychargedwithordrivenbytheneedtofindsolutionstoarangeofissuesthatthreatensustainability.These global challenges havereceived much attention in recent years, and
are now a key component of national and
multinational science strategies and many
funding mechanisms. Global challenges are interdependent and
interrelated:climatechange,water,foodandenergysecurity,populationchange,andlossofbiodiversityareallinterconnected.Thedynamicbetweentheseissuesiscomplex,yetmanyglobalassessmentandresearchprogrammes
aremanagedseparately,oftenreflectingalackofco-ordinationinthepolicysphere.Governments,civilsocietyandtheprivatesectorneedtotakeabroaderperspectiveonglobalchallengesinordertoappreciatehowtheyareinterrelated.
Globalchallengesarebeingaddressedviaanumberofdifferentorganisationalmechanisms:throughintergovernmentalorinternationalbodies,throughnationalsystems,andbyprivateindividualsandcorporations.Thesemechanismsoftendeploynovelandinnovativeformsofpartnership,someofwhichworkwell,otherslessso.Valuable lessons can be drawn from
existing models in designing, participatingin and benefiting from global challenge
research. Science is essential for addressing global
challenges, but it cannot do so in isolation.Awiderangeofapproacheswillberequired,includingtheappropriateuseoffinancialincentives,incorporatingnon-traditionalformsofknowledge,andworkingwiththesocialsciencesandwiderdisciplines.Scienceiscrucialbutitisunlikelytoproducealltheanswersbyitself:thescienceinfrastructureworksbestwhenitissupportedby,andenables,othersystems.
All countries have a role in the global effortto tackle these challenges,bothindefiningandprioritisingthemandinusingglobalresearchoutputtoinformlocal,nationalandregionalresponses.Thisneedisincreasinglybeingacknowledgedforinclusivityandcapacitybuilding
acrossregionsandcontinents,inhelpingtomeet(national)needs,andindevelopingaglobalinfrastructurethatisresilienttonewchallenges.
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8 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Knowledge, Networks and Nations
concludes with a set of recommendations
to further strengthen global science.Thisreportcallsformorecreative,flexibleandbetter-resourcedmechanismstoco-ordinateresearchacrossinternationalnetworksandtoensurethatscientistsandsciencecanfulfiltheirpotential.Italsocallsformorecomprehensiveandinclusiveways
ofmeasuringandevaluatingthesciencewhichisdeliveredandappliedinallitsformsaroundtheworld.Finally,thereporthighlightstheimportanceofscienceandthewiderevidencebaseinunderpinningrobustpolicymaking,especiallyaroundsharedglobalchallenges.Understandingglobalsciencesystems,their
mechanismsandmotivations,isessentialifwearetoharnesstheverybestsciencetoaddressglobalchallengesandtosecurethefutureofourspeciesandourplanet.
Recommendations1. Support for international science should be
maintained and strengthened
Evenindifficulteconomictimes,nationalgovernments need to maintain investment
in their science basetosecureeconomicprosperity,tapintonewsourcesofinnovationand
growth,andsustainvitalconnectionsacrosstheglobalresearchlandscape.Sustainedinvestmentbuildsanationscapacitytoassimilateexcellentscience,whereveritmayhavebeenconducted,forthatcountrysbenefit.
International activities and collaborationshould be embedded in national science
and innovation strategiessothatthedomesticsciencebaseisbestplacedtobenefitfromthe
intellectualandfinancialleverageofinternationalpartnerships.
Commitments to multinational researchefforts and infrastructures should not be
seen as easy targets for cuts during a period
of economic turbulence.Tocutsubscriptionstojointresearchendeavours,withoutduediligenceandassessment,isafalseeconomy.Bydisengagingfromtheseefforts,countriesruntheriskofisolatingtheirnationalscienceandlosing
relevance,qualityandimpact.
2. Internationally collaborative science should be
encouraged, supported and facilitated
Research funders should provide greatersupport for international research
collaborationthroughresearchandmobilitygrants,andothermechanismsthatsupportresearchnetworks.
National border agencies should minimisebarriers to the flow of talented people,ensuringthatmigrationandvisaregulationsarenottoobureaucratic,anddonotimpedeaccessforresearcherstothebestscienceandresearchacrosstheworld.
National research policies should be flexibleand adaptiveinordertoensurethatinternationalcollaborationbetweentalentedscientistsisnotstifledbybureaucracy.
3. National and international strategies for
science are required to address global
challenges
Recognisingtheinterconnectednessofglobalchallenges,funders of global challengeprogrammes should devise ways to better
co-ordinate their efforts, share good practice,
minimise duplication and maximise impact.
Wherepossible,theseshoulddrawonexistinginfrastructureorsharedtechnology.
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Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 9
National research funding should beadaptive and responsive to global challenges,supportingtheinterdisciplinaryandcollaborativenatureofthesciencerequiredtoaddresstheseissues.
In devising responses to global challenges,governments worldwide need to rely on
robust evidence-based policy making,and
bringexcellentscientistsintothepolicyadvisoryprocess.
4. International capacity building is crucial to
ensure that the impacts of scientific research
are shared globally
Researchers and funders should commit tobuilding scientific capacity in less developed
countriestohelpimprovetheirabilitytoconduct,access,verifyandusethebestscience,andtoensurethattheycancontributetoglobalscientificdebatesanddeveloplocalsolutionstoglobalproblems.
Scientific capacity building must involvefinancial support for authors in developing
countries to publish in open access journals.Openaccesspublishinghasmadeawealthofscientificliteratureavailabletothedevelopingworld,butconverselyhasmadeitharderfor
theirscientiststopublishundertheauthorpaysmodel.
National academies, learned societies andother similar institutions should actively
promote public and wider stakeholder
dialogue to help identify, shape and
respond to global challenges and their local
manifestations.
