kMl aMg Gnþr m:Ue lKul GgÁF atur wg nig GgÁF atur av · CMBUkTI11 11-1 kMl aMg Gnþr m:Ue lKul GgÁF atur wg nig GgÁF atur av (Intermolecular Forces and Solids and Liquid) ) esckþIepþIm

CMBUkTI11

11-1

kkMMllaaMMggGGnnþþrrmm:: UU eellKKuull GGggÁÁFFaattuu rr wwgg nniiggGGggÁÁFFaattuu rraavv ((IInntteerrmmoolleeccuullaarr FFoorrcceess aanndd SSooll iiddss aanndd LLiiqquuiidd))

esckþIepþIm

eTaHBICaeyIgrs;enAkñúgl,ayén]sµ½nEdlbgáeLIgedaybriyakasénEpndIk¾eday k¾eyIgFøab;dwgCagBIlkçN³rbs;GgÁFaturwgnigGgÁFaturav BIeRBaHGgÁFatuTaMgenaHeyIgGacemIl eXIj. erogral;éf¶eyIgeRbITwknigGgÁFaturavepSg²eTotsMrab;pwk sMrab;gUt sMrab;lagCMrHnig sMrab;daMsø ehIyeyIgkan; GgÁúy nigBak;GgÁFaturwg. enAkñúgGgÁFaturav clnarbs;m:UelKulmanRBMEdnkMNt;CagenAkñúg]sµ½n nigkñúgGgÁFatu rwgGatUmnigm:UelKulRbmUlpþúMKñakan;EtENn. tamBitenAkñúgGgÁFaturwg GatUm nigm:UelKul sßitenAkñúgTItaMgkMNt;mYy ehIyvaGacmanclnaesrI)antictYcBImYyeTAmYy. enAkñúgCMBUkenH eyIgnwgBInitüemIlBITMrg;rbs;GgÁFaturwgnigGgÁFaturav ehIynwgBIPakSaKñaBIlkçN³RKw³xøH²rbs; Pav³rUbTaMgBIrenHénrUbFatu. enAkñúgCMBUkenHeyIgnwgsikSa³

1 RTwsþIsIuenTicénm:UelKulrbs;GgÁFaturavnigGgÁFaturwg 2 kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul 3 lkçN³énGgÁFaturav 4 TMrg;Rkam 5 DIR)ak;süúgkaMrsµI X edayRkam 6 RbePTénRkam 7 GgÁFaturwgnisNæan 8 bMErbMrYlpas 9 düaRkampas.

6>1 RTwsþIsIuenTicénm:UelKulrbs;GgÁFaturavnigGgÁFaturwg

enAkñúgCMBUkTI5eyIg)aneRbIRTwsþIsIuenTicénm:UelKuledIm,IBnül;BIlkçN³rbs;]sµ½nKW efrnigclnaécdnürbs;m:UelKul]sµ½n. enAkñúg]sµ½n cMgayrvagm:UelKulKWq¶ayNas;

kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul GgÁFaturwg nigGgÁFaturav

11-2

¬ebIeRbobeFobCamYynwgbnÞat;p©itrbs;va¦ EdlenAsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFFmµta ¬enAsItuNðPaB 25oC nigsMBaF1atm¦ KWKµanGnþrkmµrvagm:UelKulKYreGaykt;sMKal;eT. edaysarmancenøaH FMenAkñúg]sµ½n KWcenøaHKµanm:UelKultaMgenAeTIb]sµ½nGacRtUv)anbENÑn)any:aggay. kgVHnUv kMlaMgGnþrkmµrvagm:UelKulenHeFVIeGay]sµ½nGacrIkmaDkñúgkugtWn½rpÞúkva. mü:agvijeTot eday sarcenøaHTMenreRcInenHehIy eTIbeKGacBnül;BImUlehtuEdl]sµ½nmandg;sIuetTabenAeRkam sMBaFFmµta. GgÁFaturavnigGgÁFaturwgmanlkçN³xusKñaxøaMgKYrsm. PaBxusKñasMxan;bMputrvagPaB xab;rbs;va¬GgÁFaturavnigGgÁFaturwg¦nigPaBCa]sµ½nKWcMgayrvagm:UelKul. kñúgGgÁFaturav m:UelKulsßitenACitKñaNas; EdleFVIeGaymankEnøgTMenrtictYcNas;. dUecñH GgÁFaturavKW lM)akbENÑnCag]sµ½n ehIyvaENnCagpgEdrenAeRkamlkçxNÐFmµta. m:UelKulTaMgLay enAkñúgGgÁFaturavRtUv)ancgP¢ab;KñaedaykMlaMgmYyrWeRcInRbePT EdlnwgRtUvBiPakSaenAkñúgEpñk bnÞab;. GgÁFaturavk¾manmaDkMNt;Edr edaysarm:UelKulenAkñúgGgÁFaturavKWminEjkecjBI kMlaMgTMnajeT. b:uEnþm:UelKulGaceFVIclnaBImYyeTAmYy)anedayesrI dUecñHehIyGgÁFaturav GachUr)anGacRtUv)ancak;bgðÚr ehIyGacmanragénkugtWn½rpÞúkva. kñúgGgÁFaturwg m:UelKultP¢ab;Kñay:agmaMenAtamTItaMgrbs;va EdlminGaceFVIclnaeday esrI)aneT. GgÁFaturwgCaeRcInRtUv)ansMKal;lkçN³edaysarlMdab;tMerobKñaEvg KWm:UelKul rbs;vaRtUv)antMerobCarUbsNæaneTogTat;vimaRtbI. GgÁFaturwgmankEnøgTMenrticCagenAkñúg GgÁFaturaveTotpg. dUecñHGgÁFaturwg KWesÞIrEtminGacbENÑn)an ehIyvamanTMrg;nigmaD kMNt;. mankrNIelIkElgxøH²Edr ¬TwkCakrNIelIkElgd¾sMxan;bMput¦ KWdg;sIueténTMrg;rwg x<s;Cagdg;sIueténTMrg;ravrbs;sarFatuNamYy. vaGacekItmansMrab;PaBBIrénsarFatumYyman GtßiPaBCamYyKña. TwkkkdMu¬GgÁFaturwg¦GENþtkñúgEkvTwk¬GgÁFaturav¦ Ca]TahrN_EdleK Føab;eXIj.

GñkKImIcat;TukPaBxusKñaénsarFatumYy EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgRbB½n§mYy faCapas. paspaspaspasKWCaEpñkGUm:UEsnmYyénRbB½n§EdlTak;TgeTAnwgEpñµkdéTeToténRbB½n§enaH b:uEnþRtUv)an Ejkpþac;BIKñaedayEdnkMNt;mYy. dUecñHEkvTwkrbs;eyIgmanTwkpasrwgnigpasrav. enACMBUk enH eyIgnwgeRbIBaküpasenAeBlEdleyIgniyayBIbMErbMrYlénPaBEdlTak;TgeTAnwgsarFatu mYy k¾dUcCaRbB½n§manpaseRcInénsarFatumYyEdr.

CMBUkTI11

11-3

taragtaragtaragtarag1111³³³³ lklklklkççççNNNN³³³³sMKalsMKalsMKalsMKal;;;;énénénén]]]]sµ½n GgÁFaturav nigGgÁFaturwgsµ½n GgÁFaturav nigGgÁFaturwgsµ½n GgÁFaturav nigGgÁFaturwgsµ½n GgÁFaturav nigGgÁFaturwg PaBénPaBénPaBénPaBén rUbFaturUbFaturUbFaturUbFatu

maD ragmaD ragmaD ragmaD rag dgdgdgdg;;;;sIuetsIuetsIuetsIuet PaBbRgÚmPaBbRgÚmPaBbRgÚmPaBbRgÚm))))anananan clnarbsclnarbsclnarbsclnarbs;;;; mmmm:::: UelKulUelKulUelKulUelKul

]sµ½n GgÁFaturav GgÁFaturwg

-snµt;maDnigragénkugtWn½rpÞúkva. - manmaDkMNt;b:uEnþRtUvsnµt; ragénkugtWn½rpÞúkrbs;va. - manmaDnigragkMNt;.

Tab x<s; x<s ;

GacbRgÚm)aneRcIn. GacbRgÚm)antictYc. minGacbRgÚmva)an Tal;EtesaH.

manclnaesrIbMput. rGilkat;BImYyeTA mYyedayesrI. j½rCMuvijTItaMgkMNt;.

6>2 kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul

kMlaMgRsUbrvagm:UelKulehAfakMlaMgGnþrmkMlaMgGnþrmkMlaMgGnþrmkMlaMgGnþrm:::: UelKulUelKulUelKulUelKul EdlxøaMgCagcMeBaHpashab;én rUbFatu¬GgÁFaturwgnigGgÁFaturav¦. edaysarsItuNðPaBrbs;]sµ½ncuHTab famBlsIuenTic mFüménm:UelKulrbs;vafycuH. enATIbBa©b;sItuNðPaBcuHTabxøaMgm:UelKulrbs;vaminman famBl edIm,IbMEbkecjBIKñaeTot)aneT. enAcMNucsItuNðPaBenH m:UelKulTaMgenaHpþúMKñaCa tMNk;énGgÁFaturav. )atuPUtbMErbMrYlBI]sµ½neTACaGgÁFaturavenHehAfa kMNejIs

(condensation). pÞúyeTAnwgkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul KWkMlaMgkñúgmkMlaMgkñúgmkMlaMgkñúgmkMlaMgkñúgm:::: UelKulUelKulUelKulUelKulEdlcgP¢ab;GatUmCamYyKñakñúg m:UelKul. kMlaMgkñúgm:UelKuleFVI[m:UelKulmanesßrPaB cMENkkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulTTYlxus RtUvCasMxan;nUvlkçN³rYménrUbFatu. CaTUeTAkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulexSayCagkMlaMgkñúgm:UelKul. dUecñHedIm,I[GgÁFaturav køayCacMhay vaRtUvkarfamBlTabCagkarbMEbksMB½n§kñúgm:UelKulGgÁFaturav. ]TahrN_ va RtUvkarfamBlRbEhl 41kJ edIm,IbgðÜtTwk 1mol enAcMNucrMBuHrbs;va ehIyvaRtUvkarfamBl RbEhl 930kJ edIm,IbMEbksMB½n§ O-H kñúg 1mol énm:UelKulTwk. cMNucrMBuHénsarFatueRcInEt bgðaj[eXIjnUvkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulénsarFatuenaH. enAcMNucrMBuH famBlRtUv)anpþl; RKb;RKan;edIm,ICMnHkMlaMgRsUbrbs;m:UelKulmunnwgkøayCapascMhay. RbsinebIsarFatu A

RtUvkarfamBledIm,IbMEbkm:UelKuleRcInCagsarFatuB edaysarm:UelKulkñúgsarFatu A Pöab;Kña xøaMgCagedaykMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul dUecñHcMNucrMBuHénsarFatu A KWx<s;CagsarFatu B. cMNuc


11-4

rlayrbs;sarFatuk¾dUcKñaEdr CaTUeTAcMNucrlayrbs;sarFatuekIneLIgtamPaBxøaMgénkMlaMg Gnþrm:UelKul.

edIm,IBiPakSaBIlkçN³GgÁFaturwgnigrav eyIgRtUvEtyl;BIRbePTxus²KñaénkMlaMg Gnþrkmµm:UelKul. kMlaMgDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul DIb:Ul-DIb:UlGnÞg nigr)a:yEdlKImIviTUehACarYmfa kMlaMg kMlaMg kMlaMg kMlaMg van der Waal. 6>2>1 kMlaMgDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul

kMlaMgDIbUkMlaMgDIbUkMlaMgDIbUkMlaMgDIbU:: ::llll----DIbUDIbUDIbUDIbU:: ::llllCakMlaMgRbTajEdlekIteLIgrvagm:UelKulb:UEl KWrvavm:UelKulEdl manm:Um:g;DIb:Ul. lkçN³edImrbs;vaCaeGLicRtÚsaþTic ehIyRtUv)anBnül;enAkñúgc,ab;KULMú. m:Um:g;DIb:Ulkan;EtFMkMlaMgenHkan;EtxøaMg. rUbTI1 bgaðjBIkartMrg;TisénmU:elKulb:UElkñúg GgÁFaturwg. enAkñúgGgÁFaturav m:UelKulb:UElmin)anP¢ab;KñarwgmaMdUcGgÁFaturwgeT EtvamanTMenar sMrbeTAtamrebobeFVIeGayGnþrkmµRbTajx<s;bMput.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI1111³³³³ mUmUmUmU:: ::elKulEdlmanmUelKulEdlmanmUelKulEdlmanmUelKulEdlmanmU:: ::mmmm::::gggg;;;;DIbUDIbUDIbUDIbU:: ::llllGcié®nþyGcié®nþyGcié®nþyGcié®nþy____manTMenarsMrbCamYynwg manTMenarsMrbCamYynwg manTMenarsMrbCamYynwg manTMenarsMrbCamYynwg PaBbPaBbPaBbPaBb:::: UElUElUElUEltamTistamTistamTistamTispÞúyKñpÞúyKñpÞúyKñpÞúyKñaaaaenAkñúgpasrwgenAkñúgpasrwgenAkñúgpasrwgenAkñúgpasrwgsMrabsMrabsMrabsMrab;;;;GnþrkmµGnþrkmµGnþrkmµGnþrkmµRbTajRbTajRbTajRbTajxxxx<<<<ssss;;;;bMputbMputbMputbMput

6>2>2 kMlaMgGIuy:ug-DIb:Ul c,ab;KULMúEfmTaMgBnül;BIkMlaMgGuIykMlaMgGuIykMlaMgGuIykMlaMgGuIy:::: ugugugug----DIbUDIbUDIbUDIbU:: ::llllEdlTajGIuy:ugmYy (kacugrWGaj:úg) nig

mU:elKulb:UElmYyPöab;Kña. PaBxøaMgénkMlaMgGnþrkmµenHGaRs½yelIbnÞúknigTMhMénGIuy:ugelITMhM mU:m:g;DIb:Ul nigelITMhMm:UelKul. bnÞúkkacugCaTUeTAxab;Cag¬mankMhab;x<s;Cag¦edaysar kacugmanTMhMtUcCagGaj:úg. dUecñH kacugmanGnþrkmµCamYyDIb:UlxøaMgCagGaj:úgEdlmanTMhM bnÞúkdUcKañ.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI2222³³³³ GnþrkmµDIbGnþrkmµDIbGnþrkmµDIbGnþrkmµDIb:::: UlUlUlUl----GIuyGIuyGIuyGIuy:::: ugugugugBIBIBIBIrRbePTrRbePTrRbePTrRbePT

CMBUkTI11

11-5

GIuRdatkmµCa]TahrN_mYyénGnþrkmµGIy:ug-DIb:Ul. enAkñúgsUluysüúg NaCl GIuy:ug Na+ nig Cl- RtUv)anrMuB½T§edaym:UelKulTwkEdlmanm:Um:g;DIb:UlFM. enAeBlsmasFatuGIuyu:g dUcCa NaCl rlaykñúgTwk enaHm:UelKulTwkmanGMeBIdUcFatuGIusULg;GKÁisnIrkSaGIuy:ug[enAdac; BIeK. mü:ageTot kabUnetRtakørY¬CCl4¦EdlCam:UelKulminb:UEl xVHlT§PaBcUlrYmkñúgGnþrkmµ GIuy:ug-DIb:Ul. dUecñH CCl4 CaFaturMlayexSaysMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ugedaysarvaCaGgÁFaturav minb:UElxøaMgbMput. karbkRsayGMBIGnþrkmµGIuy:ug-DIbU:lRtUv)anbgaðjenAkñúgrUbTI3. TwkRtUv)anbnþk;BI bu‘yEr:tcUleTAkñúgEkvebEs‘ RbsinebIdMbgmYyEdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man¬]TahrN_dMbgekAsU‘rwg [ebonite]mYyRtUv)anxat;CamYyeramstV¦ RtUv)andak;eTAEk,rExSTwkenaHTwkgakeTArkdMbg. enAeBldMbg ebonite RtUv)anCMnYsedayvtßúEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man (]TahrN_ dMbgEkvmYyRtUv )anxat;CamYysURt) enaHTwkRtUv)anTajeTArkdMbgmþgeTot. CamYyTItaMgrbs;dMbg ebonite mU:elKulTwkgayedayxøÜnÉg dUecñHbnÞúkviC¢manenAxagcugDIb:UlsßitenACitdMbgCag KWRtUv)an TajeTArkbnÞúkGviC¢manéndMbg. enAeBldMbgeQIexµA (ebonite) RtUv)anCMnYsedaydMbgEkv enaHcugGviC¢manénDIbU:lRtUv)antMrg;TiseTArkdMbg. kargakRsedogKña RtUv)ansegáteXIj cMeBaHGgÁFaturavb:UElepSgeTot. KµankargakekIteLIgeTenAeBlGgÁFaturavminb:UEl dUcCa Gicsan(C6H14)RtUv)aneFIVetsþ.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI3333³ ³ ³ ³ kargakéncrnþkargakéncrnþkargakéncrnþkargakéncrnþ TwkedaydMbgTwkedaydMbgTwkedaydMbgTwkedaydMbg ebonite manbnmanbnmanbnmanbnÞúkÞúkÞúkÞúk....

6>2>3 kMlaMgr)a:y

etIGnþrkmµTMnajGVIekIteLIgenAkñúgsarFatuminb:UEl? edIm,IeqøIysMnYrenH cUrBinitüemIl kartMerobbgðajkñúgrUbTI4. RbsinebIeyIgdak;GIuy:ugmYyb¤m:UelKulb:UElmYyenACitGatUmmYy


11-6

¬b¤m:UelKulminb:UEl¦ r)ayeGLicRtugrbs;GatUmenaH¬b¤m:UelKul¦ RtUv)anbEgVredaykMlaMg bgáeLIgedayGIuy:ugrWm:UelKulenaHbegáIt)anCaDIb:UlxøH². DIb:UlenAkñúgGatUm¬b¤m:UelKulb:UEl¦ enaHRtUv)aneK[eQµaHfa DIbDIbDIbDIb:::: UlGnÞgUlGnÞgUlGnÞgUlGnÞg (induced dipole) BIeRBaHkarEjkbnÞúkviCömannigGviCöman énGatUm¬b¤m:UelKulminb:UEl¦edaysarcm¶ayCit²énGatUmrWm:UelKulb:UEl. GnþrkmµTMnaj rvagGIuy:ugnigDIb:UlGnÞgehAfa GnþrkmµDIb:UlGnÞg-GIuy:ug (ion-induced dipole) ehIyGnþrkmµ TMnajrvagm:UelKulb:UElnigDIb:UlGnÞgehAfa GnþrkmµDIb:UlGnÞg-DIb:Ul (dipole-induced

dipole).

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI4444³³³³ rrrr))))ayayayaybnÞúkkñúgGatUmbnÞúkkñúgGatUmbnÞúkkñúgGatUmbnÞúkkñúgGatUm He

lT§PaBEdlm:Um:g;DIb:UlRtUv)anGnÞgminGaRs½yEteTAelIbnÞúkGIuy:ugb¤kMlaMgrbs;DIb:Ul b:ueNaÑHeT b:uEnþvak¾GaRs½yeTAelIb:Ulkmµrbs;GatUmb¤m:UelKulpgEdr. b:UlkmµKWCaPaBgay RsYl Edlr)ayeGLicRtugkñúgGatUm ¬b¤m:UelKul¦mYyGacRtUv)anbEgVr. CaTUeTA cMnYnd¾eRcIn rbs;eGLicRtugnigbnSayeGLicRtugsaykan;EtxøaMgkñúgGatUm b¤m:UelKul PaBb:Ulkmµrbs;va k¾kan;EtxøaMgEdr. edaysarBBkbnSaymann½yfaBBkeGLicRtugsayelImaDFMKYrsm dUecñH eGLicRtugmin)ancgP¢ab;maMeTAnwgéNVy:UeT. PaBb:UlkmµGnuBaØat[]sµ½n EdlmanGatUmb¤m:UelKulminb:UElGachab;ENn)an. ]TahrN_ He nig N2…. cMeBaHGatUm He eGLicRtúgpøas;TIBIéNVyU:. enAxN³NamYy vadUc CaGatUmmYymanmU:m:g;DIbU:lmYyRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedayTItaMgCak;lak;TaMgLayeGLicRtúg TaMgenaH. mU:m:g;DIbU:lenHehAfa DIb:UlekItPøam²¬mYyEPøt¦ edaysarvamanGtßiPaBEtmYy

CMBUkTI11

11-7

RbPaKénvinaTI. enAxN³bnÞab;mkeTot eGLicRtúgsißtenATItaMgepSgeTot ehIyGatUmman DIb:UlmYyEPøtfIµmYyeTotnigbnþeTot. fVIt,itEtGatUmminmanm:Um:g;DIbU:lBIeRBaHDIb:UlmYyEPøt ekIteLIgeFVIeGaymU:m:g;DIbU:lepSgeTotRtUv)at;bg;bnþKñaenaH ry³eBlRtUv)anKitCamFüm (Cary³eBlEdlRtUv)aneRbIedImI,eFIVkarvas;mU:m:g;DIbU:lmYy). enAkñúgbNþúMénGatUm He DIb:Ul mYyEPøtmYYyrbs;GatUm He mYyGacGnÞgDIbU:lnImYy²énGatUmepSgeTotEdlenACitKñabMput ¬rUbTI5¦. enAxN³eBlbnÞab; DIb:UlmYyEPøtepSgeTotGacbegIátDIb:UlbeNaþHGasnñCaeRcIn enACMuvijGatUmHe. cMNucsMxan;KWfaRbePTGnþrkmµenHbegIát kMlaMgrkMlaMgrkMlaMgrkMlaMgr))))aaaa:: ::yyyy EdlCakMlaMgTMnaj EdlRtUv)anbegIáteLIgedayDIbU:lbeNþaHGasnñRtUv)anGnÞgkñúgGatUmrWm:UelKul. enAsItuNðPaBTabxøaMg kMlaMgr)a:yxøaMgRKb;RKan;edIm,IcgP¢ab;GatUmHeCamYyKñaEdlnaM[]sµ½n enHk¾CaejIs.