5. Better indicators are required in order to
properly evaluate global science
UNESCO (and other agencies such as theOECD) should investigate new ways in which
trends in global science can be captured,
quantified and benchmarked,inordertohelpimprovetheaccuracyofassessmentsofthequality,useandwiderimpactofscience,
aswellastogaugethevitalityoftheresearchenvironment. There is a specific lack of data on the flow
and migration of talented scientists and
their diaspora networks.UNESCO,OECDandothersshouldinvestigatewaysofcapturingthisinformationasapriority,whichwouldenablepolicymakerstobetterunderstand,nurtureandoverseeglobalscienceforthebenefitofsocietyasawhole.
Instructivememoireonthenewchronologicaltableofthehistory
ofChina,bytheViceroyofCanton,1724.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
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10 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Advisory GroupProfessorSirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS(Chair),DirectorofEnergyResearch,UniversityofOxfordProfessorSirLeszekBorysiewiczKBEFRS,ViceChancellor,UniversityofCambridgeProfessorLornaCasseltonFRS,ForeignSecretaryandVicePresident,TheRoyalSocietyProfessorSirGordonConwayKCMGDLFRSFRGS,
ProfessorofInternationalDevelopment,ImperialCollegeLondonProfessorMohamedHassan,Co-Chair,InterAcademyPanel(IAP);ExecutiveDirectoroftheAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS)(untilMarch2011)ProfessorMelissaLeach,Director,STEPSCentre,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies,UniversityofSussexProfessorAngelaMcLeanFRS,AllSoulsSeniorResearchFellow,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofOxfordProfessorGoverdhanMehtaFRS,CSIRBhatnagarFellowandHonoraryProfessor,DepartmentofOrganicChemistry,IndianInstituteofScienceProfessorJohnMitchellOBEFRS,DirectorofClimateScience,MetOfficeDrColinOsborne,RoyalSocietyUniversityResearchFellow,DepartmentofAnimalandPlantSciences,
UniversityofSheffieldProfessorMartynPoliakoffCBEFRS,ResearchProfessorinChemistry,TheUniversityofNottinghamDrPhilRufflesCBEFREngFRS,FormerDirector,EngineeringandTechnology,RollsRoyceplcProfessorCarolineWagner,SchoolofInternationalAffairs,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
Royal Society Science Policy CentreLukeClarke,PolicyAdviserLauraDawson,SeniorPolicyAdviserNatalieDay,SeniorPolicyAdviserDrTraceyElliott,HeadofInternationalHarrietHarden-Davies,InternTonyMcBride,HeadofStrategyJamesMeadway,SeniorPolicyAdviser
SarahMee,PolicyAdviserIanThornton,PolicyAdviserDrJamesWilsdon,DirectorofSciencePolicyRapelaZaman,SeniorPolicyAdviser
Review PanelTheRoyalSocietygratefullyacknowledgesthecontributionofthereviewers.TheReviewPanelwasnotaskedtoendorsetheconclusionsorrecommendationsofthereport,nordidtheyseethefinaldraftofthereportbeforeitsrelease.
ProfessorJohnPethicaFRS(Chair),PhysicalSecretary,RoyalSocietyProfessorBruceAlbertsForMemRS,DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiophysics,UniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscoProfessorJuanAsenjo,President,ChileanAcademyofSciences
DrMatthewFreemanFRS,Head,DivisionofCellBiology,MRCLaboratoryofMolecularBiologyProfessorSirBrianHeapCBEFRS,FormerDirector,InstituteofAnimalPhysiologyandGeneticsResearchProfessorGeoffreyOldhamCBE,HonoraryProfessor,SPRUScienceandTechnologyPolicyResearch,UniversityofSussex
The Advisory Group
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Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 11
ThestudyleadingtothisreportwasoverseenbyanAdvisoryGroupofFellowsoftheRoyalSocietyandotherdistinguishedexperts,supportedbythestaffoftheRoyalSocietySciencePolicyCentre.Elsevierhasprovidedfinancialsupport,andfullaccesstotheirpublicationdatabasesandanalyticalservicesthroughoutthestudy.Thedraftingofthereport,itsconclusionsandrecommendationsarethoseofthe
RoyalSocietyalone.Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global scientificcollaboration in the 21st centuryhasbeenapprovedbytheCounciloftheRoyalSociety.
Advisory Group and terms of referenceTheRoyalSocietyestablishedanAdvisoryGroupmadeupofinternationallyrenownedscientistsandsciencepolicyexpertsfromaroundtheworld,chairedbySirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS.Theaimofthestudy,asoutlinedintheTermsofReference,wastoprovideananalysisoftheglobalscientificlandscapein2011foraglobalaudienceofscientists,governments,business,internationalorganisationsandNGOs.Itsspecificgoalswereto: Provideanoverviewofhow,where,whyandbywhomscientificresearchisbeingcarriedoutacrosstheworld,andthewaysinwhichthispictureischanging.
CompilebothquantitativeandqualitativeevidencetoofferanoverviewofthesedevelopmentsthroughtheuseofElseviersandotherdatabasessuchasUNESCOandOECD,andbymakinguseoftheSocietysextensiveinternationalnetworks,includingitsglobalFellowshipofover1,400outstandingindividualsfromallareasofscience,mathematicsandengineering.
Identifyandassessillustrativeexamplesofopportunitiesandchallengesthesechangespresentforpolicymakers,scientists,intergovernmentalagenciesandbusiness.
Examineanddiscusshowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbebetterutilisedtoaddressglobalproblemssuchasclimatechange,foodandwatersecurity,andinfectiousdiseases.
Drawconclusionsaboutthecollaborativenatureofresearchinthe21stcentury,andconsiderthepotentialimplicationsforpolicymakers.
ThestudywasformallylaunchedinJanuary2010.
Collection of evidenceEvidencegatheringfortheprojecttookplaceinfiveways: aformalprocess,throughadetailedCallforEvidence;
aspecialdiscussionsessionformembersoftheInterAcademyPanel,heldtocoincidewithitsGeneralAssemblyattheRoyalSocietyinJanuary2010;
face-to-faceandtelephoneinterviewswithkeyfiguresininternationalscienceandsciencepolicyfromaroundtheworld;
extensivedeskresearch;
dataanalysis,includingworkwithElsevier.
Conduct of the study
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12 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Call for evidenceTheCallforEvidencewassentouton27April2010toFellowsoftheRoyalSociety,RoyalSocietyResearchFellowsandtheworldsscienceacademies,throughtheInterAcademyPanel(IAP),theAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS),andtheUKGovernmentsScienceandInnovationNetwork(SIN).
Wereceived80responsesfromindividuals,academies,researchinstitutions,governmentdepartmentsandotherorganisationsfromaroundtheworld.Thesearelistedattheendofthereport.
Elsevier methodologyUnlessotherwiseindicated,allofthedatarelatingtopublicationoutputandimpactinthisreporthavebeenprovidedbyElsevier.Wewouldliketoacknowledgetheanalysisandinsightsprovidedby
thefollowingindividuals: DrAndrewPlume,AssociateDirector,Scientometrics&MarketAnalysisResearch&AcademicRelations
MayurAmin,SeniorVicePresidentResearch&AcademicRelations
DrHenkMoed,SeniorScientificAdvisorAcademic&GovernmentMarkets
NielsWeertman,VicePresident,SciVal
Academic&GovernmentMarketsPublicationdataarederivedfromScopus,the
worldslargestabstractandcitationdatabaseofpeer-reviewedliterature.Scopuscontainsover41millionrecordsacross18,000journalsandcoversregionalaswellasinternationalliterature.Publicationoutputsinthisreportaredefinedasarticles,reviewsandconferencepaperspublishedinthesejournals.Whereweconsideroveralltotalsofpublications,
theseincludeoutputsinalldisciplines.
Defining global scienceTheRoyalSocietydefinesscienceasnaturalknowledge.Inpractice,thisincludesthenaturalsciences,mathematicsandengineering.Forthepurposesofthisreport,wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionofpublicationoutput8.9%);
thiscoverageisusedtomatchtheinputstatistics,whichallregisterresearchandresearchers,whicharedisciplineneutral.However,ourexamples,casestudiesandobservationsaredrawnfromthescientificcommunity.Throughoutthisreport,weuseanumber
ofsourcestocharacteriseandquantifywhatishappeninggloballyinscience.Inthisweareconstrained,tocertainextents,bytheavailabledata.Inordertoachievethewidestinternationalcoverage,
wehavemadeuseofUNESCOdataonthenumbersofresearchers,1andtheexpenditureonresearchanddevelopmentasindicatorsofexpenditureandmanpowerinscience(althoughalargeproportionofresearchanddevelopmentisspentonDratherthanRand,assuch,reachesbeyondstrictsciencespending).
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Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 13
ThesestatisticsareavailablethroughtheUNESCOInstituteofStatistics,andhavebeencomprehensivelypresentedandanalysedintherecentUNESCOScienceReport,publishedinNovember2010.Publicationandpatentdataareincompleteproxies
forscientificoutputandscientifictranslation,thefirstbeingpredominantlytheoutputofacademicscience,andtheotherrelatingtotheexploitationof
ideasandconceptsratherthannecessarilybeingspecificallyscientific.However,theyarethetwomainquantifiable,globallycollated,andcommonlyusedsourcesofdataontheproductionandconsumptionofscience.Byusingthesedata,wearereflectingthecurrenttermsofreferencefordiscussionsofglobalscience.Itiswidelyacceptedthattheyareinadequatetofullyexploretherichnessof21stcenturyscience.Thepaucityofrichersourcesofdataoffersachallengetonational,multilateralandglobal
bodiestoexplorewaysofbettermeasuringtheinputs,outputsandimpactsoftheglobalscientificlandscape.
1 TheOECDdefinesresearchersasprofessionalsengagedintheconceptionorcreationofnewknowledge,products,processes,methodsandsystemsandalsointhemanagementoftheprojectsconcerned.SeeOECD(2002).Frascati manual: proposed standard
practice for surveys on researchand experimental development.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
PagefromanotebookonscientificexpeditionstoMatoGrosso,Brazil,1967to1969,byIainBishop.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDF8/7/2019 Knowledge, Networks and Nations_Global Scientific Collaboration in the 21st Century
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14 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Introduction: going globalWhenHenryOldenbergfoundedtheworldsfirstscientificpublicationin1665,2itdrewonemergingideasfromGermany,Italy,Hungary,FranceandeventheBermudas.Itenjoyedawideinternationalreadership.Oldenburg,andtheotherfoundingfellowsoftheRoyalSociety,dedicatedthisfirsteditionofPhilosophicalTransactionstosharingtheHappyinventionsofobligingMenallovertheworld,
totheGeneralBenefitofMankind.ButOldenbergcouldneverhaveimaginedhowmanyobligingmenandwomenwouldbecontributingtoscientificknowledgeacrosstheworldin2011.Sciencehastransformedourlivesinwayswhichwouldhavebeeninconceivablein1665.Justhowitwillevolveoverthecomingcenturyisequallyinconceivable.Yetonethingseemscertain:scienceisinherentlyinternationalandwillonlybecomemoreso.AsLouisPasteuronceputit,Knowledgebelongs
tohumanity,andthusscienceknowsnocountryandisthetorchthatilluminatestheworld.Largelyfundedatanationallevelandconductedprimarilyinnationalinstitutions,scienceisstillmoredeterminedbyplacethanPasteursdeclarationwouldsuggest.Andyet,itisaworldwideendeavour.In2008,218countriesproducedover1.5millionresearchpapers,fromTuvalusonepaper,totheUKs98,000,Chinas163,000,andtheUSAs320,000.3In2007,Sweden
spentnearly3.7%ofitsgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)onresearchanddevelopment(R&D),Canadaspent2%,emergingIndiaspent0.8%,andoilrichSaudiArabia0.04%.4Researchinvestmentandoutputarefarfromevenlyspreadacrosstheworld,
buttherearefewplaceswhicharenotinsomewaypartofthescientificlandscape.Scienceisconductedinmoreplacesthanever
before,butitisalsomoreinterlinked.Overone-thirdofresearchpapersarethedirectresultofinternationalcollaboration,withauthorsaddressesfrommorethanonecountry.5Thenumberofinternationallyco-authoredpapershasmorethandoubledsince
1990.