rUbrUbrUbrUb5555³³³³ DIbDIbDIbDIb:::: UlGnÞgGnþrkmµCamYyKñaUlGnÞgGnþrkmµCamYyKñaUlGnÞgGnþrkmµCamYyKñaUlGnÞgGnþrkmµCamYyKña

elak Fritz London ¬1900-1954¦ rUbviTUGaLWm:g;)anbgðajfa TMhMénGnþrkmµTMnajenHKW smamaRteTAnwgPaBb:Ulkmµrbs;GatUmb¤mU:elKulmYy. dUcEdleyIgnwgrMBwkTukehIyfakMlaMg r)a:yKWvaexSayNas;. vaBitR)akdsMrab; He EdlmancMNucrMBuHRtwmEt 4,2K b¤ -269oC b:ueNÑaH. cMNaM He manEt 2e- b:ueNÑaH EdlRtUv)anPöab;ya:gxøaMgkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 1s. dUecñH He manPaBb:UlkmµTab. CaFmµtakMlaMgr)a:yekIneLIgtamma:sm:Ul BIeRBaHm:UelKulEdlmanm:asm:UlFMCag eRcInEtmancMnYneGLicRtugeRcInCag ehIykMlaMgr)a:yekIneLIgtamcMnYneGLicRtugenaH. elIsBIenHeTot ma:sm:UelKulFMCageRcInEtmann½yfaGatUmFMCagEdlr)ayeGLicRtuggayrg karrMxan eRBaHeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkARtUv)anTajexSayCagedayéNVy:U. taragxageRkam eRbóbeFobcMNucrlayénsarFatuRsedogKña EdlbgáeLIgedaym:UelKulminb:UEl. dUc)an


11-8

rMBwgTuk cMNucrlayekIneLIgtamcMnYneGLicRtugekIneLIgkñúgm:UelKul. edayvaCam:UelKul minb:UElenaH kM;laMgGnþrm:UlelKulTMnajKWmanEtkMlaMgr)a:y.

kñúgkrNICaeRcIn kMlaMgr)a:yGacRbhak;RbEhlb¤xøaMgCagkMlaMgDIb:Ul-DIb:Ulrvag m:UelKulb:UEl. edIm,I[kan;Etc,as; cUreyIgeRbóbeFobcMNucrlayénCH3F (-141,8oC) nig CCl4 (-23oC). eTaHbICa CH3F manm:Um:g;DIb:UlesµI 1,8D k¾varlayenAsIutuNðPaBTabCag CCl4EdlCam:UelKulminb:UElEdr. CCl4 rlayenAsItuNðPaBx<s;Cag eRBaHvamaneGLicRtug eRcInCag. CalT§pl kMlaMgr)a:yrvagm:UelKul CCl4 KWxøaMgCagkMlaMgr):ay bUkkMlaMgDIb:Ul-DIb:Ulrvagm:UelKulCH3F. cMNaMfa kMlaMgr)a:yGacekItmaneLIgkñúgcMeNamRbePTTaMgGs; minfaCabnÞúkNWt rWbnÞúksMrYl nigminfaCab:UElrWminb:UEl.

taragtaragtaragtarag2222³³³³ cMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucrlayénsmasFatuminbrlayénsmasFatuminbrlayénsmasFatuminbrlayénsmasFatuminb:::: UElUElUElUElRsedogKñaRsedogKñaRsedogKñaRsedogKña smasFatu cMNucrlay (oC)

CH4 -182,5 C2H6 -183,3 CF4 -150.0 CCl4 -23,0 CBr4 90,0 CI4 171,0

]TahrN_xageRkambgðajfa RbsinebIeyIgdwgBIRbePTvtþmanénRbePTsarFatuenaH eyIgGackMNt;y:aggaynUvRbePTénkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulEdlekItmaneLIgrvagRbePTénsar FatuTaMgenaH)an. ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____1111 etImanRbePTkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulGVIxøH EdlekItmanrvagKUm:UelKul ÷

(a) HBr nigH2S; (b) Cl2 nigCBr4; (c) I2 nigNO3- (d) NH3 nigC6H6

cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³ (a) m:UelKul HBr nig H2S TaMgBIrCam:UelKulb:UEl dUecñHkMlaMgEdlekIteLIgrvagm:UelKul TaMgBIrenHKWkMlaMgDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul. k¾mankMlaMgr):aypgEdrrvagm:UelKulTaMgBIrenH.

(b) Cl2 nig CCl4 Cam:UelKulminb:UEl dUecñHvamanEtkMlaMgr):ayrvagm:UelKulTaMgenaH b:ueNÑaH.

(c) I2Cam:UelKulminb:UEl dUecñHkMlaMgEdlekItmanrvagm:UelKulI2nigGIuy:ug −3NO KWkMlaMg

DIb:UlGnÞgGIuy:ug nigkMlaMgr)a:y.

CMBUkTI11

11-9

(d) NH3 CamU:elKulb:UEl nigC6H6 CamU:elKulminb:UEl. kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul KWkMlaMg DIb:Ul GnÞgDIb:Ul nigkMlaMgr)a:ypgEdr.

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __ cUreGayeQµaHRbePTkMlaMgGnþrmU:elKul EdlekItmanrvagmU:elKulxageRkam³

(a) LiF, (b) CH4, (c) SO2

6>2>4 sMB½n§GIuRdUEsn(Hydrogen Bonding)

sMB½n§GIuRdUEsnsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnCaRbePTBiessénGnþrkmµDIb:Ul-DIbU:lrvagGatUmGIuRdÚEsnenAkñúgsm½<næ b:UElmYydUcCa N-H, O-H, rW F-H CamYynwgeGLicRtUGviC¢man dUcCaGatUm O, N, b¤ F. GnþrkmµenHRtUv)aneKsresr ÷

A-H…B b¤ A-H…A

A nig B tag[GatUm O, N b¤ F. A-H Cam:UelKulmYy b¤CaEpñkénm:UelKulmYynig B CaEpñkénm:UelKulmYyepSgeTot. bnÞat;dac;²tag[sMB½n§GIuRdUEsn. CaFmµtaGatUmTaMgbI sßitenAtambnÞat;Rtg; EtmMu AHB b¤ AHA GacgakecjRbEhl 30o BIbnÞat;Rtg;. cMNaMfa enAkñúgkarcgsm<½næGIuRdUEsn GatUmO, N,nigF TaMgGs;manya:gticnUveTVtaesrI EdlGacman GnþrkmµCamYyGatUmGIuRdÚEsn.

OHH O

H

H

NHH

H

NH

H

H

O

HH NH

H

H

NHH

H

OH

H

NHH

H

FH

NH

H

HH

F

rUbrUbrUbrUb6666³³³³ sMB½n§GIuRdUEsnenAkñúgmsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnenAkñúgmsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnenAkñúgmsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnenAkñúgm:::: UelKul UelKul UelKul UelKul H2O, NH3 nignignignigHF

famBlmFüménsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnKWFMKYrsmsMrab;GnþrkmµDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul ¬rhUtdl; 40kJ/

mol¦. dUecñH sMB½n§GIuRdUEsnman\T§iBlxøaMgeTAelITMrg;niglkçN³énsmasFatuCaeRcIn ¬rUbTI6 bgðaj]TahrN_mYycMnYnénsMB½n§GIuRdUEsn¦.


11-10

PsþútagdMbUgénkarcgsm<½næGIuRdUEsnKW)anmkBIkarsikSacMNuHrMBuHrbs;smassFatu. CaFmµtacMNucrMBuHénes‘rIsmasFatuRsedogKña EdlsßitkñugRkumdUcKñaekIneLIgtamkarekIneLIg énm:asm:Ul. b:uEnþdUcrUbTI7)anbgðaj smasFatuGIuRdUEsnénFatukñúgRkum 5A, 6A nig 7A min eKarBtamTMenarenHeT. enAkñúgesrInImYy²TaMgenH sarFatuRsalbMput (NH3, H2O, HF)

mancMNucrMBuHx<s;bMputEdlpÞúyBIkarrMBwgTukrbs;eyIgEdlGaRs½yelIm:asm:Ul. ehtuplKWfa mankarcgsm<½n§GIuRdUEsnTUlMTUlayrvagm:UelKulenAkñúgsmasFatuTaMgenH. ]TahrN_ kñúgGgÁFaturwg HF m:UelKulminmanGtßiPaBCaÉktaedayELk²eT EtvabgáCaRcvak; kac;cuHkac;eLIgy:agEvg.

HF

HF

HF

HF

kñúgpasrav Rcvak;kac;cuHeLIgRtUvEbk)ak;Etm:UelKulenAEtRtUv)ancgCasMB½n§GIuRdUEsn BImYyeTAmYy. vaBi)akbMEbkecjBIKñanUvm:UelKulEdlcgP¢ab;KñaedaysMB½n§GIuRdUEsn. dUecñH GgÁFaturav HF mancMNucrMBuHx<s;minFmµta. kMlaMgénsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnRtUv)ankMNt;edayGnþrkmµrvageTVtaeGLicRtugesrIénGatUm eGLicRtUGviC¢mannigéNVy:UGIuRdUEsn. ]TahrN_PøúyGrmankMriteGLicRtUGviC¢manxøaMgCag GuksIuEsn dUecñH eyIgGacsniñdæan)anfa sMB½n§GIuRdUEsnénGgÁFaturav HF xøaMgCagTwk (H2O). EtcMNucrMBuHrbs; HFTabCagcMNucrMBuHrbs;Twk edaysarEtm:UelKulTwknImYy²Pöab;edaysMB½n§ GuIRdÚEsnGnþrm:UelKulcMnYnbYn. dUecñHkMlaMgPöab;m:UelKulCamYyKñakñúgTwkrwgmaMCagkñúgHF. eyIgnwgniyay GMBIlkçN³sMxan;rbs;TwkenHenAkñúgEpñkxageRkay.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI6666³³³³ cMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucrrrrMBuHénsmasFatuGIuRdUEsnCamYyFatukñúgRkum MBuHénsmasFatuGIuRdUEsnCamYyFatukñúgRkum MBuHénsmasFatuGIuRdUEsnCamYyFatukñúgRkum MBuHénsmasFatuGIuRdUEsnCamYyFatukñúgRkum 4A, 5A, 6A, nig nig nig nig 7A

CMBUkTI11

11-11

xageRkamenHCa]TahrN_bgðajBIRbePT EdlGaccgsm<½næGIuRdÚEsnCamYymU:elKul Twk.

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN_2222³³³³ etIFatumYyNakñúgcMeNamFatuxageRkamenH EdlGacbegáItsMB½n§ GIuRdUEsn)anCamYyTwk? CH3OCH3, CH4, F

-, HCOOH, Na+

cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³ KµanFatueGLicRtUGviC¢maneT ¬ F, O,rW N¦TaMgenAkñúg CH4 rW Na+. dUecñHman Et CH3OCH3, F

- nig HCOOH eTEdlGacbegáItsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnCamYyTwk)an.

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;Gnuvtþn¾Gnuvtþn¾Gnuvtþn¾Gnuvtþn¾³³³³ kñúgcMeNamRbePTKImITaMgGs;xageRkamenH etImanRbePTKImINaxøH EdlGaccgsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnkñúgcMeNamKñava? k> H2S x> C6H6 K> CH3OH

knøgmk kMlaMgGnþrmU:elKulEdl)anBIPakSarYcCaTMnajkñúgFmµCatiTaMgGs;. ya:gNa k¾eday cUrcaMfa mU:elKulk¾beBa©jkMlaMgcMranKñapgEdr. dUecñH enAeBlmU:elKulBIrxitCitKañ cMranrvageGLicRtúgnigrvagéNVy:Urbs;vaekItmaneLIg. TMhMénkMlaMgcMranekIneLIgCalMdab; enAeBlcMgayXøatKñarvagmU:elKulkñúgpaskMNkfycuH. enHCamUlehtuEdlBi)akbENÑn GgÁFaturavnigGgÁFaturwg. enAkñúgpasTaMgenH mU:elKulRtUv)anP¢ab;Kñay:agCitrYceTAehIy dUecñH vaFn;ya:gxøaMgeTAnwgkarbENÑn. 6>3 lkçN³rbs;GgÁFaturav

kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKuleFVIeGayRTg;RTayniglkçN³rbs;GgÁFaturavekIneLIg. enAkñúgEpñk enH eyIgnwgBinitüemIl)atuPUtBIrTak;TgCamYyGgÁFaturav CaTUeTA KW)atuPUttMNwgépÞb:Hnig PaBGnæil. bnÞab;mkeyIgnwgsikSaBITMrg;niglkçN³rbs;Twk. 6>3>1>tMNwgépÞb:H m:UelKulenAkñúgGgÁFaturavRtUv)anTajRKb;TisTaMgGs;edaykMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulvaKµan TMenarsMrab;vaRtUv)anTajkñúgTisEtmYyenaHeT. b:uEnþ m:UelKulenAépÞelIRtUv)anTajeday m:UelKulepSgeTAeRkamnigeTAcMehog b:uEnþmineTAelIecjBIépÞTwkeT¬rUbTI8¦. dUecñH TMnaj


11-12

Gnþrm:UelKulTaMgenHmanTMenarTajm:UelKulcUleTAkñúgGgÁFaturav nigeFVIeGayépÞrbs;GgÁFatu ravenaHtwgdUchVIlyWt. edaysarEtmanTMnajtictYcbMputrWKµanrvagm:UelKulb:UElTwknig m:UelKulminb:UElrelagelIrfynþeTIbb:UlfµI² TwkykragCaRKab;mUltUc BIeRBaHEsV‘eFVIeGayépÞ rbs;GgÁFaturavenAtUcbMput. épÞrelagrbs;rbs;Epøe):amesImk¾begáIt\T§iBlenHEdr ¬rUbTI9¦.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI9999³³³³tMNkTtMNkTtMNkTtMNkTwkenAwkenAwkenAwkenAelIelIelIelIEpøeEpøeEpøeEpøe):):):):amamamamrelagrelagrelagrelag nigstVl¥itEdlGacedIrenAelITwknigstVl¥itEdlGacedIrenAelITwknigstVl¥itEdlGacedIrenAelITwknigstVl¥itEdlGacedIrenAelITwk.... rgVas;énkMlaMgyWtenAépÞelIénGgÁFaturavKWCatMNwgépÞb:H. tMNwgépÞbtMNwgépÞbtMNwgépÞbtMNwgépÞb::::HHHHKWCabrimaN énfamBlRtUvkaredIm,Isn§wgb¤begáInépÞb:Hrbs;GgÁFaturavkñúgmYyépÞxñat¬]TahrN_ 1cm2¦. GgÁFaturavEdlmankMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulxøaMgk¾manépÞb:HFMEdr. edaysarEtsMB½n§GIuRdUEsn dUecñH TwkmantMNwgépÞb:Hx<s;CagGgÁFaturavepSg²eTot. GMeBIsrésbþÚrQamKWCa]TahrN_mYyepSg eToténtMNwgépÞb:H. ¬rUbTI10k>bgðajBIkarekIneLIgÉkÉgenAkñúgkUnbMBg;. hVIlesþIgénTwk Pöab;eTAnwgépÞbMBg;Ekv. tMNwgépÞb:Hrbs;TwkbgáhVIlenHeGayk®nþak;nigTajTwkeLIgeTAelI bMBg;. kMlaMgBIrRbePTenHnaMmknUvGMeBIkUnbMBg;. mYyKWkMlaMghab;(Cohesion) KWCakMlaMg TMnajGnþrm:UelKulrvagm:UelKuldUcKña¬kñúgkrNIenHKWm:UelKulTwk¦. kMlaMgTIBIrKWehAfa CCCCMMMMnabnabnabnab;;;;s¥its¥its¥its¥it(adhesion) KWCaTMnajrvagm:UelKulmindUcKña dUcCakMlaMgenAkñúgTwknigenAEpñkxag

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI8888³ ³ ³ ³ kMlaMgGnþrmkMlaMgGnþrmkMlaMgGnþrmkMlaMgGnþrm:::: UelKulEdleFVIGMUelKulEdleFVIGMUelKulEdleFVIGMUelKulEdleFVIGMeBIeTAelI eBIeTAelI eBIeTAelI eBIeTAelI mmmm:::: UelKulenARsTabUelKulenARsTabUelKulenARsTabUelKulenARsTab;;;;épÞelIépÞelIépÞelIépÞelInigenAxagkñúgnigenAxagkñúgnigenAxagkñúgnigenAxagkñúgGgÁFaturavGgÁFaturavGgÁFaturavGgÁFaturav....

CMBUkTI11

11-13

kñúgénbMBg;Ekv. RbsinebIkMlaMgCMnab;s¥itxøaMgCagkMlaMghab;dUckñúgrUbTI10>k cMNuHénbMBg;nwg RtUv)anTajeLIgeTAelI. lMnaMenHbnþrrhUtTal;EtkMlaMgCMnab;s¥itRtUv)anføwgedaym:asTwkenA kñúgbMBg;. GMeBIenHKWminEmnmann½yfaTUeTARKb;GgÁFaturavenaHeT dUcRtUv)anbgðajenAkñúg rUbTI10>x. cMeBaH)artkMlaMghab;FMCagkMlaMgCMnab;s¥itrvag)artnigEkv dUecñHenAeBlkUnbMBg; RtUv)anRCmuCcUleTAkñúg)art eBlenaHKWmankarfycuH¬vism<aF¦ kMritrbs;)artKWfakMBs;rbs; GgÁFaturavenAkñúgkUnbMBg;sßitenAeRkamépÞrbs;)art.

rUbPaBTIrUbPaBTIrUbPaBTIrUbPaBTI10101010³³³³ kkkk>>>> enAeBlEdlkMlaMgenAeBlEdlkMlaMgenAeBlEdlkMlaMgenAeBlEdlkMlaMgCMnabCMnabCMnabCMnab;;;;s¥itFMCagkMlaMgs¥itFMCagkMlaMgs¥itFMCagkMlaMgs¥itFMCagkMlaMghabhabhabhab;;;;GgÁFaturav ¬GgÁFaturav ¬GgÁFaturav ¬GgÁFaturav ¬]]]]>>>>dUcCaTwk¦ dUcCaTwk¦ dUcCaTwk¦ dUcCaTwk¦ ekIneLIgeekIneLIgeekIneLIgeekIneLIgeTTTTAkñúgAkñúgAkñúgAkñúgkUnkUnkUnkUnbMBgbMBgbMBgbMBg;;;;. . . . xxxx> > > > enAeBlEdlkMlaMgenAeBlEdlkMlaMgenAeBlEdlkMlaMgenAeBlEdlkMlaMghabhabhabhab;;;;FMCagkMlaMgFMCagkMlaMgFMCagkMlaMgFMCagkMlaMgCMnabCMnabCMnabCMnab;;;;s¥its¥its¥its¥it dUcCacMeBaHdUcCacMeBaHdUcCacMeBaHdUcCacMeBaH))))artartartart karkarkarkarfycuHénfycuHénfycuHénfycuHénGgÁFaturavkñúgGgÁFaturavkñúgGgÁFaturavkñúgGgÁFaturavkñúgkUnkUnkUnkUnbMBgbMBgbMBgbMBg;;;;KWCalTKWCalTKWCalTKWCalT§§§§plplplpl. . . . cUrktcUrktcUrktcUrkt;;;;sMKalsMKalsMKalsMKal;;;;fafafafaépépépépÞÞÞÞxagexagexagexagelIlIlIlIkñúgkñúgkñúgkñúgkUnbMBgkUnbMBgkUnbMBgkUnbMBg;;;;én én én én TwkTwkTwkTwkKWKWKWKWptcuHeRkam cMENképptcuHeRkam cMENképptcuHeRkam cMENképptcuHeRkam cMENképÞÞÞÞxagelIkñúgkUnbMBgxagelIkñúgkUnbMBgxagelIkñúgkUnbMBgxagelIkñúgkUnbMBg;;;;énénénén))))artKWeartKWeartKWeartKWe):):):):ageLIgelIageLIgelIageLIgelIageLIgelI.... 6>3>2 PaBGn§il

ebIGñkFøab;emIleXIjTwkXµúMhUr enaHbegáInlkçN³rUbmYyepSgeTotrbs;GgÁFaturav Edl eKeGayeQµaHfaPaBGn§il. PaBGn§ilPaBGn§ilPaBGn§ilPaBGn§il KWCargVas;énGMNt;Fn;rbs;snÞnIyeTAnwglMhUr. PaBGn§ilkan;EtFM GgÁFaturavhUrkan;EtyWt. CaFmµtaPaBGn§ilrbs;GgÁFaturavmYyfycuH kalNasItuNðPaBekIneLIg dUecñHTwkXµúMEdlekþAhUrelOnCagTwkXµúMEdlRtCak;.

GgÁFaturavEdlmankMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulxøaMgmanPaBGn§ilx<s;CagGgÁFaturav Edlman kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulexSay¬taragTI3¦. TwkmanPaBGn§ilx<s;;CagGgÁFaturavCaeRcInepSgeTot


11-14

eRBaHEtlT§PaBénkarcgsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnrbs;va. KøIesru:lCaFatuEdlmanPaBGn§ilx<s;CageK bg¥s;kñúgcMeNamGgÁFaturavTaMgGs;EdlmanenAkñúgtaragTI3. KøIesr:ulmanrUbmnþ ÷

KøIesr:ulGacbegáItsMB½n§GIuRdUEsn)andUcTwkEdr. m:UelKulKøIesr:ulnImYy²manbgÁúMnaTI-

OH cMnYnbIEdlGaccUlrYmcgsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnCamYynwgm:UelKulKøIesr:ulepSg²eTot. m:üagvij eTotedaysarRTg;RTayrbs;vam:UelKulenHmanTMenarRbTak;KñaCaCagrGilqøgBImYyeTAmYy dUcm:UelKulénGgÁFaturavEdlmanPaBGn§ilTab. GnþrkmµTaMgenHeFVIeGaymanPaBGn§ilrbs; vax<s;.

taragTItaragTItaragTItaragTI3333³ ³ ³ ³ PaBGniælrbsPaBGniælrbsPaBGniælrbsPaBGniælrbs;;;;GgÁÁFaturavmYycMnYnenAsItuNðPaB GgÁÁFaturavmYycMnYnenAsItuNðPaB GgÁÁFaturavmYycMnYnenAsItuNðPaB GgÁÁFaturavmYycMnYnenAsItuNðPaB 20 oC

GgÁFaturavGgÁFaturavGgÁFaturavGgÁFaturav PaBxabPaBxabPaBxabPaBxab;;;;Gnæil Gnæil Gnæil Gnæil (N s/m2 )

GaestUn (C3H6O) 3.16 x10-4

bg;Esn (C6H6) 6.25 x10-4

Qam 4 x10-3

kabUnetRtakørY (CCl4) 9.69 x10-4

eGtaNul (C2H5OH) 1.20 x10-3

eGTIleGET (C2H5OC2H5) 2.33 x10-4

KIøesr:ul (C3H8O3) 1.49

)art (Hg) 1.55 x10-3

Twk (H2O) 1.01 x10-3

6>3>3 TMrg;niglkçN³rbs;Twk TwkKWCasarFatumYysamBaØbMputenAelIEpndI EdlCanic©kaleyIgEtgEtemIlrMlgBI FmµCatiEtmYyKt;rbs;va. dMeNIrkarénCIvitTaMgGs;suT§EtTak;TgCamYyTwk. TwkKWCaGgÁFatu rMlayd¾RbesIrbMputsMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ugCaeRcIn k¾dUcCasMrab;sarFatudéT²eTot EdlGac begáItsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnCamYyTwkEdr. RbsinebITwkminmansmtßPaBbegIátsm<½næGIuRdÚEsneT enaH vanwgkøayCa]s½µnenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb;.