6
Researchersareincreasinglymobile,travellinglongdistancestoworkwiththebestcolleaguesintheirfield,toaccessresourcesandshareideasandfacilities.Andtheyarebeingsupportedinternationallythroughcross-borderfundingfrominternationalorganisations(charities,philanthropicfundingandbusiness),multilateralinitiativesbetweengovernmentsandresearchcouncils,multinationalfundingbodiesandsharedscientificinfrastructure.Thescientificcommunityisinfluencedby
globalisation,andisalsodrivenbyitsowndynamics.Scientistshavebeenbothmotivatedandenabledtoworkacrossdisciplinaryandinternationalbordersbytechnologicaladvancesandshiftsingeopolitics.Butsciencehasalwayspushedboundaries,betheytechnologicalornationalandpolitical.Globalscienceisincreasing,butitisalsonothingnew.ThefoundingmembersoftheRoyalSociety350yearsagolookedbeyondnationalborderstoextendthefrontiersof
naturalknowledge.Todaysscientificpioneerswillneedtoknowhowtonavigatethechangingglobalscientificlandscapeiftheyaretokeepextendingthosefrontiers.Thisreportisintendedtohelpthemunderstandthedynamicsofthiscomplexandfast-evolvingphenomenon.
2 On6March1665,thefirstissueofPhilosophicalTransactionswas
publishedundertheeditorshipofHenryOldenburg,whowasalsotheSecretaryoftheSociety.
3 DatafromElseviersScopus.
4 DatafromtheUNESCOInstitute
forStatisticsDataCentre,Montral,Canada.
5 DatafromElseviersScopus.
6 LeydesdorffL&WagnerC(2005).Mapping global science using
international co-authorships: acomparison of 1990 and 2000.InternationalJournalofTechnologyandGlobalization3.Foradiscussionofhowinternational
collaborationhasgrownoverallandattheregionallevel,see
WagnerC&LeydesdorffL(2005).Network structure, self-organizationand the growth of internationalcollaboration in science.ResearchPolicy34,10,16081618.
http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/8/7/2019 Knowledge, Networks and Nations_Global Scientific Collaboration in the 21st Century
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AnewmanifestationofthecelebratedMollowtriplet,oneofthefundamentalspectralshapesoflight-matterinteraction,fromDrElenadelValle,RoyalSocietyNewtonInternationalFellow,SchoolofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofSouthampton.ThetripletasfoundbyMollowemergesinthelightemittedbyanatomwhenexcitedbyalaser.Thedepictedtripletisthecounterpartemissionfromanatomwhenexcitedincoherentlyinsideacavity.DrElenadelValle,2010.
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Scienceisgrowingglobally.Sincethebeginningofthe21stcentury,theglobalspendonresearchanddevelopmenthasnearlydoubled,publicationshavegrownbyathird,andthenumberofresearcherscontinuestorise(seeTable1.1).NorthAmerica,Japan,EuropeandAustralasiahaveallwitnessedgrowth,witheachincreasingspendingbyaroundone-thirdbetween2002and2007.Inthesameperiod,developingcountries,7includingtheemergingeconomiesofChina,IndiaandBrazil,morethandoubledtheirexpenditureonR&D,increasingtheircontributiontoworldR&Dspendingby7percentagepointsfrom17%to24%.8
Table1.1.Global science by numbers.9
Spend on researchand development
Numbers ofresearchers
Number ofpublications
US$ %GDP
2007 1145.7bn 1.7 7.1m 1.58m
2002 790.3bn 1.7 5.7m 1.09m
Thearchitectureofworldscienceisalsochanging,withtheexpansionofglobalnetworks.Theseinvolvenetworksofindividuals,mostlyself-organisedbutsometimesorchestrated(asintheHumanGenomeProject).Somenetworksarebasedoncollaborationsatinternationalorganisations(suchasCERN);others
arefundedinternationally,bymultinationalbusinesses(whichfundtheirownlaboratoriesandworkinuniversitiesacrosstheglobe),bymajorfoundations(suchasGates),orbycross-nationalstructuressuchastheEU.Theseglobalnetworksincreasinglyexertasignificantinfluenceontheconductofscienceacrosstheworld.
1.1 Trends and developments in globalscienceTheUSAleadstheworldinresearch,producing20%oftheworldsauthorshipofresearchpapers,10dominatingworlduniversityleaguetables,11andinvestingnearlyUS$400billionperyearinpublicandprivateresearchanddevelopment.12TheUK,Japan,GermanyandFranceeachalsocommandstrongpositionsinthegloballeaguetables,producinghighqualitypublicationsandattractingresearcherstotheirworldclassuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.Thesefivecountriesaloneareresponsiblefor59%ofallspendingonscienceglobally.13
However,thesecountriesdonotcompletelydominateglobalscience.Between1996and2008theUSAlostone-fifthofitsshareoftheworldsarticleauthorship,Japanlost22%andRussia24%.TheUK,GermanyandFrancealsofellbackinrelative
terms.14Figure1.1showshowthenumberofarticleshasgrownandhowtheirdistributionacrosstheworldhaschangedinrecentyears,betweentheperiods1999to2003(Figure1.1a)and2004to2008(Figure1.1b).Thetraditionalscientificleadershavegradually
losttheirshareofpublishedarticles.Meanwhile,Chinahasincreaseditspublicationstotheextentthatitisnowthesecondhighestproducerofresearch
outputintheworld.IndiahasreplacedtheRussianFederationinthetopten,climbingfrom13thin1996totenthbetween2004and2008.FurtherdownthelistSouthKorea,Brazil,Turkey,SouthEastAsiannationssuchasSingapore,Thailand,andMalaysia,andEuropeannationssuchasAustria,GreeceandPortugalhaveallimprovedtheirstandingsintheglobalscientificleaguetables.15
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Key
United States
Japan
United Kingdom
Germany
France
China
Italy
Canada
Russian Federation
India
Spain
Other
Changesintherankingofnationswithintheleaguetablesareshiftingatthesametimeastotaloutputisincreasing.Forexample,Italymaintainedasteadyshareofpublicationsbetween1996and2008(3.5%ofworldproductioninbothyears,fluctuatingbetween3%and4%overthewholeperiod);butinordertoholdthispositionitincreaseditsnumberofarticlesby32%.Allovertheworld,somecountriesarerunningtostandstill16whileothersarebreakingintoasprint.