CMBUkTI11

11-15

taragTI1bgðajfa TwkmankMedAyfaRbePTx<s;. ehtuplenHKWfaedIm,ItMeLIg sItuNðPaBrbs;Twk ¬)anesckþIfaedIm,IbegáInfamBlsIuenTicmFümrbs;m:UelKulTwk¦eyIgRtUv bMEbksMB½n§GIuRdUEsnGnþrm:UelKulCaeRcIn. dUecñH TwkGacRsUbbrimaNkMedAeRcInenAeBlEdl sItuNðPaBrbs;vaekInkMedA)anEtbnþic. PaBpÞúyKñak¾BitCadUecñHEdr³ TwkGacbeBa©jkMedAeRcIn edaysItuNðPaBrbs;vafycuHEtbnþic. cMeBaHehtuplenH brimaNy:ageRcInrbs;TwkEdlman enAkñúgbwgnigkñúgmhasmuRTGacCYysMrYlGakasFatuy:agmanRbsiT§PaBéntMbn;dIeKakCit² enaHedaykarRsUbkMedAenAvsSanrdUv nigbeBa©jkMedAmkvijenAsisirrdUv edaymankarERbRbYl sItuNðPaBTwkEtbnþicbnþÜcb:ueNÑaH. lkçN³KYr[cab;GarmµN_CageKrbs;TwkenaH KWTMrg;rwgrbs;vamandg;sIuettUcCagTMrg; ravrbs;va³ TwkkkGENþtenAelIépÞTwkrav. dg;sIuetesÞIrEtRKb;sarFatuTaMgGs;kñúgPaBCa GgÁFaturwgKWWFMCagkñúgPaBCaGgÁFaturav ¬rUbTI11¦.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI11111111³³³³ xageqVgxageqVgxageqVgxageqVg TwkkkGENþtelITwkTwkkkGENþtelITwkTwkkkGENþtelITwkTwkkkGENþtelITwk. . . . xagsþaM bgxagsþaM bgxagsþaM bgxagsþaM bg;;;;EsnrwgEsnrwgEsnrwgEsnrwgliclicliclickñúgbgkñúgbgkñúgbgkñúgbg;;;;EsnravEsnravEsnravEsnrav.... edIm,Iyl;faetIehtuGVI)anCaTwkmanlkçN³xuseKenaH eyIgRtUvEtBInitüTMrg;eGLic- RtUnicrbs;m:UelKulTwk. dUcEdleyIg)aneXIjenACMBUkTI9rYcmkehIyfam:UelKulTwkmanKU eGLicRtugmincgsMB½n§BIrKUrWKUeTVtaesrIBIrenAelIGatUmGuksIuEsn÷

ebIeTaHBICasmasFatuCaeRcInGacbegáItsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnGnþrm:UelKulk¾eday k¾PaBxus KñarvagTwknigm:UelKulb:UEldéT²eTotdUcCa NH3 nig HF KWfaGatUmGuksIuEsnnImYy²Gac begáIt)ansMB½n§GIuRdUEsncMnYnBIrk¾dUcCacMnYndUcKñaénKUeTVtaesrIelIGatUmGuksIuEsnEdr. dUecñH m:UelKulTwkRtUv)antP¢ab;KñakñúgbNþajvimaRtbId¾FMmYy EdlGatUmGuksIuEsnnImYy²cgsMB½n§


11-16

esÞIrEtCactumuxeTAnwgGatUmGIuRdUEsncMnYnbYnBIredaysMB½n§kUv:aLg; nigBIreTotedaysMB½n§ GIuRdUEsn. cMnYnesµIKñaéncMnYnGatUmkabUnnigKUeTVtaesrIminEmnCalkçN³sMKal;rbs; NH3 nig

HF b¤cMeBaHm:UelKulepSgeTotEdlGacbegáItsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnenaHeT. CapllM)ak m:UelKul epSgeTotTaMgenaHGacbegáItCavg;b¤CaExS b:uEnþminEmnTMrg;vimaRtbIenaHeT.

rUbTrUbTrUbTrUbTIIII12121212³³³³ CarUbTMrgCarUbTMrgCarUbTMrgCarUbTMrg;;;;vimaRtvimaRtvimaRtvimaRtbbbbIIIIrbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;TwkkkTwkkkTwkkkTwkkk.... GatUmGuksIuEsnnImYyGatUmGuksIuEsnnImYyGatUmGuksIuEsnnImYyGatUmGuksIuEsnnImYy²²²²cgsMB½n§CamYyGatUmcgsMB½n§CamYyGatUmcgsMB½n§CamYyGatUmcgsMB½n§CamYyGatUm GGGGIuIu IuIuRdUEsncMnYnbYnRdUEsncMnYnbYnRdUEsncMnYnbYnRdUEsncMnYnbYn. . . . sMB½n§kUvsMB½n§kUvsMB½n§kUvsMB½n§kUv:: ::aLgaLgaLgaLg;;;;RtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))anbgðajedayExSdit nigsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnexSayCaganbgðajedayExSdit nigsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnexSayCaganbgðajedayExSdit nigsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnexSayCaganbgðajedayExSdit nigsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnexSayCageday eday eday eday ExSdacExSdacExSdacExSdac;;;;²²²²EvgrvagEvgrvagEvgrvagEvgrvag O nignignignig H. . . . kEnøgTMenrenAkñúgTMrgkEnøgTMenrenAkñúgTMrgkEnøgTMenrenAkñúgTMrgkEnøgTMenrenAkñúgTMrg;;;;enaHbBa¢akenaHbBa¢akenaHbBa¢akenaHbBa¢ak;;;;BIBIBIBIdgdgdgdg;;;;sIuetTabrbssIuetTabrbssIuetTabrbssIuetTabrbs;;;;TwkkkTwkkkTwkkkTwkkk.... TMrg;vimaRtbIEdlmanlMdab;x<s;rbs;Twkkk¬rUbTI12¦ raraMgm:UelKulmineGayenACitKña eBkBImYyeTAmYy. b:uEnþcUrBinitüemIlfa etImanGVIekIteLIgenAeBlTwkkkrlay. enAcMNuc rlaycMnYnm:UelKulTwkmanfamBlsIuenTicRKb;RKan;edIm,ITajecjBIsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnGnþrm:Uel- KulenaH. m:UelKulTaMgenHk¾RtUv)anCab;enAkñúgRbehagénTMrg;vimaRtbIEdlRtUv)anpþac;eTACa RkumdMutUc²Cag. CalT§pl manm:UelKuleRcInkñúgmYyxñatmaDenAkñúgTwkravCagenAkñúgTwkkk.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI13131313³³³³ KMnUsKMnUsKMnUsKMnUsExSekagrbsExSekagrbsExSekagrbsExSekagrbs;;;;dgdgdgdg;;;;sIueteFobeTAnwgsIsIueteFobeTAnwgsIsIueteFobeTAnwgsIsIueteFobeTAnwgsItuNðPaBtuNðPaBtuNðPaBtuNðPaB sMrabsMrabsMrabsMrab;;;;TwkravTwkravTwkravTwkrav. . . . dgdgdgdg;;;;sIuetsIuetsIuetsIuetxxxx<<<<ssss;;;;bMputénTwkbMputénTwkbMputénTwkbMputénTwkKWKWKWKWenAeBlenAeBlenAeBlenAeBleLIgdleLIgdleLIgdleLIgdl;;;;4oC. . . . dgdgdgdg;;;;sIuetTwkkkenAsItusIuetTwkkkenAsItusIuetTwkkkenAsItusIuetTwkkkenAsItuNðPaBNðPaBNðPaBNðPaB 0oC KWKWKWKWRbEhlRbEhlRbEhlRbEhl 0,92g/cm3....

CMBUkTI11

11-17

edaydg;sIuet = m:as /maD dUecñHdg;sIuetrbs;TwkKWFMCagdg;sIuetrbs;Twkkk. eday kMedAteTAeTot m:UelKulTwkEfmeTotRtUv)anrMedaHecjBIsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnGnþrm:UelKul dUecñH dg;sIuetTwkmanTMenarekIneLIgkalNasItuNðPaBekIneLIgBIcMNucrlayenaH. enAkñúgeBlCa mYyKñaenaHEdr TwkrIkmaDenAeBlvaRtUv)ankMedA dUecñHdg;sIuetrbs;vafycuH. lMnaMTaMgBIrenH ¬CMnab;énm:UelKulTwkesrIenAkñúgRbehag nigrIkmaDedaykMedA¦ manGMeBIkñúgTispÞúyKña. BI 00C eTA 40C CMnab;enaHrlaecj ehIydg;sIuetTwkekIneLIgmþgbnþic. b:uEnþ enAsItuNðPaBelIs BI 40C karrIkmaDedaykMedAekItmanelIslb; ehIydg;sIuetrbs;Twkk¾fycuHCamYynwg sItuNðPaBekIneLIg¬rUbTI13¦. 6>4 TMrg;Rkam GgÁFaturwgGacEckecjCaBIrTMrg; KWTMrg;RkamnignisNæan. TwkkkCaGgÁFaturwgRkam GgÁFaturwgRkam GgÁFaturwgRkam GgÁFaturwgRkam EdlrwgnigmanlMdab;Evg GatUm m:UelKul nigGIuy:ugrbs;vasßitenAkñúgTItaMgy:agCak;lak;. kartMerobPaKl¥itTaMgenaHenAkñúgGgÁFaturwgRkamKWkM;;laMgTMnajGnþrm:UelKulsuT§sßitenAkñúgkMrit Gtibrmarbs;va. kMlaMgEdlTTYlxusRtUvsißrPaBrbs;RkamGacCakMlaMgGIuy:ug sMB½n§kUv:aLg; kMlaMg Van der waals sMB½n§GIuRdUEsn b¤bnSMénkMlaMgTaMgenH. GgÁFaturwg nisNæan dUcCa EkvCaedIm xVHnUvkartMerobCak;lak; niglMdab;m:UelKulEvg. enAkñúgEpñkenH eyIgnwgepþatkar ykcitþTukdak;eTAelITMrg;énGgÁFaturwgCaRkam. ftftftftÉktaÉktaÉktaÉkta KWCaÉktaTMrg;mUldæandEdl²rbs;GgÁFaturwgRkam. rUbTII14bgðajBIft ÉktanigTMhMsn§wgvimaRtbIrbs;va. EsV‘nImYy²tageGayGatUm GIuy:ug b¤m:UelKulmYy ehIyRtUv )anehAfacMNucbNþaj¬lattice point¦. enAkñúgRkamCaeRcIn cMNucbNþajKñaenHminmanpÞúknUv PaKl¥itTaMgenHeT. CagenHeTAeTotGatUm m:UelKul nigGIuy:ug PaKeRcIn KWtMerobKñakñúglkçN³ dUcKñaebHbiTBIcMNucbNþajmYyeTAcMNucbNþajmYyeTot. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayedIm,I eGaymanPaBsmBaØ eyIgGacsnµt;fa enAcMNucbNþajnImYy²KWmanGatUmmYytaMgenAenH KWCaPaBBitR)akdrbs;RKb;GatUmTaMgGs;. RKb;elah³TaMgGs; GacRtUv)aneKBIBN’naeTAtam RbePTmYykñúgcMeNamRbePTTaMgR)aMBIrénftÉktadUc)anbgðajenAkñúgrUbTI15. FrNImaRtén ftÉktaKUbKWmanPaBsmBaØbMput BIeRBaHRKb;RCug nigmMuTaMgGs;KWesµIKña. ftÉktanImYy²enA eBlCMnYskEnøgenAkñúgRKb;vimaRtBITaMgGs; enaHvabegáItnUvTMrg;mYybNþajKñaEdlGacsMKal; dUcGgÁFaturwgRkamGBa©wg.


11-18

rUbTIIrUbTIIrUbTIIrUbTII14141414³³³³ (a) ftftftftÉÉÉÉktamYy nig ktamYy nig ktamYy nig ktamYy nig (b) TMhMTMhMTMhMTMhMsnsnsnsn§§§§ wgwgwgwgvimaRtvimaRtvimaRtvimaRtbbbbIIIIrbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;vavavava. . . . EsV‘EsV‘EsV‘EsV‘exµAexµAexµAexµAtagtagtagtageGayeGayeGayeGayGatUmGatUmGatUmGatUmrWrWrWrW mmmm:::: UelKulUelKulUelKulUelKul....

KImIGnuvtþn_ ehtuGVIehtuGVIehtuGVIehtuGVI))))anCaTwkbwgkkanCaTwkbwgkkanCaTwkbwgkkanCaTwkbwgkkBIBIBIBIelIcuHeRkamelIcuHeRkamelIcuHeRkamelIcuHeRkam????

ehtukarN_EdlfaTwkkkmankMhab;ticCagTwkKWmansar³sMxan;eGkULÚsIuy:agRCal eRCA. Ca]TahrN_ cUrBinitükarpøas;bþÚrsItuNðPaBenAkñúgbwgTwksab enAeBlGakasFatu RtCak;. enAeBlEdlsItuNðPaBenACitépÞFøak;cuH dg;sIueténTwkenHekIneLIg. enAeBlenaH Twk EdlRtCak;CagFøak;cuHeRkam ehIyTwkEdlekþACagnigRsalCageLIgeTAEpñkxagelI. clna enHbnþrhUtdl;sItuNðPaBTwkTaMgmUleTAdl;4oC. enAeRkamsItuNðPaBenH dg;suIetTwkcab; epþImfycuHCamYynwgkarfycuHénsItuNðPaB¬rUbTI13¦ dUecñHvaElgliccuHeRkameTotehIy. enAsItuNðPaBRtCak;CagenH Twkcab;epþImkkenAépÞelI ehIyRsTab;TwkkkEdlkekItminliceT BIeRBaHvamankMhab;TabCagGgÁFaturav nigEfmTaMgedIrtYCaGIusULg;kMedAsMrab;TwkEdlenAxag

kILasÞÚcRtIelITwkkkkILasÞÚcRtIelITwkkkkILasÞÚcRtIelITwkkkkILasÞÚcRtIelITwkkk³ ³ ³ ³ RsRsRsRsTabTabTabTab;;;;Twkkk Twkkk Twkkk Twkkk EdlEdlEdlEdlkekItkekItkekItkekIteLIgenAépÞelIbwgeLIgenAépÞelIbwgeLIgenAépÞelIbwgeLIgenAépÞelIbwgCa Ca Ca Ca GIusULgGIusULgGIusULgGIusULg;;;;énTwkenaHénTwkenaHénTwkenaHénTwkenaHxageRkam ehIyxageRkam ehIyxageRkam ehIyxageRkam ehIy rkSasItuNðPaBxrkSasItuNðPaBxrkSasItuNðPaBxrkSasItuNðPaBx<<<<ssss;;;;RKbRKbRKbRKb;;;;RKanRKanRKanRKan;;;;edImedImedImedIm,,,,II II RTRTgRTRTgRTRTgRTRTg;;;;CIvitCIvitCIvitCIvit[[[[rsrsrsrs;;;;enAkñúgTwkenAkñúgTwkenAkñúgTwkenAkñúgTwk))))anananan....

CMBUkTI11

11-19

eRkamvaeTotpg. ebITwkkkF¶n;CagvanwgliccuHeTA)atbwg ehIyTwknwgcab;epþImkkBIeRkam eLIgelICaminxan. Pav³rs;PaKeRcIn Edlrs;enAkñúgTwkminGacenArs;)ankñúgTwkkkEdl RtCak;enaHeT. CasMNagl¥EdlTwkbwgminkkBIeRkameLIgelI. lkçN³minFmµtarbs;TwkenH eFVIeGayeKGacdMeNIrkarkILasÞÚcRtIelITwkkk)an.

*************************************************** ********

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4>1 EsV‘pÁúM eyIgGacyl;)anBItMrUvkarFrNImaRtTUeTAsMrab;kMNRkam edayBinitüviFIxus²Kñaénkar

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11-20

6BIeRBaHvamanEsV‘CitxagcMnYn6. cMnYnkUGrDINasüúgcMnYnkUGrDINasüúgcMnYnkUGrDINasüúgcMnYnkUGrDINasüúgenHRtUv)aneKeGayniymn½yfaCacMnYn GatUm¬b¤GIuy:ug¦ EdlenArMuB½T§CMuvijGatUmmYy¬b¤GIuy:ugmYy¦enAkñúgbNþajRkam. tMélrbs;va GacR)ab;eyIgBIrgVas;énEsV‘cgP¢ab;KñatwgkMritNa. cMnYnkUGrDINasüúgkan;EteRcIn EsV‘kan;EtenA CitKña. ÉktamUldæan dEdl²énEsV‘BN’naxagelIRtUv)aneKehAfaCa ftftftftKUbsKUbsKUbsKUbsaaaamBaØmBaØmBaØmBaØ ¬rUbTI16

(b)¦.

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CMBUkTI11

11-21

RbePTepSg²eToténftKUbKWKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúg(bcc) nigKUbmanp©itenAépÞmux(fcc)

¬rUbTI17¦. kartMerobKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúgvaxusBIkartMerobKUbFmµta edaysarRsTab;TIBIr rbs;EsV‘sIuKñaeTAnwgcenøaHénRsTab;TImYy ehIyRsTab;TIbIvasIuKñaeTAnwgcenøaHénRsTab;TIBIr ¬rUbTI18¦. cMnYnkUGrDINasüúgénEsV‘nImYy²enAkñúgTMrg;enHKWR)aMbI ¬EsV‘nImYy²b:HEsV‘bYnenA RsTab;xagelI nigEsV‘bYnenARsTab;xageRkam¦. cMeBaHftKUbmanp©itenAmuxmanEsV‘enAcMp©itén muxTaMgR)aMmYyrbs;KUbbEnßmBIelIEsV‘RCugTaMgR)aMbI.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI18181818³³³³ kartMerobEsV‘dUcKñaenAkñúgKUbmankartMerobEsV‘dUcKñaenAkñúgKUbmankartMerobEsV‘dUcKñaenAkñúgKUbmankartMerobEsV‘dUcKñaenAkñúgKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúgp©itenAxagkñúgp©itenAxagkñúgp©itenAxagkñúg. . . . kkkk>>>>KMehIjBIKMehIjBIKMehIjBIKMehIjBIxagelIxagelIxagelIxagelI xxxx> > > > niymn½yniymn½yniymn½yniymn½yén én én én ftftftftÉktaKUbÉktaKUbÉktaKUbÉktaKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúgmanp©itenAxagkñúgmanp©itenAxagkñúgmanp©itenAxagkñúg KKKK> > > > mansmmUlénmansmmUlénmansmmUlénmansmmUlénEsV‘EsV‘EsV‘EsV‘eBjeljBIreBjeljBIreBjeljBIreBjeljBIrenAkñúgenAkñúgenAkñúgenAkñúgftftftftÉktaKUbÉktaKUbÉktaKUbÉktaKUbmanp©it manp©it manp©it manp©it enAxagkñúgenAxagkñúgenAxagkñúgenAxagkñúg. . . . edaysarEtftÉktanImYy²enAkñúgGgÁFaturwgRkamenACitftÉktaepSgeTotGatUm PaKeRcInrbs;ftmYyRtUv)anEckrMElkedayftEdlenAEk,r. ]TahrN_ enAkñúgftKUbRKb; RbePTTaMgGs; GatUmRCugnImYy²KWCarbs;ftÉkta 8¬rUbTI19(a)¦ GatUmmanp©itenAépÞmuxRtUv )anEckrMElkedayftÉktaBIr¬rUbTI19(b)¦. edaysarEsV‘RCugnImYy²RtUv)anEckrMElkeday ftÉkta 8 nigmanRCug 8 enAkñúgKUbmYymansmmUlénEsV‘eBjeljEtmYyeTenAkñúgftÉkta KUbsamBaØ¬rUbTI16(c)¦.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI19191919³³³³ kkkk>>>>GGGGatUmRCugenAkñúgatUmRCugenAkñúgatUmRCugenAkñúgatUmRCugenAkñúgftftftftNaNaNaNamYyRtUvmYyRtUvmYyRtUvmYyRtUv))))anEckrMElkanEckrMElkanEckrMElkanEckrMElkedayedayedayedayftftftftÉktaÉktaÉktaÉktaRRRR))))aMbI aMbI aMbI aMbI xxxx>>>> GatUmGatUmGatUmGatUmmanp©itmanp©itmanp©itmanp©it enAépÞmuxenAkñúgenAépÞmuxenAkñúgenAépÞmuxenAkñúgenAépÞmuxenAkñúgftftftftÉktaÉktaÉktaÉktaRtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))anEckrMElkanEckrMElkanEckrMElkanEckrMElkedayedayedayedayftftftftÉktaÉktaÉktaÉktaBIBIBIBIrrrr....


11-22

ftKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúgpÞúksmmUlénEsV‘eBjeljBIrKWmYyenAkNþalnigR)aMbIRCugEsV‘ EckrMElkdUcbgðajenAkñúgrUbTI18(c). ftKUbmanépÞmuxpÞúkEsV‘eBjeljcMnYnbYn KWbI)anmkBI GatUmEdlmanp©itenAépÞmux¬cMnYn6¦ nigmYy)anmkBIRCugEsV‘EckrMElk R)aMbI.