Figure1.1. Proportion of global publicationauthorship by country17The top ten producing countries in each periodare shown. Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008
26%
8%
7%
7%5%4%
4%3%
3%
3%
30%
21%
6%
7%
6%4%
10%
4%
3%
3%
2%
34%
Fig a Fig b
7 BasedonthestandardUnitedNationsStatisticsDivisionclassification(compositionofmacrogeographical(continental)regions,geographicalsub-regions,andselectedeconomicandothergroupings).
8 UNESCO(2010).UNESCO sciencereport 2010.DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).UNESCOPublishing:Paris,France.DataareprovidedinUS$peggedatcurrentprices(2007pricesin2007,2002pricesin2002)andreflectpurchasingpowerparity.
9 Spendonresearchanddevelopment:datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).Numberofresearchers:
datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,UNESCOInstituteforStatistics:Montral,Canada.Numberofpublications:datafromElseviersScopus.
10 DatafromElseviersScopus.Ifanauthoronapapergivesacountryashisorheraddress,thatpaperisassignedtothatcountry.SoapaperwhichhasbeenwrittenbyauthorsintheUK,SpainandGermanywouldbeassignedasasinglepaperineachcountry(that
paperthereforebeingaccountedforthreetimesasanationalpaper).Figure1.1showsthetotalnumberofindividualpaperswithoutanymultiplecounting.Thetotalnumberofnationalpapers(ie.withpaperscountedmultipletimesifthereareauthorsbasedinmorethanonecountry)in2007was1,580,501;in2002thiswas1,093,564.TheUSAproduced316,317nationalpapersin2008(221,707withtheUSAasthesoleauthors,and94,610incollaborationinternationally);this
represents19.97%ofallnationalpapersglobally.
11 TheQSrankingshavesixUSuniversitiesinthetop10
(CambridgeintheUKisrankedfirst,andtheotherthreearealsointheUK).IntheTimesHigherEducationWorldUniversityRankingstheUSAholdsthetopfivepositions,sevenofthetop10placesand27ofthetop50(theremainingthreeinthetop
tenareintheUK).IntheARWURankingsthefourtoppositionsand17ofthetop20areUSuniversities(theremainingthreeinthetop20aretheUniversitiesofCambridge,OxfordandTokyo).Source:AcademicRankingofWorldUniversities(2010)availableonlineathttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsp;QSTopUniversityRankings(2010)athttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/home;TimesHigherEducationWorldUniversity
Rankings(2010)at http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.html,accessed29September2010.
12 NationalScienceBoard(2010).Science and engineering indicators2010.NationalScienceFoundation:Arlington,VA,USA.
13 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).
14 DatafromElseviersScopus.
15 DatafromElseviersScopus.
16 RoyalSociety(2010).The scienticcentury: securing our futureprosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.
17 DatafromElseviersScopus.Thesechartsshowthetop10countriesbynumberofpublications,withallothercountriesincludedintheothersegment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthe
twotimeperiods.In19992003therewere5,493,483publicationsglobally,andin20042008therewere7,330,334.
http://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtml8/7/2019 Knowledge, Networks and Nations_Global Scientific Collaboration in the 21st Century
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Box1.1.A note on the dataExpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(R&D)isusedthroughoutthisreportasaproxyforspendingonscience.Grossexpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(GERD),ascollatedbytheOECDandUNESCO,andusedinthisreport,includesinvestmentbygovernmentandbusinessenterprise,fundingfromoverseassources,andothersources,whichcanincludefundingbyprivatefoundationsandcharities.Inareasofthereportwedistinguishbetweentheproportionofthisgrossexpenditurespentbybusinessenterprise(BERD),andthatspentbygovernment(GOVERD).Thisisacommonlyused,yetlargelyunsatisfactoryproxyforscience(and/orresearch)spending.Alargeproportionofresearchand
developmentisspentonDratherthanR(withthelargestproportionspentonproductdevelopment).Assuch,thisfiguregoesbeyondtheactualamountofmoneydedicatedtofundingresearch,
inwhicheversector,butitisassumedthatthishassomerelationshiptotheupstreaminvestmentinsciencethatprecedesit.Unlessotherwisestated,wherechangesin
expenditureovertimearediscussedinthereport,thefiguresusedarebasedoncurrentUS$prices(2004dollarsin2004,2008dollarsin2008)andpurchasingpowerparity,18ascalculatedbyeithertheOECDorUNESCO.Whenwerefertopapersinthereport,this
referstopeer-reviewedarticleswhichhaveappearedininternationaljournals.Thesedatahavebeendrawn,unlessotherwisenoted,fromElseviersScopusdatabase.19Wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionof
publicationoutput8.9%);thiscoverageisusedsoastomatchtheinputstatistics,whichallregisterresearchandresearchers,whicharedisciplineneutral.