4>2 bgÁúMhab; enAkñúgKUbsamBaØnigenAkñúgftÉktamanp©itenAxagkñúg c,as;Nas;mankEnøgTMenrCag enAkñúgftÉktamanp©itenAépÞmux. bgÁúMhabbgÁúMhabbgÁúMhabbgÁúMhab;;;; EdlCakarerobcMmanRbsiT§PaBbMputénEsV‘cab;epþIm BITMrg;dUcEdlRtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgrUbTI20(a) EdleyIgehAfaRsTab;A. edayepþateTAelIEt EsV‘RtUv)anbiT)aMgeyIgeXIjfamanEsV‘CitxagpÞal; cMnYnR)aMmYyenAkñúgRsTab;enaH. enARsTab; TIBIrEdleyIgeGayeQµaHfaRsTab;B enaHEs‘VRtUv)anpÁúMeTAkñúgcenøaHrvagEsV‘kñúgRsTab;TImYy dUecñH EsV‘TaMgGs;sßitenACitKñabMput¬rUbTI20(b).

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI20202020³³³³ (a)enAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTab;;;;pÁúMpÁúMpÁúMpÁúMCitEs‘VCitEs‘VCitEs‘VCitEs‘VnImYynImYynImYynImYy²²²²bbbb::::HEsV‘HEsV‘HEsV‘HEsV‘RRRR))))aMmYyepSgeTotaMmYyepSgeTotaMmYyepSgeTotaMmYyepSgeTot. . . . (b)EsV‘EsV‘EsV‘EsV‘enAkñúgenAkñúgenAkñúgenAkñúgRsTabRsTabRsTabRsTab;;;; TIBIrsIuKñaeTAnTIBIrsIuKñaeTAnTIBIrsIuKñaeTAnTIBIrsIuKñaeTAnwwwwggggcenøaHrvagEsV‘cenøaHrvagEsV‘cenøaHrvagEsV‘cenøaHrvagEsV‘RsTabRsTabRsTabRsTab;;;;TImYy TImYy TImYy TImYy (c)enAkñúgTMrgenAkñúgTMrgenAkñúgTMrgenAkñúgTMrg;;;;pÁúMCitpÁúMCitpÁúMCitpÁúMCitqekaNEsV‘qekaNEsV‘qekaNEsV‘qekaNEsV‘enAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTab;;;;TITITITIbbbbIIII nImYynImYynImYynImYy²²²²enABIenABIenABIenABIelIEsV‘elIEsV‘elIEsV‘elIEsV‘RsTabRsTabRsTabRsTab;;;;TImYyTImYyTImYyTImYy. . . . (d)enAkñúgTMrgenAkñúgTMrgenAkñúgTMrgenAkñúgTMrg;;;;pÁúMCitpÁúMCitpÁúMCitpÁúMCitKUbEsV‘KUbEsV‘KUbEsV‘KUbEsV‘nImYynImYynImYynImYy²²²²enAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTabenAkñúgRsTab;;;;TITITITIbIbIbIbIsIueTAsIueTAsIueTAsIueTA nwgnwgnwgnwgcenøaHcenøaHcenøaHcenøaHBIelIpÞalBIelIpÞalBIelIpÞalBIelIpÞal;;;;énRsTabénRsTabénRsTabénRsTab;;;;TImYyTImYyTImYyTImYy....

CMBUkTI11

11-23

manviFIBIry:ag EdlEsV‘RsTab;TIbIGacRKbelIEs‘VRsTab;TIBIredIm,I)anbgÁúMCitbMput. EsV‘ TaMgenaHGacsIuKñaeTAnwgcenøaH dUecñHEsV‘nImYy²enARsTab;TIbIsßitenABIelIpÞal;EsV‘RsTab;TImYy ¬rUbTI20c¦. edaysarKµanPaBxusKñarvagkartMerobénRsTab;TImYynigTIbIeyIgk¾GacehA RsTab;TIbIfaCaRsTab;A)anEdr. mü:ageTotEsV‘RsTab;TIbIGacsIuKñaeTAnwgcenøaHEdlenABIelI cenøaHénRsTab;TImYyedaypÞal;¬rUbTI20(d)¦. kµñúgkrNIenH eyIgehARsTab;TIbIfaCaRsTab; C. rUbTI21bgðajBIKMehIjdac;Kña nigTMrg;Edl)anmkBIviFItMerobTaMgBIrenH. kartMerob ABA

RtUv)aneKsÁal;faCaTMrg;bgÁúMCitqekaN ehIykartMerobABCCaTMrg;bgÁúMCitKUbEdlRtUveTAnwg KUbmanp©itenAépÞxagmuxEdlRtUv)anBiBN’narYcmkehIy. cUrcMNaM facMeBaHTMrg;bgÁúMCitqekaN Es‘VenARKb;RsTab;epSg²eTotsßitenATItaMgbBaÄrdUcKña(ABABAB…) cMENkÉcMeBaHTMrg;bgÁúM CitKUbEs‘V‘enAral;RsTab;TIbYnsßitenATItaMgbBaÄrdUcKña(ABCABCA...).

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI21212121³³³³ KMehIjdacKMehIjdacKMehIjdacKMehIjdac;;;;KñaKñaKñaKñaén én én én (a)TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;;pÁúMCipÁúMCipÁúMCipÁúMCittttqekaNqekaNqekaNqekaN (b)TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;; pÁúMCitpÁúMCitpÁúMCitpÁúMCitKUbKUbKUbKUb. . . . RBYjeLIgeTAelIRBYjeLIgeTAelIRBYjeLIgeTAelIRBYjeLIgeTAelIbgðajbgðajbgðajbgðaj ftftftftÉktamanp©itenAépÞxagmuxÉktamanp©itenAépÞxagmuxÉktamanp©itenAépÞxagmuxÉktamanp©itenAépÞxagmuxeGaeGaeGaeGaykanykanykanykan;;;;EtEtEtEtcccc,,,,asasasas;;;;....

kñúgTMrg;TaMgBIrenH EsV‘nImYy²mancMnYnkUGrDINasüúg 12 ¬EsV‘nImYy²b:HEsV‘R)aMmYyenAkñúg RsTab;vapÞal;EsV‘bIenARsTab;xagelI nigEsV‘bIenARsTab;xageRkam¦. TaMgEsV‘TMrg;bgÁúMCit


11-24

qekaNnigTMrg;bgÁúMCitKUbtageGayviFId¾manRbsiT§PaBbMputénkarpÁúMEsV‘dUcKñakñúgftÉkta ehIy KµanviFINaedIm,IbegáIt cMnYnkUGrDINasüúgelIsBI 12 eLIy.

elah³ nig]sµ½nkMrCaeRcIn EdlCam:UNUGatUm begáItRkamCaTMrg;bgÁúMCitqekaN(hcp) b¤ TMrg;bgÁúMCitKUb(ccp). ]TahrN_ m:aejsüÚm TItanBaJÚ:m nigs½gásIeLIgRkamCamYyGatUmrbs;va CaTMrg;bgÁúMCitqekaN cMENkÉGaluymIj:Úm nIEkl nigR)ak;eLIgRkamCaTMrg;bgÁúMCitKUb. RKb;]sµ½nkMrrwgTaMgGs;manTMrg;bgÁúMCitKUb elIkElgEteGlüÚm EdleLIgRkamCaTMrg;bgÁúMCit qekaN. vaCakarFmµtaeT kñúgkarsYrfaehtuGVI)anCaes‘rIsarFatuTak;TgKña dUcCaelah³qøgb¤ ]sµ½nkMrGacbegáItTMrg;Rkamxus²Kña. cMelIyKWEp¥keTAelIsißrPaBeFobénTMrg;RkamedayELk EdlRKb;RKgedaykMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul. dUecñH elaHm:aejsüÚmmanTMrg;bgÁúMCitqekaN BIeRBaH kartMerobrbs;GatUm Mg naMeGaymansißrPaBxøaMgbMputrbs;GgÁFaturwg. rUbTI22 segçbTMnak;TMMngrvagkaMGatUm r nigRbEvgRCug a énftKUbsamBaØ ftKUbman p©itenAxagkñúg nigftKUbmanp©itenAépÞmux. eKGaceRbITMnak;TMngenH edIm,IkMNt;BIkaMGatUm rbs;EsV‘ RbsinebIdg;sIueténRkamenaHRtUv)andwgdUcmanbgðajkñúg]TahrN_xageRkam.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI22222222³³³³ TMnakTMnakTMnakTMnak;;;;TMngrvagRbEvgRCugTMngrvagRbEvgRCugTMngrvagRbEvgRCugTMngrvagRbEvgRCug a nigkaMnigkaMnigkaMnigkaM r énGatUmenAkñúgftKUbénGatUmenAkñúgftKUbénGatUmenAkñúgftKUbénGatUmenAkñúgftKUbsamBasamBasamBasamBaØftftftftKUbKUbKUbKUbmanp©itenAmanp©itenAmanp©itenAmanp©itenA xagkñúgxagkñúgxagkñúgxagkñúg nigftnigftnigftnigftKUbKUbKUbKUbmanp©itenAépÞmuxmanp©itenAépÞmuxmanp©itenAépÞmuxmanp©itenAépÞmux.... ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____TITITITI3³ mas (Au) eLIgRkamenAkñúgTMrg;KUbBIpÁúMCit¬KUbmanp©itenAépÞmux¦ ehIyman dg;sIuet 19.3g/cm3 . cUrKNnakaMGatUmrbs;mas.

CMBUkTI11

11-25

cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³ edIm,IedaHRsaylMhat;enH eKRtUvkareRcIndMNak;. dMbUgeyIgRtUvrkmaDrbs;ftÉktatamry³ dg;sIuetEdleyIgdwg. bnÞab;mkeyIgKNnaRbEvgRCugrbs;ftÉktaenaHtamry³maDrbs;va. CacugeRkay eyIgRtUvrkRbEvgkaMkñúgmYyGatUmmasBIRbEvgRCugénftenaH. CMhanTICMhanTICMhanTICMhanTI1111³³³³ ftÉktanImYy²manRCugR)aMbI nigmanmuxR)aMmYy. cMnYnGatUmsrubenAkñúgftmYyKW 8

8

1× + 6 2

1× = 4 ¬KNnatamrUbTI20¦ ehIym:askñúgmYyftÉktaKW m =

1

4

molAu1

0,197×10022,6

1

×× mol

23 = 1,31. 10 –21g/ ftÉkta

tamniymn½ydg;sIuet eyIgGacKNnamaDénftÉktaenaHdUcxageRkam³ V=

d

m=

3

21

/3,19

1031,1

cmg

g−×= 6,79 × 10-23 cm3

= 6,79 × 10-23 cm3 × (cm

m

1

101 2−× ) 3 × (12101

1−×

pm ) 3

= 6,79×107 pm3

CMhanTICMhanTICMhanTICMhanTI2222³³³³ eyIgykrwsKUbrbs;maDénftedIm,IKNnarkRbEvgRCug (a)énftÉktaenaH a = 3 v

= 33 71079,6 pm×

= 408 pm

CMhanTICMhanTICMhanTICMhanTI3333³³³³ tamrUb 22 eyIgeXIjfakaMEsV‘rbs;GatUm Au (r) KWTak;TgeTAnwgRbEvgRCugeday a= r8

dUecñH r = 8

a=

8

404pm=144 pm

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __³³³³ enAeBl Ag eLIgRkam vabegáItftKUbenAépÞmux. RbEvgRCugénftÉktaenaH KW 408,7 pm. cUrKNnadg;sIuetrbs; Ag . 5 DIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X edayRkam Cak;EsþgGVITaMgGs;EdleyIgdwgGMBITMrg;Rkam)anRtUvsikSaBIkarsikSaDIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X . DIRhVDIRhVDIRhVDIRhVakakakak;;;;süúgsüúgsüúgsüúgkaMrsµIkaMrsµIkaMrsµIkaMrsµI X sMedAelIkarRBackaMrsµI X edayÉktaénGgÁFaturwgRkam. karRBac enH b¤DIRhVak;süúg lMnaMpliteLIgRtUv)aneRbIR)as;edIm,IdkecjnUvkartMerobPaKl¥itenAkñúg bNþajGgÁFaturwg.


11-26

enAEpñkTI10>6 eyIg)ansikSaeTAelI)atuPUtGaMgETepr:g;Tak;TgeTAnwgrlk ¬emIl rUbTI21¦. edaysarkaMrsµI X KWCaTMrg;mYyénrsµIeGLicRtUm:aejTic dUecñHCarlkeyIgGacrMBwg favabgðajlkçN³enH enAkñúglkçxNÐsmRsb. enAqñaM1912 rUbviTUCnCatiGaLWm:g;eQµaH Max

von Laue )anGHGagy:agRtwmRtUvfa edaysarEt RbEvgrlkénkaMrsµI X manTMhMRbhak; RbEhlnwgcm¶ayrvagcMNuckñúgbNþajkñúgRkam EdlCabNþajGacDIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X )an. lMnaMDIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X KWCalT§plénGaMgETepr:g;rlkTak;TgCamYykaMrsµI X.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI23232323³³³³ kartMerobkartMerobkartMerobkartMerobsMrabsMrabsMrabsMrab;;;;TTYlTTYlTTYlTTYl))))anlMnaManlMnaManlMnaManlMnaMDIRhVakDIRhVakDIRhVakDIRhVak;;;;süúgsüúgsüúgsüúgkaMrsµI kaMrsµI kaMrsµI kaMrsµI XénRkammYyénRkammYyénRkammYyénRkammYy. . . . rrrr))))aMgaMgaMgaMg(shield) karBarkaMrsµI karBarkaMrsµI karBarkaMrsµI karBarkaMrsµI X EdlminEdlminEdlminEdlminrgrgrgrgDIRDIRDIRDIRhVhVhVhVakakakak;;;;süúgkuMeGayxUcbnÞHhVÚtURkahVIsüúgkuMeGayxUcbnÞHhVÚtURkahVIsüúgkuMeGayxUcbnÞHhVÚtURkahVIsüúgkuMeGayxUcbnÞHhVÚtURkahVI.... rUbTI23bgðajBIkarbegáItDIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X tYy:ag. )ac;BnøWrbs;kaMrsµI X RtUv)an tRmg;TiseTAelIRkamEdlRtUv)anerobcMeLIg. GatUmenAkñúgRkamenaHRsUbykkaMrsµIcaMgcUlxøH ehIybnÞab;mkbeBa©jvaeTAvij. lMnaMenHehAfakarRBackaMrsµI X. edIm,Iyl;BIlMnaMDIRhVak;süúgGacRtUv)anbegáIttamrebobNaenaH cUrBinitüemIlkar RBackaMrsµI X edayGatUmenAkñúgbøg;RsbBIr ¬rUbTI23¦. BIdMbUgkaMrsµIekIteLIgBIr bBa©aMgecj CamYyKña ¬BnøWGtibrmanigGb,brmarbs;vaekItmanenATItaMgdUcKña¦. rlkBnøWx<s;CagRtUv)an RBacb¤caMgpøat edayGatUmenARsTab;TImYy cMENkÉrlkBnøWTabRtUv)anRBacedayGatUmenA kñúgRsTab;TIBIr. edIm,IeGayrlkTaMgBIrenHeTACapasbeBa©jBnøWvij cMgaybEnßmEdlRtUvedIr edayrlkTabCagenaHRtUvEtCaplKuNGaMgetRkalénRbEvgrlk (λ ) rbs;kaMrsIµ X Edl BC + CD = 2d sin θ = nλ n= 1,2,3,...(1)

CMBUkTI11

11-27

Edlθ KWCamMurvagkaMrsµI X nigbøg;énRkam ehIy d KWCacMgayrvagbøg;Ek,rKña. smIkar (1) KWRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCasmIkar Bragg bnÞab;mkelak William H. Bragg nigelak

William L. Bragg. rlkEdlRtUv)anBRgwgenaHbegáItcMNucexµAenAelIrUbhVÚtURkahVI sMrab;tMél θ nImYy² EdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgsmIkar Bragg. ]TahrN_xageRkamenHbBa¢ak;BIkareRbIR)as; smIkar(1).

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI24242424³³³³ cMNaMgpøaténkaMrsµIcMNaMgpøaténkaMrsµIcMNaMgpøaténkaMrsµIcMNaMgpøaténkaMrsµI X BIBIBIBIRsTabRsTabRsTabRsTab;;;;BIBIBIBIrrbsrrbsrrbsrrbs;;;;GatUmGatUmGatUmGatUm.... rlkrlkrlkrlkTabCagTabCagTabCagTabCagdalkñúgcMgaydalkñúgcMgaydalkñúgcMgaydalkñúgcMgay 2dsinθ

EvgCagEvgCagEvgCagEvgCagrlkxrlkxrlkxrlkx<<<<ssss;;;;CagCagCagCagdaldaldaldal. . . . edImedImedImedIm,,,,IeGayrlkTaMgIeGayrlkTaMgIeGayrlkTaMgIeGayrlkTaMgBIBIBIBIrsßitkñúgpasrsßitkñúgpasrsßitkñúgpasrsßitkñúgpascaMgBnøWcaMgBnøWcaMgBnøWcaMgBnøWvijbnÞabvijbnÞabvijbnÞabvijbnÞab;;;;BIBIBIBIcMNaMgpøatcMNaMgpøatcMNaMgpøatcMNaMgpøat vavavavaRRRRtUvEttUvEttUvEttUvEtRRRR))))akdfaakdfaakdfaakdfa 2dsinθ =nλ EdlEdlEdlEdlλ KWKWKWKWCaCaCaCaCMhanCMhanCMhanCMhanrlkénkaMrsµIrlkénkaMrsµIrlkénkaMrsµIrlkénkaMrsµI X ehIyehIyehIyehIy n= 1,2,3 …. . . . ccccMNucMNucMNucMNucEdlEdlEdlEdlRtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))anananankMNtkMNtkMNtkMNt;;;;PøamPøamPøamPøam²enAkñúgrUbTIenAkñúgrUbTIenAkñúgrUbTIenAkñúgrUbTI23232323 RtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))anananansegátEtenAeBlsegátEtenAeBlsegátEtenAeBlsegátEtenAeBlNaNaNaNaEdlRkamenaHEdlRkamenaHEdlRkamenaHEdlRkamenaH FMRKbFMRKbFMRKbFMRKb;;;;RKanRKanRKanRKan;;;;edImedImedImedIm,,,,IGacmanRsTabIGacmanRsTabIGacmanRsTabIGacmanRsTab;;;;RsbRsbRsbRsbrabrabrabrab;;;;ryryryry....

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____4: kaMrsµI X EdlmanCMhanrlk 0,154 nm bBa©aMgeTAelIRkam GaluymIj:Úm ehIykaMrsµIenaH)anpøatmkvijnUvmMu19,3o. edaysnµtfa n = 1 cUrKNnacenøaHrvagbøg;énGatUm

Al ¬KitCa pm¦ EdlTTYlxusRtUvsMrab;mMucMNaMgpþatenH. ktþabMElgenH )anmkBI 1nm=

1000pm. cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³ BIsmIkar (1)

d=θ

λsin2

n=

θλ

sin2


11-28

=03.19sin2

1

1000154,0

nm

pmnm ×

= 233 pm

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __³ kaMrsµI X EdlmanCMhanrlk 0,154 nm rkDIRhVak;süúgBIRkammYyEdlmanmMu 14,17o. edaysnµtfa n=1 cUrKNnaRbEvg ¬KitCa pm¦ rvagRsTab;enAkñúgRkamenaH. bec©keTsDIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X pþl;eGaynUvviFId¾Cak;lak;bMputsMrab;karkMNt;RbEvg sMB½n§nigmuMsMB½n§enAkñúgm:UelKulénGgÁFaturwg. edaysarEtkaMrsµI X RtUv)anRBacedayeGLic- Rtug GñkKImIGacbegáItEpnTIeRKagdg;sIueteGLicRtug (electron-density contour map) BIlMnaM DIRhVak;süúg edaykareRbITRmg;karKNitviTüasaMjauM. CamUldæan EpnTIeRKagdg;sIuet eGLicRtugR)ab;eyIgBIdg;sIueteGLicRtugeFobenATItaMgepSg²Kñakñúgm:UelKulmYy. dg;sIuet TaMgenaHmankMritGtibrmaenACitcMNuckNþalénGatUmnImYy². tamrebobenH eyIgGackMNt; TItaMgrbs;éNVy:U ehIydUecñHeKk¾GackMNt;):ar:aEm:tFrNImaRtrbs;m:UelKulenaH)anpgEdr. 6 RbePTénRkam TMrg;niglkçN³rbs;Rkam dUcCacMNucrlay dg;suIet nigPaBrwgrbs;va RtUv)ankMNt; edayRbePTénkMlaMg EdlP¢ab;PaKl¥itbBa©ÚlKña. eyIgGaccat;fñak;RkamCa 4 RbePT³ GIuy:ug/ kUv:aLg;/ m:UelKul/ nigelah³. 6>1 RkamGIuy:ug RkamGIuy:ugmanlçN³sMKal;BIr³ (1) vapSMeLIgedayRbePTKImIEdlmanbnÞúknig (2) CaTUeTA kacugnigGaj:úgmanTMhMxusKñaxøaMg. karsÁal;BIkaMGIuy:ugKWGacCYyeyIgeGayyl;BITMrg; nigsißrPaBénsmasFatuuTaMgenH. KµanmeFüa)ayNaEdleyIgGacvas;kaMGIuy:ugnImYy²)aneT b:uEnþeBlxøHeyIgGaceFVIkar):an;sµansmehtupl)an. ]TahrN_ ebIeyIgsÁal;BIkaMén GIuy:ug I-

enAkñúg KI KWRbEhl 216 pm enaHeyIgGackMNt;BIkaMrbs;GIuy:ug K+ enAkñúgm:UelKul KI )an ehIytamry³enHeKk¾GackMNt;kaMGIuy:ugrbs; Cl- enAkñúgm:UelKul KCl )anEdr. kaMGIuy:ugenA kñúgrUb8>9 KWCatMélCamFüm EdlTaj)anBIsmasFatuxus²KñaeRcIn. cUreyIgBinitüemIlRkam

NaCl EdlCabNþajKUbmanp©itenAelIépÞmux¬cUremIlrUbTI2>12¦. rUbTI25 bgðajeGay eXIjfa RbEvgRCugénftÉktarbs; NaCl KWesµIplbUkBIrdgénkaMGIuy:ugrbs; Na+ nig Cl-. edayeRbItMélEdleKeGayenAkñúgrUb8>9 eyIgGacKNna RCugrbs;vaKW 2(95+181) pm b¤552

pm. b:uEnþRbEvgRCugEdlbgðajenAkñúg 25 KW RtUv)ankMNt;edayDIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X faman

CMBUkTI11

11-29

RbEvg 564pm. PaBepSgBIKñarvagtMélTaMgBIrenHR)ab;eyIgfakaMénGIuy:ugmYyBitCaERbRbYlBI smasFatumYyeTAsmasFatumYyeTot.

rUbTI26bgðajBITMrg;RkaménsmasFatuGIuy:ugcMnYnbIKW CsCl, ZnS nig CaF2 . eday sar Cs+ FMCag Na+ xøaMg CsClmanbNþajKUbsamBaØ cMENkÉ ZnS KWmanTMrg;s½gásIlay Edl Ep¥kelIbNþajKUbmanp©itenAépÞmux. RbsinebI S2- sßitenAelIcMNucbNþajGIuy:ug Zn2+ KW taMgenAcMgay

4

1 tambeNþaybnÞat;RTUgnImYy². smasFatuGuIy:ugepSg²eTot EdlmanTMrg; s½gásIlay (Zincblende) enaHrYmman CuCl, BeS, CdS nig HgS. CaF2 manTMrg;PøúyGrY. GIuy:ug Ca2+ sßitenAelIcMNucbNþaj ehIyGIuy:ug F- nImYy²RtUv)anrMuB½T§Cactumux edayGIuy:ug

Ca2+ cMnYn 4. smasFatu SrF2, BaF2, BaCl2 nig PbF2 k¾manTMrg;PøúyGrYpgEdr.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI26262626³³³³ TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;;Rkamén kRkamén kRkamén kRkamén k> > > > CsCl xxxx> > > > ZnS nigKnigKnigKnigK>>>>CaF2. . . . kñúgkrNInImYykñúgkrNInImYykñúgkrNInImYykñúgkrNInImYy²²²²kacugkacugkacugkacugKWKWKWKWCaEsV‘CaEsV‘CaEsV‘CaEsV‘tUcCagtUcCagtUcCagtUcCag.... ]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIrebobKNnacMnYnGIuy:ugenAxagkñúgnigdg;sIueténftÉkta.

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____5: etImanGIuy:ug Na+ nig Cl- cMnYnb:unµanenAkñúgft NaCl nImYy²? cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³³³³ NaCl manTMrg;Ep¥kelIbNþajKUbmanp©itenAépÞmux. dUcrUbTI2>11 bgðajfa GIuy:ug Na+ mYyTaMgmUlsßitenAcMkNþalftÉktaenaH ehIymanGIuy:ug Na+ cMnYn 12 enAelI EKmTaMgenaH. edayGIuy:ug Na+ EKmnImYy²RtUv)anEckrMElkedayftÉktabYn cMnYnsrubén GIuy:ug Na+ KW 1+(12

4

1× )= 4. dUcKñaEdr manGIuy:ug Cl- cMnYn 6 enAp©itépÞmuxnigmanGIuy:ug Cl-

cMnYn 8 enAelIRCugTaMgenaH. GIuy:ugmanp©itenAelIépÞmuxnImYy²RtUv)anEckrMElkedayftÉkta

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI25252525³³³³ TMnakTMnakTMnakTMnak;;;;TMngrvagkaMGIuyTMngrvagkaMGIuyTMngrvagkaMGIuyTMngrvagkaMGIuy:::: ugugugug

Na+ nig nig nig nig Cl- nigvimnigvimnigvimnigvimaRtftÉktaaRtftÉktaaRtftÉktaaRtftÉkta.... enATIenHRbEvgRCugftKWenATIenHRbEvgRCugftKWenATIenHRbEvgRCugftKWenATIenHRbEvgRCugftKWesµIesµIesµIesµIBIrBIrBIrBIrdgdgdgdg énplbUkkaMrbsénplbUkkaMrbsénplbUkkaMrbsénplbUkkaMrbs;;;;GIuyGIuyGIuyGIuy:::: ugugugug. . . .


11-30

BIr ehIyGIuy:ugenAelIRCugnImYy² RtUv)anEckrMElkedayftÉkta 8 ¬cUremIlrUbTI19) . dUecñH cMnYnsrubén GIuy:ug Cl- KW 4)

8

18()

2

16( =×+× . dUecñH manGIuy:ug Na+ cMnYn 4nigGIuy:ug Cl-

cMnYn4enAkñúgftÉkta NaCl nImYy². rUbTI27bgðajBIcMENkénGIuy:ug Na+ nig Cl- Edlsßit enAkñúgftÉktanImYy².

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __³³³³ etImanGatUmcMnYnb:unµanenAkñúgKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúg edaysnµtfaRKb;GatUmTaMgGs;KWsßitenA elIcMNucbNþaj? ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____ 6: RbEvgEKmrbs;ftÉkta NaCl KW 564 pm. etIdg;sIuetrbs; NaCl KitCa g/Cm3 esµIb:unµan? cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy³ ³ ³ ³ BI]TahrN_6 eyIgeXIjfamanGIuy:ug Na+ cMnYn 4 nigGIuy:ug Cl- cMnYn 4 enAkñúg ftÉktanImYy². m:assrubKitCaxñatm:asGatUmenAkñúgftÉktanImYy²KW³ m:as= 4(22,99 x>G + 35,45 x>G)= 233,8 x>G

maDénftÉktaKW (564 pm)3. dg;sIueténftÉktaKW³ dg;sIuet =v

m

dUecñHdg;sIuet= ( )

)(3

10

3

23

1011

564

10022,61

8,233 ..

×

×

pm

cmpm

g

GxGx

= 2,16 g/cm3

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __³ ³ ³ ³ Tg;EdgeLIgRkamCabNþajKUbmanp©itenAelIépÞmux¬GatUm Cu sßitenA elIEtcMNucbNþajb:ueNÑaH¦. RbsinebIdg;sIueténelah³KW 8,96 g/cm3 etIRbEvgEKmftÉkta KitCa pm esµIb:unµan?

rUrUrUrUbTIbTIbTIbTI27272727³³³³ TItaMgénTItaMgénTItaMgénTItaMgén Na+nignignignig Cl-

enenenenAftKUbAftKUbAftKUbAftKUbmanp©itenAépÞmuxmanp©itenAépÞmuxmanp©itenAépÞmuxmanp©itenAépÞmux

CMBUkTI11

11-31

RkamGIuy:ugPaKeRcInmancMNucrlayx<s; EdlCakarcg¥úlbgðajBIkMlaMgs¥itxøaMg Edl cab;GIuy:ugP¢ab;Kña. rgVas;BIsißrPaBénRkamGIuy:ugKWCafamBlrbs;bNþaj ¬cUremIlEpñk9.3¦ famBlbNþajkan;Etx<s; smasFatuenaHkan;EtmansißrPaBCag. GgÁFaturwgTaMgenHmincMlg crnþGKÁisnIeT BIeRBaHGIuy:ugTaMgenaHsßitenAkñúgTItaMgkMNt;. b:uEnþkñúgPaBrlay¬enAeBlRtUv )anrMlay¦ b¤rlaykñúgTwk GIuy:ugTaMgenaHpøas;TIedayesrI ehIyGgÁFaturavEdl)anmkKWcMlg crnþGKÁisnI. 6>2 RkamkUv:aLg; cMeBaHRkamkUv:aLg; GatUmRtUv)anP¢ab;KñakñúgbNþajvimaRtbITUlMTUlayedaysMB½n§ kUv:aLg;TaMgRsug. ]TahrN_EdleKdwgc,as;enaHKWsmrUbBIrrbs; C KWeBRCnigRkaPIt¬cUremIl rUbTI8>17¦. cMeBaHeBRC GatUmkabUnnImYy²KWCaGIuRb‘ÍtSp3 vacgsMB½n§eTAnwgGatUmbYnepSg eTot¬cUremIlrUbTI28¦ .

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI28282828³³³³ (a) TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;;rbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;eBRCeBRCeBRCeBRC.... kabUnnImYykabUnnImYykabUnnImYykabUnnImYy²²²² cgP¢abcgP¢abcgP¢abcgP¢ab;;;;eTAGatUmkabUnbYnepSgeTot eTAGatUmkabUnbYnepSgeTot eTAGatUmkabUnbYnepSgeTot eTAGatUmkabUnbYnepSgeTot (b) TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;; rbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;RkaPItRkaPItRkaPItRkaPIt.... cMgayrvagRsTabcMgayrvagRsTabcMgayrvagRsTabcMgayrvagRsTab;;;;bnþbnbnþbnbnþbnbnþbnÞabababab;;;;KñaKñaKñaKñaKWKWKWKW 335pm.... sm<½n§kUv:aLg;rwgmaMenAkñúgvimaRtbIrYmcMENkPaBrwgmaMxusRbRktIrbs;eBRC ¬EdleK TTYlsÁal;faCaGgÁFaturwgCageKbg¥s;¦ehIymancMNucrlayx<s;Nas;¬35500C). cMeBaH RkaPIt GatUmkabUntMerobCaExSvg;6RCug. GatUmTaMgGs;KWCaGatUmGIuRb‘ÍtSp2 GatUmnImYy² Pöab;edaysMB½n§kUv:aLg;CamYyGatUmbIepSgeTot. Grb‘Ítal;minGIuRb‘Ít 2p EdlenAsl;RtUv)an eRbIenAkñúgsMB½n§pi. karBitRsTab;nImYy²rbs;RkaPItKWmanRbePTGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKulminedA kEnøgEdlmanenAkñúgbg;Esn¬cUremIlEpñk10.8¦. edaysareGLicRtugmanclnaedayesrI


11-32

enACMuvijGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKulminedAkEnøg RkaPItKWCaGgÁFatucMlgcrnþGKÁisnIl¥enAkñúgTistam beNþaybøg;énGatUmkabUn. RsTab;TaMgLayRtUv)anP¢ab;KñaedaykMlaMg Van der Waals

exSay. sMB½n§kUv:aLg;enAkñúgRkaPItCYydl;PaBrwgrbs;va b:uEnþ edaysarEtRsTab;TaMgenaHGac rGilelIKña)anRkaPItrGil²enAeBlb:Hva ehIyvamanRbsiT§PaBCaeRbgrMGil. eKeRbIvaeFVICa bNþÚlexµAédeFVICaTwkfñaMsMrab;m:asIune)aHBumÖénkMuBüÚT½r nigGgÁúlIelxpgEdr.

RkamkUv:aLg;mYyeTotKWfµkVat(SiO2). kartMerobKña énGatUmsIulIsüÚmenAkñúgfµkVat KWRsedogKñaeTAnwgkartMerob Kñarbs;kabUnenAkñúgeBRCEdr b:uEnþenAkñúgkVatmanGatUm GuksIuEsnmYyrvagKUUnImYy²rbs;GatUmSi. edaysar Si nig

O maneGLicRtUGviC¢manxusKña sMB½n§ Si-O KWCasMB½n§b:UEl. mü:agvijeTot SiO2 KWRsedogKñaeTAnwgeBRC dUcCaPaBrwg nigcMNucrlayx<s; ¬16100 C¦ CaedIm.

6>3 Rkamm:UelKul cMeBaHRkamm:UelKul cMNucbNþajRtUv)antaMgenAedaym:UelKul ehIykMlaMgTMnaj rvagm:UuelKulTaMgenaH KWCakMlaMg Vander Waals nigCasMBn§½GIuRdUEsn. ]TahrN_énRkam m:UelKulenaHKWs<an;F½rDIGuksIut(SO2)rwgEdlkMlaMgTMnajelIslubKWGnþrkmµDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul. kar cgsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnGnþrm:UelKulTTYlxusRtUvCasMxan;sMRab;karrkSabNþajvimaRtbIrbs;Twkkk

¬cUremIlrUb12¦]TahrN_epSgeToténRkam m:UelKul KW I2, P4 nig S8. CaTUeTA elIkElgEtkñúgTwkkk m:UelKulenAkñúg Rkamm:UelKulRtUv)anpÁúMKñay:agCitbMput tamTMhMnigRTg; RTayrbs;va. edaysarEtkMlaMg Vander Waals nig sMB½n§GIuRdUEsnCaTUeTAKWexSay ebIeRbobeFobCamYysMB½n§

kUv:aLg;nigsMB½n§GIuy:ug Rkamm:UelKulgay)ak;EbkCagRkamGIuy:ug nigRkamkUv:aLg;. mü:agvij eTot Rkamm:UelKulPaKeRcInrlayenAsItuNðPaBeRkam 100

0C.

ssss<<<<anananan;;;;Fr½Fr½Fr½Fr½

CMBUkTI11

11-33

6>4 Rkamelah³ CaTUeTA TMrg;rbs;Rkamelah³KWsamBaØbMput edaysarEtcMNucbNþajnImYy²enAkñúg RkamRtUv)antaMgenAedayGatUmmYyénGatUmelah³dUcKña. Rkamelah³CaTUeTA CaÉktaKUb manp©itenAxagkñúg ÉktaKUbmanp©itenAépÞmux b¤ÉktapÁúMCitqekaN¬rUbTI29¦.

dUecñHFatuelah³CaTUeTAmandg;sIuetFM.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI29292929³³³³ TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;;RkamrbsRkamrbsRkamrbsRkamrbs;;;;elahelahelahelah³³³³.... elahelahelahelah³³³³RtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))anbgðajeTAtamTItaMgrbsanbgðajeTAtamTItaMgrbsanbgðajeTAtamTItaMgrbsanbgðajeTAtamTItaMgrbs;;;;vaenAkñúgtaragxYbvaenAkñúgtaragxYbvaenAkñúgtaragxYbvaenAkñúgtaragxYb....

Mn manTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrg;;;;KUbKUbKUbKUb Ga manTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrg;;;;ctuekaNRtgctuekaNRtgctuekaNRtgctuekaNRtg;;;; In nignignignig Sn manTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrg;;;;ctuekaNctuekaNctuekaNctuekaN nignignignig Hg manTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrg;;;; ctuekaNBñayctuekaNBñayctuekaNBñayctuekaNBñay. . . . (cUremIlrUbcUremIlrUbcUremIlrUbcUremIlrUbTITITITI15151515)

karcgsMB½n§enAkñúgelah³manlkçN³xusKñaxøaMgBIkarcgsMB½n§enAkñúgRbePTRkamepSg² eTot. cMeBaHelah³ eGLicRtugsMB½n§sßiitenAkñúgTItaMgminkMNt;enAkñúgRkamenaHTaMgmUl. karBitGatUmelah³enAkñúgRkamGacRtUv)aneKKitfavaCakarerobcMGIuy:ugviC¢manenAkñúgsmuRTén eGLicRtugv:aLg;minkMNt;taMg¬rUbTI30¦. kMlaMgs¥itCab;xøaMgenaH)anmkBIkarsßitenAKµan TItaMgkMNt;éneGLicRtugv:aLg;EdlFanaPaBrwgmaMénelah³. clPaBrbs;eGLicRtugKµan TItaMgkMNt;eFVIeGayelah³CaGñkcMlgkMedAnigcrnþl¥. taragTI4 segçbBIlkçN³énRkamTaMgbYnRbePT EdleyIg)anBIPakSaKña.


11-34

taragtaragtaragtarag4444³³³³ RbePTénRkamRbePTénRkamRbePTénRkamRbePTénRkamniglkçNniglkçNniglkçNniglkçN³³³³TUeTArbsTUeTArbsTUeTArbsTUeTArbs;;;;vavavava RbePTRbePTRbePTRbePT énRkaménRkaménRkaménRkam

kMlaMgP¢abkMlaMgP¢abkMlaMgP¢abkMlaMgP¢ab;;;;ÉktaÉktaÉktaÉktaCamYyCamYyCamYyCamYyKñaKñaKñaKña

lkçNlkçNlkçNlkçN³³³³TUeTATUeTATUeTATUeTA ]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____

GIuy:ug TMnajeGLicRtUsþaTic rwg/RsYy/cMlgkMedA &G>nI exSay> cMNucrlayx<s;

NaCl, LiF, MgO, CaCO3

kUv:aLg; sMB½n§kUv:aLg; rwg/cMlgkMedA&G>nIexSay cMNucrlayx<s;

C(eBRC ), SiO2

(fµxVat)

m:UelKul kMlaMgr)a:y/kMlaMg DIb:Ul-DIb:Ul, sMB½n§GIuRdUEsn

Tn;/cMlgkMedA&G>nIexSay cMNucrlayTab

Ar, CO2, I2, H2O,

C11H22O11

¬s‘uyRkUs¦

elah³ sMB½n§elah³ BITn;eTArwg cMNucrlayBITab eTAx<s;/ cMlgkMedA&G>nIl¥

RKb;elahFatu TaMgGs; ]TahrN_ Na,Mg,Fe,Cu

7 GgÁFaturwgnisNæan GgÁFaturwgPaKeRcInmansißrPaBkñúgTMrg;CaRkam. b:uEnþ RbsinebIGgÁFaturwgkekIteLIg y:agrh½s¬]TahrN_enAeBlGgÁFaturavRtCak;y:agrh½s¦ GatUmrWm:UelKulrbs;vaminmaneBl edIm,ItMerobxøÜnvatamreboberobrynigGacKaMgCab;enAkñúgTItaMgepSgBIkartMerobeTogTat;enAkñúgRkam. GgÁFaturwgEdl)anmkenaHeKeGayeQµaHfa GgÁFaturwgnisNæanGgÁFaturwgnisNæanGgÁFaturwgnisNæanGgÁFaturwgnisNæan dUcCaEkvCaedIm. vaxVH kartMerobvimaRtbIeTogTat;énGatUm. enAkñúgEpñkenH eyIgnwgBIPakSaRtYs²BIlkçN³rbs;Ekv. EkvKWCarUbFatumYyEdlmantMél nigeRbI)aneRcIny:agbMput. ehIyvak¾CaFatumYyEdl mancMNas;CageK KWsmÖar³eFVIBIEkvmantaMgBI1000qñaMmunRKisþskraC. CaFmµta EkvKWsMedA eTAelIplitplrlayføacaMgqøúHénrUbFatuGsrIragÁ EdlRtUv)aneFVIeGayRtCak;eTACarwgeday

rUbrUbrUbrUbTITITITI30303030³ ³ ³ ³ xñatxñatxñatxñat;;;;TTwgTTwgTTwgTTwgénRkamelahénRkamelahénRkamelahénRkamelah³³³³. . . . rgVgrgVgrgVgrgVg;;;;bnbnbnbnÞÞÞÞ úkviCúkviCúkviCúkviCöö öömanmanmanmannImYynImYynImYynImYy²²²²tag tag tag tag eGayéNVyeGayéNVyeGayéNVyeGayéNVy:::: UU UUnignignignigeGLicRtugxagkñúgnGatUmelaheGLicRtugxagkñúgnGatUmelaheGLicRtugxagkñúgnGatUmelaheGLicRtugxagkñúgnGatUmelah³³³³. . . . BN’RbpHBN’RbpHBN’RbpHBN’RbpHBBBB½½½½TTTT§ § § § CMuvijGIuyCMuvijGIuyCMuvijGIuyCMuvijGIuy:::: ugelahugelahugelahugelah³³³³viC¢mancg¥úlbgðajBIclnarbsviC¢mancg¥úlbgðajBIclnarbsviC¢mancg¥úlbgðajBIclnarbsviC¢mancg¥úlbgðajBIclnarbs;;;;eGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtugeGLicRtug. . . .

CMBUkTI11

11-35

KµankareLIgRkam. tamry³plitplrlay eyIgcg;niyayfa EkvEkvEkvEkv RtUv)anpSMeLIgBIl,ayén sIulIsüÚmGuksIutrlay(SiO2) ¬FatubgácMbgrbs;va¦ CamYynwgsmasFatudUcCa sUdüÚmGuksIut (Na2O) brGuksIut(B2O3) nigGuksIutelah³qøgmYycMnYneTot edIm,IbegáItBN’niglkçN³epSg² eTot. cMeBaHlkçN³xøHEkvmanlkçN³dUc GgÁFaturavCagGgÁFaturwg. karsikSaDIRhVak;süúg kaMrsµI X bgðajfaEkvxVHlMdab;xYbEvg.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI31313131³³³³ kartakartakartakartagvimaRtBIrrbsgvimaRtBIrrbsgvimaRtBIrrbsgvimaRtBIrrbs; ; ; ; (a) kVatkVatkVatkVatRkamRkamRkamRkam (b) EkvkVatminEmnCaRkEkvkVatminEmnCaRkEkvkVatminEmnCaRkEkvkVatminEmnCaRkamamamam. . . . EsVEsVEsVEsV‘‘ ‘‘tUctUctUctUc²²²²tag tag tag tag eGaysIulIeGaysIulIeGaysIulIeGaysIulIsüsüsüsüÚÚÚÚmmmm.... tamBitTMrgtamBitTMrgtamBitTMrgtamBitTMrg;;;;rbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;kVatKWCaTMrgkVatKWCaTMrgkVatKWCaTMrgkVatKWCaTMrg;;;;vimaRtvimaRtvimaRtvimaRtbIbIbIbI. . . . GatUmrbsGatUmrbsGatUmrbsGatUmrbs;;;;sIulIsIulIsIulIsIulIsüsüsüsüÚÚÚÚmmmmnImYynImYynImYynImYy²²²²cgcgcgcg sMB½n§sMB½n§sMB½n§sMB½n§ctumuxctumuxctumuxctumuxeTA nwgGatUmbYnrbseTA nwgGatUmbYnrbseTA nwgGatUmbYnrbseTA nwgGatUmbYnrbs;;;; O.... manEkvepSg²KñaRbEhl 800 RbePTenAkñúgkareRbIR)as;CaTUeTAsBVéf¶enH rUbTI31 bgðajkartageRKagvimaRtBIrrbs;kVatRkamnigEkvfµkVatnisNæan. tarag5 bgðajBIsmasPaB niglkçN³EkvkVat EkvBIruic nigEkvfµµkMe)ar sUdalag. BN’rbs;EkvekItmanedaysarvtþman énGIuy:ugelah³¬GuksIut¦. ]TahrN_ EkvBN’ébtgmanpÞúkEdkIIIGuksIut (Fe2O3) b¤Tg;Edg IIGuksIut(CuO) EkvBN’elÓgmanpÞúkGu‘yra:jÚmIVGuksIut(UO2) EkvBN’exovmanpÞúkkU)al; IIGuksIut nigTg;EdgIIGuksIut (CoO & CuO) ehIyEkvBN’RkhmmanpÞúkPaKl¥ittUc²rbs; CunigAu. cUrcMNaMfaGIuy:ugPaKeRcInEdl)anerobrab;mkehIyenaHKWCaGIuy:ugrbs;elah³qøg.