Article:CroonianLecture:Ontheanatomicalstuctureoftheeye,byEverardHome,drawingsbyFranzBauer.PTvol112,1822,pp76-85.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
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1.1.1EmergingscientificnationsChinasriseuptherankingshasbeenespeciallystriking.ChinahasheavilyincreaseditsinvestmentinR&D,withspendinggrowingby20%peryearsince1999toreachoverUS$100billionayeartoday(or1.44%ofGDPin2007),20inpursuitofitsgoalofspending2.5%ofGDPonR&Din2020.21Chinaisalsoturningouthugenumbersofscienceandengineeringgraduates,with1.5millionleavingitsuniversitiesin2006.22
China,India,SouthKoreaandBrazilareoftencitedasrisingpowersinscience.23Indiaproducesroughly2.5millionscienceandengineeringgraduateseachyear.24In2008,India,theworldssecondmost
populouscountry,succeededinsendingitsfirstunmannedflighttothemoon,becomingonlythefourthcountrytolandacraftonthelunarsurface.Brazil,inlinewithitsaspirationtobeanaturalknowledgeeconomy,buildingonitsnaturalandenvironmentalresources,isworkingtoincreaseresearchspendingto2.5%ofGDPby202225(fromjustover1.4%in2007).26SouthKoreahaspledgedthatR&Dspending,(3.2%ofGDPin2007),willreach5%ofGDPby2012.27
Thesecountriesarenotaloneinrapidlygrowingtheirsciencebases.Overthelast15years,eachoftheG20countrieshasbeenincreasingitsresearchproductionandmosthavescaleduptheproportion
18 Purchasingpowerparity(PPP)measurestheamountofagivencurrencyneededtobuythesamebasketofgoodsandservicesasoneunitofthereferencecurrencyinthisreport,theUSdollar.Itishelpfulwhencomparinglivingstandardsindifferentcountries,asitindicatestheappropriateexchangeratetousewhenexpressingincomesandpricesindifferentcountriesinacommoncurrency.
19 ForfurtherinformationonthemethodologyusedbyElsevier,pleaseseetheConductofthe
Studyonpage11.20 OECD(2006).China will become
worlds second highest investor inR&D by end of 2006, nds OECD.Pressrelease,4December2006.OfficeforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
21 TheStateCouncilofthePeoplesRepublicofChina(2006).Thenational medium- and long-termprogram for science and technologydevelopment (20062020): anoutline.Beijing,China.
22 MinistryofScienceand
TechnologyofthePeoplesRepublicofChina(2007).S&Tstatistics data book 2007.Beijing,China.Thisistheequivalentof
0.66%oftheChinesepopulationagedbetween15and24,whichwasprojectedtobe228,663,000in2010accordingtotheUnitedNationsPopulationDivision.UNESCOstatisticsindicatethatthemostrecentfiguresoftotalscience,engineering,manufacturingandconstructiongraduates,expressedasapercentageoftheirprojectedpopulationof1524-year-oldsfor2010(aspertheUNstatisticsabove),wouldequal0.95%intheUSA(428,256graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2008againstaprojectedpopulationaged1524
of44,880,000in2010),and1.73%intheUK(140,575graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2007againstaprojectedpopulationof8,147,000in2010).Thesearenotperfectcomparisons,asthemostrecentyearforwhichwehavegraduatedataavailablevariesbycountry,anditdoesnottakeintoaccountgraduatesabovethisagerange,ortheproportionofpeopleinthelowerendofthisagerangewhoareunlikelytograduateattheirage.Sources:PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat(2008).Worldpopulation prospects: the 2008revision.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7
January2011;UNESCOInstituteforStatisticswebsite:http://www.uis.unesco.org/,accessed13January2011.
23 SeeBoundK(2007).India: theuneven innovator;WebbM(2007).South Korea: mass innovationcomes of age;WilsdonJ&KeeleyJ.China: the next sciencesuperpower?;BoundK(2008).Brazil, the natural knowledgeeconomy.Demos:London,UK;AdamsJ&WilsdonJ(2006).The new geography of science:UK research and internationalcollaboration; AdamsJ&King
C(2009).Global research report:Brazil;AdamsJ,KingC&SinghV(2009).Global research report:India;AdamsJ,KingC&MaN(2009).Global research report:China.Evidence,aThomsonReutersbusiness:Leeds,UK.Battelle(2009).2010 globalR&D fund-ing forecast.Battelle:Columbus,OH,USA.WilsdonJ(2008).The new geography ofscience.PhysicsWorld,October2008.GilmanD(2010).The newgeography of global innovation.GoldmanSachsGlobalMarketsInstitute:NewYork,NY,USA.
24 BoundK(2007).India: the uneveninnovator.Demos:London,UK.Indiaspopulationagedbetween
15and24wasprojectedtobejustunder234millionaccordingtotheUN.Ifallthose2.5milliongraduateswerewithinthatagerange,theywouldrepresent1.07%ofthepopulationinthatagerange.Source:UnitedNationswebsite.World population prospects: the2008 revision.PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7January2011.
25 KuglerH(2011).Brazil releasesscience blueprint.SciDev.Net,7
January2011.Availableonlineathttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.html,accessed17January2011.
26 PetherickA(2010).Science safein Brazil elections.Natureonline,29September2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.html,accessed17January2011.
27 StoneR(2008).SouthKorea aims to boost statusas science and technologypowerhouse. ScienceInsider,23December2008.Availableathttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.html.
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ceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.uis.unesco.org/http://www.uis.unesco.org/http://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National%20Outline%20for%20Medium%20and%20Long%20Term%20S&T%20Development.dochttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.html8/7/2019 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Argentina
Australia
Brazil
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publicofKorea
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Canada
France
Germany
Italy
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sianFederation
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Figure1.2. Science in the G20G8 labelled in red. Fig a. Annual growth in publications 1996-2008.28Fig b. Annual growth in GDP spending on R&D 1996-200729
Fig a Fig b
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oftheirGDPspentonR&D(seeFigure1.2).Increasedinvestmentandincreasedpublicationshavetakenplaceintandem.Thegrowthofcommitmenttoscienceinanumberofthenon-G8nationsisespeciallystriking.