11-36

taragTItaragTItaragTItaragTI5555³ ³ ³ ³ smasPaBsmasPaBsmasPaBsmasPaBniglkçNniglkçNniglkçNniglkçN³³³³rbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;EkvEkvEkvEkvbbbbIIIIRbePTRbePTRbePTRbePT eQµaHeQµaHeQµaHeQµaH smasPaBsmasPaBsmasPaBsmasPaB lkçNlkçNlkçNlkçN³³³³nigkarnigkarnigkarnigkareRbIeRbIeRbIeRbIRRRR))))asasasas;;;;

EkvkVatsuT§ EkvBIriuc EkvfµkMe)ar sUdalag

100 % SiO2

SiO2,60-80% B2O3,10-25%

Al 2O3 tictYc SiO2,75% Na2O,15% CaO, 10%

rIkedaykMedAtictYc føacMeBaHCMhanrlkeRcIn. eRbIR)as;kñúg karRsavRCavGubTic. rIkedaykMedAtictYc føacMeBaHkaMrsµIBN’sRkhmGaMgRhVa b:uEnþminføacMeBaHkaMrsµIsVayG‘ulRtaeT. eKeRbICasMxan;enA mnÞIrBiesaF nigeRKOgEkveRbIR)as;cMGinGaharkñúgpÞH.

gayRbtikmµCamYyFatuKImI nigrYseTAnwgkarbþÚrkemþA. føa cMeBaHBnøWBN’s b:uEnþRsUbkaMrsµIsVayG‘ulRta. CasMxan;eK eRbIvaeFVIkBa©k;bg¥Ücnigdb.

8 bMErbMrYlpas karBiPakSaenAkñúgCMBUkTI5 nigCMBUkenH)anpþl;eGayeyIgnUvTidæPaBTUeTAénlkçN³pas

TaMgbIrbs;rUbFatu KWpas]sµ½n pasrav nigpasrwg. bMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpas EdlCabMElgBIpasmYy eTApasmYyeTot ekIteLIgenAeBlEdlfamBlRtUv)anpþþl;b¤beBa©j. bMErbMrYlpasCa bMErbMrYlrUb EdlkMNt;lkçN³edaybMErbMrYllMdab;m:UelKul. m:UelKulkñúgPaBCaGgÁFaturwg manlMdab;CageKnigkñúgPaBCa]sµ½nKµanlMdab;CageK. cUrcgcaMfaTMnak;TMngrvagbMErbMrYl famBlnigkarekIneLIgrWkarfycuHénlMdab;m:UelKulnwgCYyeyIgeGayyl;BIRbePTénbMErbMrYlTaMgenaH.

KImIGnuvtþn_ FatucMlgGKÁFatucMlgGKÁFatucMlgGKÁFatucMlgGKÁii iisnIsnIsnIsnIdddd¾¾¾¾llll¥¥¥¥enAsItuNÑPaBxenAsItuNÑPaBxenAsItuNÑPaBxenAsItuNÑPaBx<<<<ssss;

elah³dUcCaTg;EdgnigGaluymIj:ÚmKWCaFatucMlgGKiÁsnId¾l¥ b:uEnþvamanPaBFn;mYy cMnYn. Cak;Esþg famBlGKiÁsnIdl;eTARbEhl 20 PaKryGacRtUv)an)at;bg;kñúgTMrg;CakMedA enAeBlEdlExSkabRtUv)anplitBIelah³TaMgenHRtUv)aneRbIR)as;edIm,IcMlgGKIÁsnI. etIvanwg minGsa©rüeTrW RbsinebIeyIgGacplitExSkabEdlminmanPaBFn;GKiÁsnI?

karBitvaRtUv)aneKsÁal;Gs;ry³eBlCag70qñaMmkehIy faelah³ nigsMelah³xøH enAeBlvaRtUv)aneFVIeGayRtCak;dl;sItuNðPaBTabxøaMg¬4KCasItuNðPaBEk,rcMNutrMBuHrbs; eGlüÚmrav¦)an)at;PaBFnrbs;vaTaMgRsug. b:uEnþminEmnCakarl¥eTkñúgkareRbIR)as;sarFatu

CMBUkTI11

11-37

TaMgenH EdlehAfa FatucMlgGKFatucMlgGKFatucMlgGKFatucMlgGKiiii ÁsnIÁsnIÁsnIÁsnI d¾l¥sMrab;bBa¢ÚnfamBlGKiÁsnI BIeRBaHkarcMNaykñúgkar EfTaMExS kabGKiÁsnIenAsItuNðPaBTabenHRtUvhamXat; ehIyGacelIskarsnSMsMécBIkar bBa¢ÚnfamBlGKiÁsnImanRbsiT§PaBCag.

naqñaM1986 rUbviTUBIrnak;enARbeTssVIs)anrkeQIjRbePTfIµénsMPar³EdlGaccMlg GKÁisnId¾l¥enAsItuNðPaBEk,r30K. eTaHCasItuNðPaB30K enAEtCasItuNðPaB TabNas; k¾vamankMritEdlRbesIrCag 4K y:ageRcIn Edlkic©karrbs;BYkKat;)anbegIátnUvkarcab;GarmµN_ TUlMTUlaynigbegáInskmµPaBRsavRCavd¾Gsa©rü. bu:nµanExeRkaymk GñkviTüasaRsþ)an sMeyaKsmasFatu EdlCaFatucMlgGKÁisnId¾l¥enAsItuNðPaBEk,r 95K EdlCasItuNðPaBx<s; CagcMNucrMBuHénGasUtrav¬77K¦eRcIn. rUbenHbgðaj BITMrg;RkaménRbePTmYykñúgcMeNam smasFatuTaMgenaHEdlCal,ayénGuksIutGIurüÜm )arüÚm nigTg;Edg CamYyrUbmnþ YBa2Cu3Ox

¬Edl x= 6 rW 7¦. rUbbnÞab;mkenHbgðajBI emEdkmYyEdl)andak;begðaHenABIelIFatucMlg GKiÁsnId¾l¥ EdlRtUv)anBniøccUleTAkñúgGasUt rav.

TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;;Rkamén Rkamén Rkamén Rkamén Y Ba2Cu3Ox (Edl Edl Edl Edl x= 6 rWrWrWrW 7). . . . edaysarEtEpñkxagedaysarEtEpñkxagedaysarEtEpñkxagedaysarEtEpñkxagénénénénGatUmGuksIuEsnxøHGatUmGuksIuEsnxøHGatUmGuksIuEsnxøHGatUmGuksIuEsnxøH TMenr TMenr TMenr TMenr rUbmnþenHKµrUbmnþenHKµrUbmnþenHKµrUbmnþenHKµananananssssiiii ßrPaBßrPaBßrPaBßrPaB....


11-38

manehtupll¥edIm,IGbGrsaTrGMBIsMPar³enH. edaysarEtGasUtmantMélefak ¬GasUtravmYylIRtmantMélefakCagTwkedaHeKamYylIRt¦enaHeyIgGacRbemIlemIlfamBl GKiÁsnIRtUv)ancMlgrab;ryEm:ledayKµankar)at;bg;famBl. \TiæBlénkarbegaðHGacRtUv)an eRbIR)as;kñúgkarbegIátrfePIøgmanel,ÓnelOnnigmansMelgs¶at; EdleFVIdMeNIrelIpøÚvEdk. Fatu cMlgGKiÁsnId¾l¥ GacRtUv)aneRbIR)as;edIm,IbegáItkuMBüÚT½rmhaelOnehAfas‘ubEBkuMBüÚT½r (Super

computer) Edlel,Ónrbs;vaRtUv)ankMNt;edaycrnþGKiÁsnI. elIsBIenH eTAeTot Ednma:ej- Ticd¾FMCaeRcIn EdlGacRtUv)anbegIáteLIgenAkñúgFatucMlgGKiÁsnInwgpþl;\T§iBlPaKl¥itbegIán el,Ón]bkrN_manRbsiT§PaBsMrab;karrMlaynuyekøEG‘ nigersUNg;ma:ejTicRtwmRtUvCagkñúg bec©keTssMrab;kareRbIR)as;kñúgevCösa®sþ.

eTaHbICamankþIsgÇwmrbs;Kat;faTTYleCaKC½yk¾eday k¾eyIgenArg;caMyUreTotnUvkar

eRbIR)as;enAkñúgCMnYjénFatucMlgGKiÁsnId¾;;l¥enAsItuNðPaBx<s;enH. bBaðabec©keTsmYycMnYn

karbegaðHemEdkmYyBIelIFatucMlg karbegaðHemEdkmYyBIelIFatucMlg karbegaðHemEdkmYyBIelIFatucMlg karbegaðHemEdkmYyBIelIFatucMlg GKGKGKGKÁÁÁÁ ii iisnIsnIsnIsnIdddd¾¾¾¾llll¥¥¥¥enAsItuNðPaBxenAsItuNðPaBxenAsItuNðPaBxenAsItuNðPaBx<<<<ssss; ; ; ; EdlEdlEdlEdlRtUv RtUv RtUv RtUv ))))ananananBniøccUleTAkñúgGasUtravBniøccUleTAkñúgGasUtravBniøccUleTAkñúgGasUtravBniøccUleTAkñúgGasUtrav....

rfePIøgEdlrfePIøgEdlrfePIøgEdlrfePIøgEdl))))aneFVIaneFVIaneFVIaneFVIBBBBiiiiesaFnesaFnesaFnesaFn____edaykarbegðedaykarbegðedaykarbegðedaykarbegðaaaaH H H H EdlEdlEdlEdldMeNIrkarelIsMPardMeNIrkarelIsMPardMeNIrkarelIsMPardMeNIrkarelIsMPar³³³³cMlgGKÁicMlgGKÁicMlgGKÁicMlgGKÁisnsnsnsnIdIdIdId¾¾ ¾¾llll¥¥¥¥enAenAenAenA sItuNðPsItuNðPsItuNðPsItuNðPaBeGlüÚmravaBeGlüÚmravaBeGlüÚmravaBeGlüÚmrav....

CMBUkTI11

11-39

enAmanenAeLIy ehIymkdl;eBlenH GñkviTüasaRsþminTan;GacbegIátExSePIøgCab;)anyUrBI sMPar³TaMgenHkñúgbrimaNeRcInenAeLIy. ya:gNak¾edayk¾lT§plenHFMeFgNas;EdlPaB cMlgGKiÁsnId¾l¥enAsItuNðPaBx<s;CaEpñkmYykñúgcMeNamEpñkRsavRCavd¾skmµbMputenAkñúg rUbviTüanigKImIsBVéf¶.

##############################################

8>1 lMnwgcMhay-GgÁFaturav

m:UelKulkñúgGgÁFaturavminRtUv)ankMNt;enAkñúgbNþajrwgmaMeT. eTaHbICavaminesrITaMg RsugdUcmU:elKul]sµ½nk¾eday k¾mU:elKulTaMgenHmanclnaCab;Canic©. edaysarGgÁFaturavKW Caxab;Cag]sµ½n el,ÓnénkarTgÁicKñakñúgcMeNamm:UelKulkñúgpasravmankMritx<s;Cagpas]sµ½n. enAeBlmU:elKulkñúgGgÁFaturavmanfamBlRKb;RKan; edIm,IeKcecjBIépÞelI bMErbMrYlpasekIt eLIg. rMhYtrMhYtrMhYtrMhYt (Evaporation) rW karbgðÜtkarbgðÜtkarbgðÜtkarbgðÜt (Vaporization) KWCadMeNIrEdlGgÁFaturavRtUv)an bMEbøgeTACa]sµ½n.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI32323232³ ³ ³ ³ ExSekagrExSekagrExSekagrExSekagr))))ayfamBlsIuenTicayfamBlsIuenTicayfamBlsIuenTicayfamBlsIuenTicénménménménm:::: UelKulGgÁFaturav UelKulGgÁFaturav UelKulGgÁFaturav UelKulGgÁFaturav (a) enAsItuNPaB enAsItuNPaB enAsItuNPaB enAsItuNPaB T1ehIy ehIy ehIy ehIy (b)

enAsItuNðPaBxenAsItuNðPaBxenAsItuNðPaBxenAsItuNðPaBx<<<<ssss;;;;Cag Cag Cag Cag T2. . . . eyIgsegáteyIgsegáteyIgsegáteyIgsegáteXIjfa ExSekag enAsItuNðPaBxeXIjfa ExSekag enAsItuNðPaBxeXIjfa ExSekag enAsItuNðPaBxeXIjfa ExSekag enAsItuNðPaBx<<<<ssss;;;;CagCagCagCag manragsMEbmanragsMEbmanragsMEbmanragsMEb::::tttt TabTabTabTab. . . . tMbntMbntMbntMbn;;;;møbmøbmøbmøb;;;;bgðajBIcMnYnmUbgðajBIcMnYnmUbgðajBIcMnYnmUbgðajBIcMnYnmU:: ::elKul EdlmanfamBlsIuenTicesIµKñarWFMCagfamBlsIuenTicelKul EdlmanfamBlsIuenTicesIµKñarWFMCagfamBlsIuenTicelKul EdlmanfamBlsIuenTicesIµKñarWFMCagfamBlsIuenTicelKul EdlmanfamBlsIuenTicesIµKñarWFMCagfamBlsIuenTic edImedImedImedImE1. . . . sItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBkankankankan;;;;EtEtEtEtxxxx<<<<ssss; ; ; ; enaHcMnYnmUenaHcMnYnmUenaHcMnYnmUenaHcMnYnmU:: ::elKulk¾kanelKulk¾kanelKulk¾kanelKulk¾kan;;;;EteRcInCamYynwgfamBlsIuenTicxEteRcInCamYynwgfamBlsIuenTicxEteRcInCamYynwgfamBlsIuenTicxEteRcInCamYynwgfamBlsIuenTicx<<<<ssss;;;;.... etIkarrMhYtBwgEp¥keTAelIsItuNðPaBya:gdUcemþc? rUb32bgðajBIr)ayfamBlsIuenTic énmU:elKulenAkñúgGgÁFaturavmYyenAsItuNðPaBBIrxusKañ. enAeBlenHeyIgsegáteXIjfa

cMnYnm:UelKul

cMnYnm:UelKul

famBlsIuenTic (E )

(a)

famBlsIuenTic (E )

(B)


11-40

sItuNðPaBkan;Etx<s; famBlsIuenTick¾kan;EteRcInEdr dUecñHmU:elKulkan;EteRcInkMBugcakecj BIGgÁFaturav.

sMBaFcMhaysMBaFcMhaysMBaFcMhaysMBaFcMhay enAeBlEdlGgÁFaturavhYtm:UelKul]sµ½nrbs;vabegáItsMBaFcMhay. BinitüemIl

]bkrN_EdlRtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgrUbTI33.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI33333333³³³³ ]]]]bkbkbkbkrrrrNNNN____sMrabsMrabsMrabsMrab;;;;vasvasvasvas;;;;sMBaFcMhayénGgÁFaturav sMBaFcMhayénGgÁFaturav sMBaFcMhayénGgÁFaturav sMBaFcMhayénGgÁFaturav (a) muneBlrMhYtcabmuneBlrMhYtcabmuneBlrMhYtcabmuneBlrMhYtcab;;;;epIþm nig epIþm nig epIþm nig epIþm nig (b)

enAeBllMnwg KWeBlEdlKµankarpøasenAeBllMnwg KWeBlEdlKµankarpøasenAeBllMnwg KWeBlEdlKµankarpøasenAeBllMnwg KWeBlEdlKµankarpøas;;;;bþÚrRtUvbþÚrRtUvbþÚrRtUvbþÚrRtUv))))anbgðajanbgðajanbgðajanbgðaj. . . . enAkñúgrUbenAkñúgrUbenAkñúgrUbenAkñúgrUb(b) cMnYnmUcMnYnmUcMnYnmUcMnYnmU:: ::elKul EdlelKul EdlelKul EdlelKul Edl cakecjBIGgÁcakecjBIGgÁcakecjBIGgÁcakecjBIGgÁFaturavesIµnwgcMnYnmUFaturavesIµnwgcMnYnmUFaturavesIµnwgcMnYnmUFaturavesIµnwgcMnYnmU:: ::elKulEdlRtLbelKulEdlRtLbelKulEdlRtLbelKulEdlRtLb;;;;mkCaGgÁFaturavvijmkCaGgÁFaturavvijmkCaGgÁFaturavvijmkCaGgÁFaturavvij. . . . PaBxusKñaénkMritPaBxusKñaénkMritPaBxusKñaénkMritPaBxusKñaénkMrit ))))art art art art (h) pþlpþlpþlpþl;;;; ;;;;eGaynUvsMBaFcMhaylMneGaynUvsMBaFcMhaylMneGaynUvsMBaFcMhaylMneGaynUvsMBaFcMhaylMnwgrbswgrbswgrbswgrbs;;;;GgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBCakCakCakCak;;;;laklaklaklak;;;;....

muneBldMeNIrkarrMhYtcab;epþIm kMrit)artenAkñúgma:NUEm:t (manometer) KWesµIKña. PøamenaHm:UelKulmYycMnYntUc)ancakecjBIGgÁFaturav pascMhayRtUv)anbegáIteLIg. sMBaF cMhayGacvas;)anEtenAeBlNabrimaNcMhaymanRKb;RKan;. b:uEnþdMeNIrkarénrMhYtminRtUv )anbnþedayKµankMNt;eT. cugbBa©b; kMrit)artmansißrPaB nigKµankarpøas;bþÚrbnþreTotRtUv)an segáteXIjeLIy.

CMBUkTI11

11-41

etImanGVIekIteLIgenAkMritm:UelKulkñúgeBlmanrMhYt? dMbUgmanEtlMnaMEtmYyKt;Edl ekIteLIg KWm:UelKul)anpøas;TIBIGgÁFaturaveTAlMhTeT. PøamenaHm:UelKulEdlenAkñúglMhBI elIGgÁFaturavbegáItpascMhay. edaykMhab;énm:UelKulkñúgpascMhayekIneLIgm:UelKulxøH )anRtlb;Capasravvij. lMnaMenHehAfa kkkkMNMNMNMNejIsejIsejIsejIs EdlCakarpøas;bþÚrBIpas]sµ½neTACapas rav(Condensation). kMNejIsekIteLIgedaysarm:UelKuleTAb:HépÞGgÁFaturavnigRtUv)ancab; ykedaykMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulkñúgGgÁFaturav. el,ÓnrMhYtKWefrenAsItuNðPaBNamYuy ehIyel,ÓnénkMNejIsekIneLIgtamkMhab; ekIteLIgrbs;m:UelKulkñúgpascMhay. enAeBlel,ÓnénlMnaMTaMgBIrenHesµIKñaeKeGayeQµaH fa lMnwgDINamiclMnwgDINamiclMnwgDINamiclMnwgDINamic Edlel,ÓnéndMeNIrEdlRbRBwtþeTARtUv)aneFVIeGaymantulüPaBedayel,Ón éndMeNIrRcasmkvij(rUbTI34). sMBaFcMhayEdlRtUv)aneKvas;enAcMNuclMnwgDINamicén lMnaMkMNejIs nigrMhYteKeGayeQµaHfa sMsMsMsMBaFcMhayBaFcMhayBaFcMhayBaFcMhaylMnwglMnwglMnwglMnwg. CaerOy² eyIgeRbIBaküsMBaF cMhay enAeBleyIgniyayGMBIsMBaFcMhaylMnwgénGgÁFaturav. karGnuvtþenH GacTTYlyk )anenAeBleyIgdwgBIGtßn½yénBaküEdlbRgYmxIø.

vaBitCasMxan;kñúgkarkt;cMNMafa sMBaFcMhaylMnwgKWCasMBaFcMhayGtibrmarbs; GgÁFaturavmYy ehIyvaefrenAeBlsItuNðPaBefr. tamkarBIPakSaBImunmk eyIgrMBwgTukfa sMBaFcMhayénGgÁFaturavmYyekIneLIgCamYynwgsItuNðPaB. 8>2 kMedAénrMhYtnigcMNucrMBuH

rgVas;énPaBxøaMgénkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulkñúgGgÁFaturavKWCakMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlénrMhYtUlénrMhYtUlénrMhYtUlénrMhYt(ΔHvap) EdlCafamBl(KitCakJ) caM)ac;edIm,IbgðÜtGgÁFaturavmYym:Ul. kMedAm:UlénrMhYtmanTMnak;- TMngpÞal;eTAnwgPaBxøaMgénkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul EdlmanenAkñúgGgÁFaturavenaH. RbsinebITMnaj Gnþrm:UelKulxøaMg m:UelKulkñúgGgÁFaturavminGacrMedaHecjeTACapascMhay)anRsYleT.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI34343434³ ³ ³ ³ kareRbóbeFobelkareRbóbeFobelkareRbóbeFobelkareRbóbeFobel,,,,ÓnrMhYt ÓnrMhYt ÓnrMhYt ÓnrMhYt nigkMNnigkMNnigkMNnigkMNejIsenAsItuNðPaBefrejIsenAsItuNðPaBefrejIsenAsItuNðPaBefrejIsenAsItuNðPaBefr


11-42

Cajwkjab;GgÁFaturavmansMBaFcMhayTabnigkMedAm:UlcMhayx<s; eRBaHvaRtUvkarfamBleRcIn edIm,IbegáInclnam:UelKuleGaymanesrIPaB ¬TMenr¦ BIGnþrm:UelKulRsUb. brimaN ΔHvap GackMnt;)antamkarBiesaFn_. sMBaFcMhayekIteLIgCamYynwgkar ekIneLIgnUvsItuNðPaB. TMnak;TMngbrimaNrvagsMBaFcMhayPénGgÁFaturavnigsItuNðPaBdac; xat T RtUv)anpþl;eday Clausius (1822-1888) rUbviTUGaLWm:g;nig Clapeyrom (1799-1864) visVkrCnCati)araMgtamsmIkar ÷

CRT

p vap +∆Η

−=ln ( 2)

R efr]sµ½n (8,314 JK-.mol-), C efr (constant)

CYnkaleKeRbILÚkeKaldb; (log) tagedaysmIkar ÷

CRT

p vap +∆Η

−=303,2

log

smIkarenHGacbegáIt)anCasmIkarlIenEGdUcxageRkam ÷

Y = mX + b Edl

CTR

p vap +∆Η

−= )1

()(ln

Y = m X + b

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI35353535³³³³ karekIneLIgénkarekIneLIgénkarekIneLIgénkarekIneLIgénsMBaFcMhayCamYysItuNðPaBénGgÁFaturavcMnYnsMBaFcMhayCamYysItuNðPaBénGgÁFaturavcMnYnsMBaFcMhayCamYysItuNðPaBénGgÁFaturavcMnYnsMBaFcMhayCamYysItuNðPaBénGgÁFaturavcMnYnbbbbIIII. . . . cMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucrMBuH rMBuH rMBuH rMBuH rbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;GgÁFaturavenAsMBaF GgÁFaturavenAsMBaF GgÁFaturavenAsMBaF GgÁFaturavenAsMBaF 1 atm RtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))anbgðajenAelIGk½SGabanbgðajenAelIGk½SGabanbgðajenAelIGk½SGabanbgðajenAelIGk½SGab;;;;sIussIussIussIus....

CMBUkTI11

11-43

tamry³karvas;sMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturavenAsItuNPaBxus²Kña nigkartagenAelI ExSekageday ln P Tl;nwg 1/T eyIgkMNt;emKuNR)ab;Tis EdlesIµnwg -ΔHvap/R (ΔHvap RtUv )ansnµtfaminGaRs½yeTAnwgsItuNðPaB). enHCaviFIRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IkMNt;kMedAénrMhYt.

rUbTI 36bgðajRkabeRTténLnP Tl;nwg1/T sMrab;Twk nigDIeGTIleGET(emIltaragTI6).

cUrcMNMa fabnÞat;Rtg;sMrab;TwkCaRkabeRTtecatCag edaysarTwkman ΔHvap FMCag. ebIeyIgdwgtMél ΔHvap nig P énGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBNamYy eyIgGaceRbIsmIkar

Clausius nig Clapeyrom edIm,IKNnasMBaFcMhayénGgÁFaturavenaHenAsItuNðPaBxusKña dUcxageRkam ÷

enAsItuNðPaB T1 nig T2 sMBaFcMhay P1nigP2 eyIg)an ÷

CRT

p vap +∆Η

−=1

1ln ( 3)

CRT

p vap +∆Η

−=2

2ln ( 4)

dk (3) nig (4) ⇒

−

∆Η=⇒

−

∆Η=

∆Η−−

∆Η−=−

122

1

12

2121

11ln

11

)(lnln

TTRP

P

TTR

RTRTpp

vap

vap

vapvap

( 5)

eyIgGacsnñidæan)anfa cMNucrMBuHrbs;GgÁFaturavKWGaRs½yelIsMBaFxageRkA.

]TahrN_ enAsMBaF 1atm TwkBuHenAsItuNðPaB 100oC EtebIeyIgbBa©úHsMBaFmkenARtwm

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI36363636³³³³ RkabeRTtRkabeRTtRkabeRTtRkabeRTt ln P TlTlTlTl;;;;nwgnwgnwgnwg1/T ssssMMMMrabrabrabrab; ; ; ; TwkTwkTwkTwknigDIeGTIleGETnigDIeGTIleGETnigDIeGTIleGETnigDIeGTIleGET. . . . RkabnImYyRkabnImYyRkabnImYyRkabnImYy²²²²esIµnwg esIµnwg esIµnwg esIµnwg ----ΔΔΔΔHvap/R....


11-44

0,5atm TwkBuHenARtwm 82oC b:ueNÑaH. cMNucrMBuH nig ΔHvap RtUv)ankMnt;PaBxøaMgénkMlaMg Gnþrm:UelKul. ]TahrN_ Gakug(Ar) nigemtan(CH4) EdlmankMlaMgr):ayexSaymancMNuc rMBuHTab nigkMedAm:UlénkarbgðÜtTab. pÞúyeTAvij eGtaNul(C2H5OH) nigTwkmansMB½n§ GIuRdUEsnrwgmaM EdlnaMeGayvamancMNucrMBuHx<s; nig ΔHvapFM.

taragtaragtaragtarag6666³³³³ bgðajbgðajbgðajbgðajBIBIBIBIkMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UléncMhayrbsUléncMhayrbsUléncMhayrbsUléncMhayrbs;;;;smasFaturavmYycMnYnsmasFaturavmYycMnYnsmasFaturavmYycMnYnsmasFaturavmYycMnYn

smasFatusmasFatusmasFatusmasFatu sItuNðPaBrMBuH sItuNðPaBrMBuH sItuNðPaBrMBuH sItuNðPaBrMBuH (oC) enA enA enA enA 1atm

kMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlcMhay UlcMhay UlcMhay UlcMhay (ΔΔΔΔHvap) Argon (Ar) -186 6,3

Methane (CH4) -164 9,2 Ethyl ether

(C2H5OC2H5) 34,6 26,0

Ethanol (C2H5OH) 78,3 39,3 Benzene (C6H6) 80,1 31,0

Water (H2O) 100 40,79 Mercury (Hg) 357 59,0

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____7777

eGTIleGETKWCaGgÁFaturavsrIragÁehIr niggayeqHy:agxøaMgEdlRtUv)aneRbICasMxan;Ca FaturMlay. sMBaFcMhayrbs;eGTIleGETKW401mmHgenAsItuNðPaB180C. cUrKNnasMBaF cMhayrbs;vaenAsItuNðPaB 320C. cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy tamtaragTI6 eyIgeXIjfa ΔHvap=26,0 kJ/mol=26,000J/mol Tinñn½yenaHKW

P1=401 mmHg P2?

T1= 180C=291 K T2=320C= 305K

BIsmIkar( 5) eyIg)an

−=)305)(291(

305291

./314,8

/000,26

2

401ln

KK

Kk

molKJ

molJ

P

eyIg)an 6106,02

401=P

dUecñH eyIg)an P2=657 mmHg

CMBUkTI11

11-45

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþnGnuvtþn__ __³ ³ ³ ³ sMBaFcMhayrbs;eGtaNulKW 100 mmHg enAsItuNðPaB 34,90C. etIsMBaF cMhayenAsItuNðPaB 63,50C esµIb:unµan? ¬sMBaFcMhayrbs;eGtaNulKWΔHvap=39,3

kJ/mol¦ meFüa)ayGnuvtþn_edIm,Icg¥úlbgðajBIkMedAm:UlénkarbgðÜtKWedaykarRtdusGal;kul

dUcCa eGTIlGal;kul(C2H5OH) rWGIusURbUBIlGal;kul(C3H7OH) rWedaykarRtdusGal;kuleTA elIédrbs;Gñk. Gal;kulTaMgenHmansMBaFcMhay ΔHvap TabCagTwk dUecñH kMedAEdlecjBI édrbs;Gñk KWRKb;RKan;edIm,IbegáInfamBlsIuenTicrbs;m:UelKulGal;kulnigedIm,IbgðÜtva. edaysarEtkar)at;kMedA dUecñHehIy)anCaeFVIeGayédrbs;GñkeLIgRtCak;. lMnaMenH KWvadUcKña eTAnwglMnaMbeBa©jejIsEdr EdlCaviFImYyeFVIeGayxøÜnmnusSrkSasIutuNðPaBefr)an. edaysar EtsMB½n§Gnþrm:UelKulGIuRdUEsnxøaMg manGtßiPaBenAkñúgTwkbrimaNd¾eRcInénfamBlKWRtUvkar edIm,IbgðÜtTwkkñúgkarbeBa©jejIsBIsarBagÁkayrbs;mnusS. famBlenHKWpþl;eGayedaykMedA EdleFVIclnaenAkñúglMnaMemtabUlIsepSg².

Gñk)aneXIjrYcmkehIyfa sMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturavekIneLIgCamYynwgsItuNðPaB. ral;GgÁFaturavTaMgGs;suT§EtmansItuNðPaBrMBuHrbs;va. cMNucrMBuHcMNucrMBuHcMNucrMBuHcMNucrMBuH KWCasItuNðPaB EdlsMBaF cMhayrbs;GgÁFaturavenaHesµInwgsMBaFxageRkA. sItuNðPaBrMBuHFmµtaénGgÁFaturavKWCa sItuNðPaBEdlvaBuHenAeBlEdlsMBaFxageRkAesµI 1 atm.

enAcMNucrMBuH BBuHekIteLIgenAkúñgGgÁFaturav. enAeBlBBuHekIteLIg GgÁFaturav Edl taMgenAkEnøgenaHRtUv)anrujecj ehIynIv:Urbs;GgÁFaturavEdlenAkñúgkugtWn½rKWRtUv)anbgçMeGay ekIneLIg. sMBaFEdlrujBBuHenaHPaKeRcInCasMBaFbriyakasbUkCamYysMBaFGIuRdUsþaTic ¬CasMBaFEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgGgÁFaturav¦. sMBaFenAkñúgBBuHKWbNþalmkBIsMBaFcMhayén GgÁFaturavEtmYyKt;. enAeBlsMBaFcMhayenaHesµInwgsMBaFxageRkA BBuHk¾elceLIgenA elIépÞrbs;GgÁFaturav ehIyk¾EbkeTA. RbsinebIsMBaFcMhayenAkñúgBBuHTabCagsMBaFxag eRkA eBlenaHBBuHvanwgFøak;cuHmuneBlGaceLIgvij. dUecñHeyIgGacsnñidæan)anfa cMNucrMBuH rbs;GgÁFaturavmYyKWGaRs½yeTAnwgsMBaFxageRkArbs;va ¬eyIgEtgEtecalbrimaNtictYcén sMBaFGIuRdUsþaTic¦ . ]TahrN_ enAsMBaF 1atm TwkBuHenAsItuNðPaB 1000C. b:uEnþebIsMBaF fymkenARtwm 0,5 atm TwkBuHenAsItuNðPaBEtRtwm 820C Etb:ueNÑaH.

edaysarcMNucrMBuHkMNt;edaysMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturavenaH eyIgrMBwgTukfacMNuc rMBuHTak;TgeTAnwgkMedAm:UlénkarbgðÜt)anesckþIfa ΔHvapkan;Etx<s;sItuNðPaBrMBuHkan;Etx<s;.


11-46

Tinñn½ykñúgtaragTI6 vabBaöak;xøH²karTsSn_Tayrbs;eyIg. TaMgsItuNðPaBrMBuH TaMg ΔHvap KW RtUv)ankMNt;edayPaBxøaMgénkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul. Ca]TahrN_ Gakug(Ar) nigemtan (CH4)

EdlmankMlaMgr)a:yexSaymansItuNðPaBrMBuHTab nigkMedAm:UltUcénbgðÜt. eGTIlGaET

(C2H5OC2H5) manm:Um:g;DIb:UlnigkMlaMgDIb:Ul DIb:UlRKb;RKan;sMrab;cMNucrMBuHnigΔHvapx<s;KYr sm. TaMgeGTIlGal;kul TaMgTwk suT§EtmansMB½n§GIuRdUEsnxøaMg EdlrYmcMENksMrab;cMNucrMBuH nigΔHvapx<s;rbs;va. sMB½n§elah³xøaMgbNþaleGay)artmancMNucrMBuH nigΔHvapx<s;CageK rbs;GgÁFaturavkñúgRkumenH. KYreGay cab;GarmµN_EdrKWcMNucrMBuHrbs;bg;EsnEdlminb:UEl KWvaRbhak;RbEhlnwgcMNucrMBuHrbs;eGtaNulEdr. bg;EsnmankMritb:UElx<s;edaysarEt r)ayeGLicRtugrbs;vasßitenAkñúgGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKulminedATItaMg pi ehIykMlaMgr)a:yenAkñúg m:UelKulbg;EsnGacxøaMgdUc rWk¾GacxøaMgCagkMlaMgDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul rWsMB½n§GIuRdUEsneTotpg. 8>3 sItuNðPaBnigsMBaFRKITic pÞúynwgkarrMhYtKWkMNejIs. CaeKalkarN_ eKGaceFVI]sµ½neGayeTACaGgÁFaturav)an tamviFImYyénviFIBIr. edaykareFVIeGaycuHRtCak;én]sµ½n eyIgbnßyfamBlsIuenTicén m:UelKulrbs;va dUecñHm:UelKulenaHpþúMKñabegáItCatMNk;tUc²énGgÁFaturav. mü:ageTot eyIgGac dak;sMBaFeTAelICa]sµ½n. karsgát;kat;bnßyRbEvgmFümrvagm:UelKul dUecñHvaP¢ab;Kñaeday TMnajeTAvijeTAmk. lMnaMénkarBRgav¬eFVI]sµ½neGayeTAGgÁFaturav¦ ]sSahkmµKWpSMviFITaMg BIrenH. ral;sarFatusuT§EtmansItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBRKITicRKITicRKITicRKITic(Tc) EdlelIsBIenH pas]sµ½nrbs;vaminRtUv )anBRgaveTminfadak;sMBaFFMb:unNaeT. enHk¾CasItuNðPaBd¾x<s;bMputEdlsarFatumYyGac sßitenAkñúgPaBCaGgÁFaturav. tamviFIepSgeTot elIsBIsItuNðPaBRKITicKµankarEbgEckrvag GgÁFaturavnig]sµ½neyIgmanEtsnÞnIy. sMBaFsMBaFsMBaFsMBaFRKITicRKITicRKITicRKITic(Tc) KWCasMBaFtUcbMputEdleKRtUvEteRbI vaedIm,IbMEbøgeTACaGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBRKITic. GtßiPaBénsItuNðPaBRKITicGacRtUv)an bkRsaydUcteTAenH. TMnajGnþrm:UelKulKWCabrimaNkMNt;sMrab;sarFatumYy ehIyvamin GaRs½yeTAnwgsItuNðPaBeT. enAxageRkamsItuNðPaBRKITic kMlaMgenHxøaMgRKb;RKan;edIm,IP¢ab; mU:elKulCamYyKña¬enAeRkamsMBaFsmRsb¦enAkñúgGgÁFaturav. elIsBIsItuNðPaBRKITicclna m:UelKulkøayeTACaxøaMgkøaNas;rhUtdl;m:UelKulGacEbkecjBITMnajenH)an. rUbTI37bgðaj

CMBUkTI11

11-47

famanGVIekIteLIgenAeBlEdls<an;F½rGicsaPøúyGrYRtUv)ankMedAeGayeLIgdl;elIsBIsItuNð- PaBRKITicrbs;va¬45,50C) ehIybnÞab; mkbBa©úHsItuNðPaBrbs;vaeGayenAeRkam 45,50C.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI37373737³³³³ ))))atuPUtatuPUtatuPUtatuPUtRKITicRKITicRKITicRKITicénsénsénséns<<<<anananan;;;;F½rGF½rGF½rGF½rGiiiicsaPøúyGrY kcsaPøúyGrY kcsaPøúyGrY kcsaPøúyGrY k> > > > enAeRkamsItuNðPaBenAeRkamsItuNðPaBenAeRkamsItuNðPaBenAeRkamsItuNðPaBRKITic RKITic RKITic RKITic paspaspaspasføaføaføaføarrrrbsbsbsbs;;;; GgÁFatuGgÁFatuGgÁFatuGgÁFaturavravravravGacemIleXIj xGacemIleXIj xGacemIleXIj xGacemIleXIj x> > > > enAxagelIsItuNðPaBenAxagelIsItuNðPaBenAxagelIsItuNðPaBenAxagelIsItuNðPaBRKITic RKITic RKITic RKITic pasravpasravpasravpasrav))))atatatat;;;;GsGsGsGs;;;; KKKK> > > > dakdakdakdak;;;;sarFatu sarFatu sarFatu sarFatu eGayRtCakeGayRtCakeGayRtCakeGayRtCak;;;;enAeRkamsItuNðPaBenAeRkamsItuNðPaBenAeRkamsItuNðPaBenAeRkamsItuNðPaBRKITicRKITicRKITicRKITicrbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;vavavavabnþicbnþicbnþicbnþic. . . . G½BÞsG½BÞsG½BÞsG½BÞs²²²²enaHtageGayenaHtageGayenaHtageGayenaHtageGaykMNejIsénkMNejIsénkMNejIsénkMNejIséncMhay cMhay cMhay cMhay XXXX> > > > cugeRkay pascugeRkay pascugeRkay pascugeRkay pasravekIteLIgravekIteLIgravekIteLIgravekIteLIgmþgeTotmþgeTotmþgeTotmþgeTot.... tarag7KWCataragsItuNðPaBRKITicnigsMBaFRKITicrbs;sarFatusamBaØ²mYycMnYn. sItuNðPaBRKITicrbs;sarFatumYyqøúHbBa©aMgBIPaBxøaMgénkMlaMgGnþrkmµm:UelKulrbs;va. bg;Esn eGtaNul )art nigTwk EdlCaFatumankMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulxøaMgk¾mansItuNðPaB RKITicx<s;Edr eRbobeFobCamYysarFatuepSgeTotkñúgtaragenaH. 8>4 lMnwgGgÁFaturwg-GgÁFaturav

bMElgBIGgÁFaturaveTAGgÁFaturwgehAfakMNk(Freezing) ehIylMnaMRcasmkvijehAfa karlay (Melting or fusion).

cMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucrlayrlayrlayrlayénGgÁFaturwg b¤cMNuccMNuccMNuccMNuckkkkkkkkénGgÁFaturav KWCasItuNðPaBEdlpasrwgnig pasravmanGtßiPaBCamYyKñaenAeBllMnwg. cMNucrlay¬b¤cMNuckMNk¦FmµtaénsarFatumYy KWCasItuNðPaBEdlsarFatuenaHrlay¬b¤kk¦enAsMBaF1atm. CaTUeTAeKlubBakü :Fmµta : edayniyayfa cMNucrlayénsarFatuenAsMBaF 1atm .

¬k¦ ¬x¦ ¬K¦ ¬X¦


11-48

karrlay (fusion) sMedAeTAelIlMnaMénkarrlay. dUecñH Bakü “ rlay” GacbMpøaj esoKIVGKÁisnI enAeBlbnÞHelah³rlay edaysarEtkMedAEdl)anbegáItedaycrnþGKiÁsnIx<s; xøaMg.

taragTItaragTItaragTItaragTI7777³³³³ sItuNðPaBnigsMBaFsItuNðPaBnigsMBaFsItuNðPaBnigsMBaFsItuNðPaBnigsMBaFRKITicRKITicRKITicRKITicrbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;sarFatusarFatusarFatusarFatueRCIserIseRCIserIseRCIserIseRCIserIs sarFatu sItuNðPaBlMnwg Tc (

0C) sMBaFlMnwg Pc (atm)

NH3

Ar

C6H6

CO2

C2H5OH

C2H5OC2H5

Hg

CH4

H2

N2

O2

SF6

H2O

132,4

-186

288,9

31,0

243

192,6

1462

-83,0

-239,9

-147,1

-118,8

45,5

374,4

111,5

6,3

47,9

73,0

63,0

35,6

1036

45,6

12,8

33,5

49,7

37.6

219,5

lMnwgGgÁFaturwg-GgÁFaturavEdleKsÁal;CageKKWrvagTwk nigTwkkk. enAsItuNðPaB 0oC nigsMBaF1atm EdllMnwgDINamicRtUv)antageday ÷

Twkkk Twk karbgðajCak;EsþgénlMnwgDINamicenHRtUv)anpþl;edayTwkkkmYyEkv. dMuTwkkkrlay

eTACaTwk ehIyTwkxøHEdlenAcenøaHTwkkkGackk dUecñH Pöab;duMTwkkkCamYyKña. enHminEmnCa lMnwgBiteTedayEkvminRtUv)anrkSaeGayenA0oC ehIydMuTwkkknwgRtUvrlayGs;.

edaysarm:UelKulkñúgGgÁFaturwgP¢ab;KñaxøaMgCagGgÁFaturav kMedAKWRtUvkaredIm,IQan eTAdl;Gnþrkalpasrwg-rav. edayRkeLkeTAemIlExSekagbgðajkñúgrUb38 eyIgeXIjfaenAeBlGgÁFaturwgRtUv)ankMedA sItuNðPaBekIneLIgCabnþ bnÞab;rhUtdl;cMNuc A. enARtg;cMNucenH GgÁFaturwgcab;epþImrlay.