TurkeyhasimproveditsscientificperformanceataratealmostrivallingthatofChina.Havingdeclaredresearchapublicpriorityinthe1990s,theTurkishGovernmentincreaseditsspendingonR&Dnearlysix-foldbetween1995and2007,andnowspendsmoreannuallyincashtermsthaneitherDenmark,FinlandorNorway.30Overthisperiod,theproportionofTurkeysGDPspentonR&Drosefrom0.28%to0.72%,andthenumberofresearchersincreasedby43%.31Fourtimesasmanypaperswerepublishedin2008asin1996.32Thenumberofpublicationsfrom Iranhasgrown
fromjust736in1996to13,238in2008makingit
thefastestgrowingcountryintermsofnumbersofscientificpublicationsintheworld.33InAugust2009,Iranannouncedacomprehensiveplanforsciencefocusedonhighereducationandstrongerlinksbetweenindustryandacademia.TheestablishmentofaUS$2.5millioncentrefornanotechnologyresearchisoneoftheproductsofthisplan.OthercommitmentsincludeboostingR&Dinvestmentto
4%ofGDP(0.59%ofGDPin2006),andincreasingeducationto7%ofGDPby2030(5.49%ofGDPin2007).34Since1996,R&DasapercentageofGDPin
Tunisiahasgrownfrom0.03%to1.25%in2009.35Duringthesameperiod,asubstantialrestructuringofthenationalR&Dsystemsawthecreationof624researchunitsand139researchlaboratories,ofwhich72aredirectedtowardslifeandbiotechnologicalsciences.36Lifesciencesandpharmaceuticalsremainatoppriorityforthecountry,withthegovernmentannouncinginJanuary2010thatitwantedtoincreasepharmaceuticalsexportsfive-foldinthenextfiveyearswhilealsoaimingtohave60%oflocalmedicineneedscoveredbythecountrysownproduction.37
In1996,Singaporeinvested1.37%ofGDPinR&D.By2007thishadreached2.61%ofGDP. 38Thenumberofscientificpublicationshasgrownfrom
2,620in1996to8,506in2008,almosthalfofwhichwereco-authoredinternationally. 39TheAgencyforScience,TechnologyandResearch(A*STAR)iscentraltothegovernmentscommitmenttoinvestmentinworldclassresearchandinfrastructure,andoverseesSingapores14researchinstitutesandassociatedcentreswithinflagshipdevelopmentssuchasBiopolisandFusionopolis.40AtacostofoverUS$370million,
28 DatafromElseviersScopus.
29 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,Montral,Canada.Notethatstatisticsforsomecountriesacrosstheperiodareincomplete.Theclosestaccountableyearsintheperiodareusedwherecompletestatisticsarenotavailable.
30 OECD(2010).Main science andtechnology indicators (MSTI): 2010edition, version 1.Organisation
forEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
31 OECD(2009).Main science andtechnology indicators (MSTI): 2009
edition.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
32 DatafromElseviersScopus.
33 Science-Metrix, Thirty years ofscience.Montreal:http://www.Science-Metrix.com,accessedNovember2010.
34 SawahelW(2009).Iran: 20-yearplan for knowledge-basedeconomy.UniversityWorldNews.
35 MadikizelaM(2005).The scienceand technology system of theRepublic of Tunisia.FromCountryStudies:ArabStates,UNESCO
website.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/les/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.
36 MadikizelaM(2005).The scienceand technology system of theRepublic of Tunisia.FromCountryStudies:ArabStates,UNESCOwebsite.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/les/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.
37 GlobalArabNetwork(2010).Tunisia to boost pharmaceutical &biotechnological industry. GlobalArabNetwork,13January2010.
Availableonlineathttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.html .
38 DatafromtheUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre.Montral,Canada.
39 DatafromElseviersScopus.
40 Seehttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspx,accessed29September2010.
http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.science-metrix.com/http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlht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Biopolisisahigh-techbiomedicalparkwhichthegovernmentlaunchedin2003.Sincethen,thecountrysbiotechexpertisehascontinuedtoexpandandisattractingsomebigplayerssuchasNovartis,GlaxoSmithKlineandRoche. 41Thepictureofscientificresearchisalsostarting
tochangeacrosstheMiddleEast,wherethereareanumberofsignificantnewcommitmentstoscience.Gas-richQataraimstospend2.8%ofGDPonresearchby2015.Withapopulationofjustover1.4million(ofwhicharound85%areforeignworkers)andacurrentGDPofUS$128billion,thistarget,ifrealised,wouldcombinetogiveGERDpercapitaofUS$2,474.42Sincethemid-1990s,theQatariGovernmenthasintroducedanumberofeducationreformsandhasinvestedaroundUS$133billionininfrastructureandprojectsdesignedtocreateaknowledge-basedeconomy. 43TheUnited Arab
EmiratesisattemptingtocreatetheworldsfirstfullysustainablecityandinnovationhubtheMasdarInitiative.Duetoopenin2011,Masdarwilleventually
house50,000peopleand1,500businessesfocusedonrenewableenergyandsustainabletechnologies. 44GE,BP,Shell,MitsubishiandRolls-Royceareamongthosewhohavejoinedasstrategicpartners.45Elsewhere,manyoftheworldspoorestcountries
haveplacedsciencebehindmoreimmediatepriorities,suchashealthcareandprimaryeducation.Thisisnottosaythatscienceandresearcharenothavinganimpactinthelessdevelopedworldatall,orthattherearenosignsofgrowth.Cambodiaproducedonlysevenarticlesin1996,butincreasedthisto114by2008.BothUgandaandPeru,inthesameperiod,increasedtheiroutputsfour-fold,albeitfromlowbases(Ugandafrom116to477papers,Perufrom153to600).46Inthesecountries,aselsewhere,thereisoftenalsoawealthofinformalinnovationcarriedoutbyfarmers,47localhealthpractitionersandsmallfirmsfrequentlydrawingonlocalknowledge
andlargelyunacknowledgedinformalmetrics,letalonepublishedinresearchpapers.48
TheKingofTonkinandretinueontheirwaytoaceremonialblessingoftheground.AnillustrationforSamuelBaronsA description of the kingdomof Tonqueen,1685.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
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Somegovernmentsanddevelopmentpartnersareembracingthefactthatscienceisnotaluxurywhichisthepreserveofdevelopedcountries.Theyrecognisethattechnologyandinnovationarekeytoachievinglong-termeconomicandsocialdevelopment,49andthatscienceandscientificadvicearevitalassetsingovernance.50PaulKagame,PresidentofRwanda,hasbeenastrongadvocateforsciencefordevelopment,sayingWeinAfricamust
eitherbegintobuildourscientificandtechnologicaltrainingcapabilitiesorremainanimpoverishedappendagetotheglobaleconomy.51AfricanscienceministersresolvedinMarch2010that2011wouldbethestartofanAfricandecadeforscience,promisingincreasedresearchbudgetsandattemptstousescienceandtechnologytodrivedevelopment.52Althoughencouraging,politicalcommitmentstoinvestinsciencearegreetedcautiouslybymany
scientistsacrossAfricaandinotherpoorcountries.Itwasin1980thatAfricanpresidentsagreedtoincreaseresearchspendingto1%ofGDP,aspartoftheLagosPlanofAction,53butby2007Sub-SaharanAfricancountriesstillspentanaverageofjust0.5%oftheirGDPonscienceandtechnology.54Africanleadersreiteratedtheir1%target,thistimeagreeingtoreachitby2010,55butSouthAfricaistheonlysub-Saharancountrythatisclose,spending0.92%inthe
2008to2009financialyear.56
1.1.2AssessingresearchqualityandimpactAsresearchoutputhasgrown,sohavethelevelsatwhichresearchersciteoneanotherswork.Citationsareoftenusedasameansofevaluatingthequalityofpublicationsrecognitionbyanauthorspeersindicatesthatthescientificcommunityvaluestheworkthathasbeenpublished.Theyare,however,alaggingindicator,aswellasasometimescrudeone.Lookingattheglobalpictureinrecentyears,we
canseethatcitationsareincreasingatagreaterrate
thanpublicationsbetweentheperiods1999to2003and2004to2008publicationsgrewby33%andcitationsby55%(seeFigure1.3).57However,whenexaminingcitationpatterns,themovementinnationalperformancehasnotbeenasdramaticaswithpublicationnumbers.SwitzerlandandAustraliafelldowntherankings,tobereplacedbyChinaandSpaininthelatterperiod,buttheperformanceofChina,forexample,doesnotmirrorthatnations
growthininvestmentorpublicationoutput.Citationscontinuetobemuchmoreconcentratedthanthejournalarticlesthemselves.Itwilltakesometimefortheabsoluteoutputof
emergingnationstochallengetherateatwhichthisresearchisreferencedbytheinternationalscientificcommunity.Thereisalsodiversificationwithsomecountriesshowingleadershipinspecificfields,suchasChinainnanotechnology,58andBrazilinbiofuels,59
butthescientificallyadvancednationscontinuetodominatethecitationcounts.Citationsare,however,onlyonemeansof
benchmarkingtheexcellenceofresearchoutput.WithoverUS$1,000billioneachyearbeingspentonR&D,itisunsurprisingthatfundersandgovernmentswanttoknowwhatvaluetheyaregettingfortheirmoney.IntheUK,theimpactandexcellenceagenda
hasdevelopedrapidlyinrecentyears.TheResearchAssessmentExercise,apeerreviewbasedbenchmarkingexercisewhichmeasuredtherelativeresearchstrengthsofuniversitydepartments,60isduetobereplacedwithanewResearchExcellenceFramework,whichwillbecompletedin2014.61TheUKResearchCouncilsnow(somewhatcontroversially)askallapplicantstodescribethepotentialeconomicandsocietalimpactsoftheirresearch.TheExcellenceinResearchforAustralia(ERA)initiativeassessesresearchqualitywithinAustraliashighereducationinstitutionsusinga
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combinationofindicatorsandexpertreviewbycommitteescomprisingexperienced,internationallyrecognisedexperts.Theimpactagendaisincreasinglyimportantfor
nationalandinternationalscience(inEurope,theCommissionerforResearch,InnovationandSciencehasspokenabouttheneedforaEurope-wideinnovationindicator).63Thechallengeofmeasuringthevalueofscienceinanumberofwaysfacesall
ofthescientificcommunity.Achievingthiswilloffernewinsightsintohowweappraisethequalityofscience,andtheimpactsofitsglobalisation.
China
Spain
Other
Key
United States
Japan
United Kingdom
Germany
France
Australia
Italy
Canada
Netherlands
Switzerland
36%
9%
8%7%
5%
4%
3%
3%
2%2%
21%
30%
8%
7%
5%5%
4%
4%
3%
4%
3%
27%
Fig a Fig b
Figure1.3. Comparative proportionof global citations by country62
The top ten cited countries in each period are shown.Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008
49 ConwayG&WaageJ(2010).Science and innovation for
development.UKCollaborativeonDevelopmentSciences:London,UK.
50 RoyalSociety(2010).Science: anundervalued asset in governancefor development.RoyalSociety:London,UK.
51 KagameP(2006).SpeechbyRwandanPresident,PaulKagame,attheRoyalSocietyon18September2006.
52 NordlingL(2010).African nationsvow to support science.Nature465,994995.
53 OrganizationofAfricanUnity(1980).Lagos plan of action for theeconomic development of Africa
19802000.TheOrganizationofAfricanUnitywasdisbandedin
2002andreplacedbytheAfricanUnion.
54 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).
55 AfricanUnion(2007).Assembly ofthe African Union, eighth ordinarysession, 2930 January 2007,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: decisionsand declarations.Assembly/AU/Dec.161(VIII).AfricanUnion:AddisAbaba,Ethiopia.
56 DepartmentofScienceandTechnology,South Africa (2010).
South Africa maintains steadygrowth in R and D expenditure.Pressrelease,9September2010.DepartmentofScienceand
Technology:CapeTown,SouthAfrica.
57 DatafromElseviersScopus.
58 RoyalSociety(2010).The scienticcentury: securing our futureprosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.
59 BoundK(2008).Brazil, the naturalknowledge economy.Demos:London,UK.
60 Seehttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htm.
61 Seehttp://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/,accessed7January2011.
62 DatafromElseviersScopus.Thesechartsshowthetopten
countriesbynumberofcitations,withallothercountriesincludedintheothersegment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthetwotimeperiods.In19992003therewere23,639,885citationsglobally,andin20042008therewere36,562,135.
63 FinneganG(2010).Geoghegan-Quinn: we must communicate ourR&D.Euractiv.com(EuropeanUnionInformationWebsite),5May2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.euractiv.com/en/
innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702.
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