CMBUkTI11

11-49

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI38383838³³³³ ExSekagExSekagExSekagExSekagénkarénkarénkarénkarkMedAkMedAkMedAkMedAtYytYytYytYy::::agagagagBIBIBIBIpasrwgpasrwgpasrwgpasrwgeTAeTAeTAeTApaspaspaspasravravravravnigeTAnigeTAnigeTAnigeTApaspaspaspas]]]]sµ½nrbssµ½nrbssµ½nrbssµ½nrbs;;;;sarFatusarFatusarFatusarFatu

mYymYymYymYy. . . . edayedayedayedaysarsarsarsar ΔΔΔΔHfus KWKWKWKWtUcCagtUcCagtUcCagtUcCag ΔΔΔΔHvap ryryryry³³³³eBlrlayrbseBlrlayrbseBlrlayrbseBlrlayrbs;;;;sarFatuticCagrysarFatuticCagrysarFatuticCagrysarFatuticCagry³³³³eBlBuH eBlBuH eBlBuH eBlBuH EdlBnülEdlBnülEdlBnülEdlBnül;;;;faehtuGVIfaehtuGVIfaehtuGVIfaehtuGVI))))anCaanCaanCaanCaAB xøICagxøICagxøICagxøICagCD. . . . kMriteRTténkMriteRTténkMriteRTténkMriteRTténGgÁFaturwg GgÁFaturav nigcMhay GgÁFaturwg GgÁFaturav nigcMhay GgÁFaturwg GgÁFaturav nigcMhay GgÁFaturwg GgÁFaturav nigcMhay RtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))ankMNtankMNtankMNtankMNt;;;;edaykMedaykMedaykMedaykMedACakedACakedACakedACak;;;;laklaklaklak;;;;rbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;sarFatuenAkñúgsarFatuenAkñúgsarFatuenAkñúgsarFatuenAkñúgPaBnImYyPaBnImYyPaBnImYyPaBnImYy²²²²

kñúgkMlugeBlrlay ( )BA → EdlCaEpñkrabesIµdMbUgénExSekagEdl)anbgðajkñúgrUb TI38kMedARtUvRsUbedayRbB½n§ b:uEnþsItuNðPaBrbs;vaenAefr. kMedACYyeGaymU:elKulCMnH kMlMagGnþrkmµenAkñúgGgÁFaturwg. enAeBlEdlPaKsMNakrlayTaMgRsug(cMNucB)kMedA Edl RtUv)anRsUbbegáInfamBlsIuenTicmFümrbs;mU:elKulénGgÁFaturav ehIysItuNðPaB rbs;GgÁFaturavekIneLIg ( )CB → . dMeNIrkarbgðÜt ( )DC → GacRtUv)anbkRsaydUcxag elIEdr. sItuNðPaBenAefr enAeBlfamBlsIuenTicEdlekIneLIgRtUv)aneRbIR)as;edIm,ICMnH kMlMagTMnajenAkñúgGgÁFaturav. enAeBlmU:elKulTMagGs;sißtkñúgpas]s½µn sItuNðPaBekIneLIg mþgeTot. taragtaragtaragtarag8888³³³³ kMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlrlayrbsUlrlayrbsUlrlayrbsUlrlayrbs;;;;smasFatusmasFatusmasFatusmasFatueRCIserIseRCIserIseRCIserIseRCIserIs

smasFatu cMNucrlay (oC)

vas;enA 1atm kMedAm:Ulrlay ΔHfus (kJ/mol)

Argon (Ar) -190 1,3

Methane (CH4) -183 0,84

Ethyl ether (C2H5OC2H5) -116,2 6,90


11-50

Ethanol (C2H5OH) -117,3 7,61

Benzene (C6H6) 5,5 10,9

Water (H2O) 0 6,01

Mercury (Hg) -39 23,4

famBlEdlRtUvkarrMlay 1mol énGgÁFaturwgehAfa kMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlrlayUlrlayUlrlayUlrlay (molar heat of

fusion)tagedayΔHfus. taragTI8bgðajBIkMedAmU:lrlayrbs;sarFatuEdlmanenAkñúgtarag TI6. kareRbobeFobTinñn½yenAkñúgtaragTaMgBIrbgðajfasarFatunImYy²man ΔHfus tUcCag ΔHvap. enHvaRtUvKñaCamYynwgehtukarN_Edlfa mU:elKulenAkñúgGgÁFaturavenAP¢ab;KñaKYrsm dUecñHfamBlxøHRtUv)anRtUvkaredIm,ItMerobeLIgvijBIGgÁFaturwgeTACaGgÁFaturav. mü:agvijeTot enAeBlGgÁFaturavhYt mU:elKulrbs;vaRtUv)anEjkecjBIKñaTaMgRsug ehIyfamBlCaeRcIn RtUv)anRtUvkaredIm,ICMnHkMlaMgGnþrkmµ.

dUcEdleyIgGacrMBwgTuk kñúgkareFVIeGayRtCak; sarFatuman\Ti§BlpÞúyBIkareFVIeGay vaeLIgekþA. ebIeyIgdkkMedAecjBIPaKsMNak]s½µnkñúgel,Ónefr enaHsItuNðPaBrbs;vafy cuH. eBlEdlGgÁFaturavRtUv)anbegáIteLIg kMedARtUv)anbeBa©jedayRbB½n§edaysarfamBl bU:tg;Esülrbs;vakMBugfycuH. sMrab;ehtuplenH sItuNðPaBrbs;RbB½n§enAefrkñúgry³eBl kMNejIs ( )CD → . bnÞab;BIcMhayTaMgGs;)ankCaejIs sItuNðPaBGgÁFaturavcab;epIþmFøak; cuH. kareFVIeGayRtCak;bnþénGgÁFaturavnaMeTArkkarkk ( )AB → .

)atuPUtmYyehAfa kakakakaeFVIeGayRtCakeFVIeGayRtCakeFVIeGayRtCakeFVIeGayRtCak;;;;xøaMgxøaMgxøaMgxøaMg(supercooling) sMedAelIsßanPaBEdl GgÁFaturavGacRtUv)aneFIVeGayRtCak;CabeNþaHGasnñenAeRkamcMNuckMNkrbs;va. kareFVI eGayRtCak;xøaMgekItmanenAeBlEdlkMedARtUv)andkecjBIGgÁFaturavmYyya:gqab;rh½s Edl mU:elKulminmaneBledIm,IRtLb;eTACaTMrg;manlMdab;rbs;GgÁFaturwgeLIy. GgÁFaturavEdl RtUv)aneFVIeGayRtCak;xøaMgminmansißrPaBeT. karkUrRKvItic² rWbEnßmeTAelIvanUvRKab;Rkam tUc²énsarFatudUc²KñanwgbNþaleGayvakkya:gelOn.

8>5 lMnwgcMhay-GgÁFaturwg GgÁFaturwgk¾GaceFVIeGayeTACacMhaypgEdr dUecñHmansMBaFcMhay. cUrBinitüemIl lMnwgDINamicxageRkam ÷

GgÁFaturwg cMhay

CMBUkTI11

11-51

lMnaMEdleFVIeGaym:UelKulpøas;bþÚrpÞal;BIpasrwgeTApascMhayehAfa rMrMrMrMeeeehIr hIr hIr hIr (Sublimation). ehIylMnaMbRBa©asmkvijedIm,IbegáIt)anCaGgÁFaturwgvijBIcMhaypÞal;ehAfa karbgákkarbgákkarbgákkarbgák (Deposition). Nab;taELn¬sarFatueRbIsMrab;sMlab;stVl¥it¦ mansMBaFcMhay lMnwgx<s;sMrab;GgÁFaturwg(1mmHg, 53oC). cMhayqYlrbs;varaldalya:gelOnkñúglMhbiT Cit. GIuy:Utk¾ehIrEdr. enAsItuNðPaBbnÞb;BN’sVayrbs;cMhayGIuy:UtGacemIleXIjeday gayenAkñúgkugtWn½rbiTCit. edaysarm:UelKulRtUv)anP¢ab;Kñaya:gtwgenAkñúgGgÁFaturwg sMBaF cMhayrbs;vaCaTUeTAticCagGgÁFaturavEdlRtUvnwgva. famBlEdlcaM)ac;edIm,IeFVIeGay GgÁFaturwg1mol køayCacMhay ehAfa kMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlUlUlUlrMehIrrMehIrrMehIrrMehIr(kJ) (ΔHsub). vaesIµnwgplbUkkMedA mU:lénkarrlay nigrMehIr.

ΔHsub = ΔHfus + ΔHvap ( 6)

smIkarenHCakarcg¥úlbgðajénc,ab;Hess¬cUremIlEpñk6>5¦. Gg;tal;BIrWbNþÚrkMedA sMrab;lMnaMTaMgGs;KWdUcKñanwgbNþÚrsarFatupÞal;BIGgÁFaturwgeTATMrg;cMhay b¤BIGgÁFaturwgeTA GgÁFaturavnigbnÞab;mkeTAcMhay. cUrcMNMafasmIkarTI6GacenAdEdl ebIbMErbMrYlpas TaMgGs;ekIteLIgenAsItuNðPaBdUcKña. ebIsinCamindUecñaHeT smIkarGacRtUv)aneRbIR)as; sMrab;EtkñúgkarRbhak;RbEhlbu:eNÑaH. GgÁFaturwg GgÁFaturav cMhay

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI39393939³ ³ ³ ³ bMErbMrYbMErbMrYbMErbMrYbMErbMrYlpasepSglpasepSglpasepSglpasepSg²²²²EdlsarFatumYyGacRbRBwtþeTAEdlsarFatumYyGacRbRBwtþeTAEdlsarFatumYyGacRbRBwtþeTAEdlsarFatumYyGacRbRBwtþeTA


11-52

rUbTI39segçbBIRbePTénbMErbMrYlpasEdlRtUv)anBiPakSaenAkñúgEpñkenH. enAeBl sarFatumYyRtUv)ankMedAsItuNðPaBrbs;vanwgekIneLIg ehIyenATIbB©ab;vanwgrgnUvGnþrkal pas. edIm,IKNnabMErbMrYlfamBlsrubsMrab;dMeNIrkarmYy eyIgRtUvEtrYmbB©ÚalCMhan Edl RtUv)anbgðajenAkñúg]TahrN_8.

]]]]TahrNTahrNTahrNTahrN____8

cUrKNnabrimaNfamBlKitCa kJ EdlRtUvkaredIm,IkMedATwk346 g BIsItuNðPaB 0ºC eTA 182 0C. snµtfakMedAyfaRbePTCak;lak;rbs;TwkKW 4.184J/g ºC elIsBIGgÁFaturavCa eRcInnigkMedAyfaRbePTrbs;cMhayKW1,99 J/g ºC. cMelIycMelIycMelIycMelIy karKNnaGacEckecjCabIdMNak;kar³ dMNak;karTI1³ karkMedATwkBIsItuNðPaB 00C eTA 1000C

edayeRbIsmIkar (6.3) eyIgsresr q1 = ms∆ t

= (346 g)(4,184J/g. 0C)(1000C-00C)

=1,45 ×105J

=145kJ

dMNak;karTI2³ rMhYtTwk346g enAsItuNðPaB 100 0C

enAkñúgtaragTI 6 eyIgeXIjfa ∆ Hvap = 40,79kJ/mol sMrab;Twk dUecñH

q2 = 346 gH2OOmolH

Kj

OgH

OmolH

22

2

1

79,40

02,18

1××

=783 kJ

dMNak;TI3³ kMedAcMhayBI 1000C eTA 1820C

q3 = ms∆ t

= (346g)(1,99J/g. 0C)(1820C-1000C)

= 5,65×104J

CMBUkTI11

11-53

=56,5 kJ

tMrUvkarfamBlTaMgGs;KW qsrub = q1+q2+q3

=145 kJ+783 kJ+56,5 kJ

=985 kJ

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;GnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþGnuvtþnnnn____³³³³ cUrKNnakMedAbeBa©jenAeBlEdl 68,0 géncMhayenAsItuNðPaB 1240C RtUv)anbMEbøgeGaykøayeTACaTwkenAsItuNðPaB 450C. 9 düaRkampas TMnak;TMngTUeTArvagpasrwg pasrav nigpas]sµ½nKWRbesIrbMputRtUv)antagedayRkab eTalmYyEdleKeGayeQµaHfa düaRkampasdüaRkampasdüaRkampasdüaRkampas. düaRkampasKWsegçbBIlkçxNÐEdlsarFatu mYymanGtßiPaBCaGgÁFaturwg rav rW]sµ½n. enAkñúgEpñkenH eyIgnwgBIPakSaRtYs²BIdüaRkampas rbs;TwknigkabUnDIGuksIut. 9>1 Twk rUbTI40(a)bgðajBIpasdüaRkamrbs;Twk. RkamenaHRtUv)anEckecjCabIEpñkEdlEpñk nImYy²tageGaypassuT§mYy. bnÞat;EdlEBaJkEpñkBIrbgðajBIlkçxNÐEdlpasTaMgBIrGac manGtßiPaBCalMnwg. ]TahrN_ ExSekagrvagpasrav nigpascMhaybgðajBIbMErbMrYlsMBaF cMhayCamYynwgsItuNðPaB. ¬eRbobeFobExSekagenHCamYynwgrUbTI35¦. ExSekagBIreTot bgðajdUcKñanUvlkçxNÐsMrab;lMnwgrvag TwkkknigTwkrav nigrvagTwkkknigcMhayTwk. ¬cUrkt; sMKal;faExSRBMEdnrwg-ravmanRkabeRTtGviC¢man. cMNucEdlExSekagTaMgbICYbKñaeKeGay eQµaHfa cMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucRbsBVRbsBVRbsBVRbsBVbIbIbIbI EdlCalkçxNÐEtmYyEdlpasTaMgbIGacsßitenA kñúgPaBlMnwgCamYy Kña. sMrab;TwkcMNucenHKWsßitenA 0,010C nigsMBaF 0,006 atm. düaRkampasGaceGayeyIgTsSn_TayBIbMErbMrYlcMNucrlaynigcMNucrMBuHrbs; sarFatumYyEdlCalT§plénbMErbMrYlrbs;sMBaFxageRkA. eyIgk¾GacrMBwgTukCamunnUvTisén GnþrkalpasEdlekIteLIgedaysarbMErbMrYlsItuNðPaBnigsMBaFEdr. cMNucrlaynigcMNuc rMBuHFmµtarbs;TwkenAsMBaF 1atm KW 00C nig 1000C tamerog. etImanGVIekIteLIgRbsinebI cMNucrlaynigcMNucrMBuHekIteLIgenAsMBaFepSgeRkABIenHeTotenaH? rUb40(b) bgðajBIkar ekIneLIgénsMBaFelIsBI 1atm nwgnaMeGaysItuNðPaBrMBuHrbs;vamankarekIneLIgnigcMNuc


11-54

rlayrbs;vanwgmankarfycuH. karfycuHénsMBaFeFVIeGaycMNucrMBuHrbs;vafycuH ehIy cMNucrlayrbs;vamankarekIneLIg.

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI40404040³³³³ (a)düaRkampasrbsdüaRkampasrbsdüaRkampasrbsdüaRkampasrbs;;;;TwkTwkTwkTwk.... bnÞatbnÞatbnÞatbnÞat;;;;ditditditditnImYynImYynImYynImYy²²²²rvagpasrvagpasrvagpasrvagpasbBabBabBabBaööööakakakak;;;;BIBIBIBIlkçlkçlkçlkçxNÐsMBaFnigxNÐsMBaFnigxNÐsMBaFnigxNÐsMBaFnig sIsIsIsItuNðPaBEdlpasTaMgtuNðPaBEdlpasTaMgtuNðPaBEdlpasTaMgtuNðPaBEdlpasTaMgBIBIBIBIrGacmanrGacmanrGacmanrGacmanGtßiPaBCaGtßiPaBCaGtßiPaBCaGtßiPaBCalMnwglMnwglMnwglMnwg. . . . cMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucEdlpasTaMgEdlpasTaMgEdlpasTaMgEdlpasTaMgbbbbIIIIGacmanGtßiPaBGacmanGtßiPaBGacmanGtßiPaBGacmanGtßiPaB CaCaCaCalMnwglMnwglMnwglMnwg(0,006 atm nignignignig 0,010C)KWKWKWKW RtUvRtUvRtUvRtUv))))aneKeGayeQµaHfaaneKeGayeQµaHfaaneKeGayeQµaHfaaneKeGayeQµaHfacMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucRbsBVRbsBVRbsBVRbsBVbIbIbIbI. . . . (b) düaRkampasdüaRkampasdüaRkampasdüaRkampas enHRenHRenHRenHR))))abababab;;;;eyIgfakarekIneyIgfakarekIneyIgfakarekIneyIgfakarekIneLIgénsMBaeLIgénsMBaeLIgénsMBaeLIgénsMBaFrbsFrbsFrbsFrbs;;;;TwkkkeFVIeGaycMMNucrlayrbsTwkkkeFVIeGaycMMNucrlayrbsTwkkkeFVIeGaycMMNucrlayrbsTwkkkeFVIeGaycMMNucrlayrbs;;;;vaTabnigRvaTabnigRvaTabnigRvaTabnigR))))abababab;;;;eyIgeyIgeyIgeyIg fakarekIneLIgénsMBaFrbsfakarekIneLIgénsMBaFrbsfakarekIneLIgénsMBaFrbsfakarekIneLIgénsMBaFrbs;;;;TwkravGaceFVIeGayTwkravGaceFVIeGayTwkravGaceFVIeGayTwkravGaceFVIeGaycMNuccMNuccMNuccMNucrMBuHrbsrMBuHrbsrMBuHrbsrMBuHrbs;;;;vaekIneLIgvaekIneLIgvaekIneLIgvaekIneLIg....

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI41414141³³³³ düaRkampasrbsdüaRkampasrbsdüaRkampasrbsdüaRkampasrbs;;;;kabUnDIGuksIutkabUnDIGuksIutkabUnDIGuksIutkabUnDIGuksIut. . . . cUrcMNaMfacUrcMNaMfacUrcMNaMfacUrcMNaMfa ExSRBMEdnExSRBMEdnExSRBMEdnExSRBMEdnrvagrwgrvagrwgrvagrwgrvagrwg----ravravravravmamamamannnnRkabeRTtviC¢manRkabeRTtviC¢manRkabeRTtviC¢manRkabeRTtviC¢man. . . . ppppasravminasravminasravminasravmin manmanmanmansßirPaBenAsMBaF sßirPaBenAsMBaF sßirPaBenAsMBaF sßirPaBenAsMBaF 5,2atm dUecñH manEtpasrwgdUecñH manEtpasrwgdUecñH manEtpasrwgdUecñH manEtpasrwgnignignignig cMhayeTEdlmanGtcMhayeTEdlmanGtcMhayeTEdlmanGtcMhayeTEdlmanGtßiPaBkñúglkßiPaBkñúglkßiPaBkñúglkßiPaBkñúglkçxNÐbriçxNÐbriçxNÐbriçxNÐbriyakasyakasyakasyakas....

rUbTIrUbTIrUbTIrUbTI42424242³³³³ kkkkñúglñúglñúglñúglkçxNÐbriykçxNÐbriykçxNÐbriykçxNÐbriyakasakasakasakaskakakakabUnDIGuksIutrwgminbUnDIGuksIutrwgminbUnDIGuksIutrwgminbUnDIGuksIutrwgmin rlayeT rlayeT rlayeT rlayeT vaRKanvaRKanvaRKanvaRKan;;;;EtehIrEtehIrEtehIrEtehIr. ]. ]. ]. ]sµ½nkabUnDIGuksIutsµ½nkabUnDIGuksIutsµ½nkabUnDIGuksIutsµ½nkabUnDIGuksIutRtCakRtCakRtCakRtCak; ; ; ; (-78,50C) eFVIeGaycMheFVIeGaycMheFVIeGaycMheFVIeGaycMhayTwkkCaejIsayTwkkCaejIsayTwkkCaejIsayTwkkCaejIsnigbgáCaG½BVnigbgáCaG½BVnigbgáCaG½BVnigbgáCaG½BV....

CMBUkTI11

11-55

9>2 kabUnDIGuksIut düaRkampasrbs;kabUnDIGuksIut¬rUbTI41¦ CaTUeTAKWdUcKñaeTAnwgdüaRkampasrbs;Twk Edr EtvamankrNIelIkElgd¾sMxan;mYy KWRkabeRTténExSekagrvagGgÁFaturavnigGgÁFaturwgKW viC¢man. karBitkrNIelIkElgenHmanesÞIrRKb;sarFatuTaMgGs;. TwkmanlkçN³epSgBIeK BIeRBaHTwkkkRsalCagTwkrav. cMNucRbsBVbIénkabUnDIGuksIutKWenAsItuNðPaB –570C nig sMBaF 5,2 atm. karsegátd¾Ck;citþGacRtUv)aneFVIGMBIdüaRkampasenAkñúgrUbTI41. dUcGñk)aneXIjrYc mkehIy pasravTaMgRsugGaRs½yelIsMBaFbriyakas dUecñH vaminGaceTArYceTcMeBaHkabUn DIGuksIutrwgkñúgkarrMlayenAsMBaF 1 atm. b:uEnþ enAeBlEdlCO2rwgRtUv)ankMedArhUtdl; sItuNðPaB–780C enAsMBaF1atm vanwgehIrCaehIrCacMhay. tamBitkabUnDIGuksIutrwgRtUv)an eKeGayeQµaHfa Twkkks¶Üt BIeRBaHvaemIleTAdUcTwkkkGBa©wg ehIyvaminrlayeT¬rUb42¦. edaysarEtlkçN³EbbenHTwkkks¶ÜtmanGtßRbeyaCn_dUcFatueFVIeGayRtCak;.

KImIGnuvtþn_ kares¶kares¶kares¶kares¶aaaarsu‘tenAelIkMBUlPñM cRgaánsMBaF nigkarCirsu‘tenAelIkMBUlPñM cRgaánsMBaF nigkarCirsu‘tenAelIkMBUlPñM cRgaánsMBaF nigkarCirsu‘tenAelIkMBUlPñM cRgaánsMBaF nigkarCi³³³³sIÁrGilelITwksIÁrGilelITwksIÁrGilelITwksIÁrGilelITwkkkkkkkkk

paslMnwgRtUv)anrg\TiæBlBIsMBaFxageRkA. eyageTAtamlkçxNÐbriyakascMNuH rMBuH nigcMNuckMNkrbs;TwkRbEhlCagakecjBI 100 GgSaes nig 0 GgSaeserogKañ. kares¶kares¶kares¶kares¶aaaarsu‘trsu‘trsu‘trsu‘teeeenAelIkMBUlPñMnAelIkMBUlPñMnAelIkMBUlPñMnAelIkMBUlPñM ]bmafaGñkeTIbEt)aneLIgeTAelIkMBUlPMñ Pike’s Peak enArdæxULÚra:dU. edImI,CYybegIán kMlaMgbnÞab;BIkargarEdleRbIkMlaMgeRcIn GñksMerccitþes¶ars‘utmYy ehIybriePaKva. GIVEdlKYr eGayPa£k;epI¥lenaH KWTwkhak;dUcCaBuHelOnCagFmµta bu:EnþbnÞab;BITwkBuHry³eBl10

naTIeRkaymks‘utenAEtminTan;qi¥nenAeLIy. cMeNHdwgxøH²GMBI paslMnwgpaslMnwgpaslMnwgpaslMnwg GacCYyGñkeGay rYcputBIkarxkcitþedaykarbMEbkemIlsu‘tminTan;q¥in(CaBiessRbsinebIvaCasu‘tEtmYyEdlGñk)anykmkCamYy). kMBUlPñM Pike’s PeakmankMBs;14,000hVItBIkMritTwksmuRT. enA lkçxNÐenH sMBaFbriyakasKWmanEt 0.6 Gat;mU:EsV‘b:ueNaÑH. tamry³rUbTI40 eyIgdwgfa cMNuHrMBuHrbs;TwkfycuHCamYynwgkarfycuHénsMBaF dUecñHTwkEdlsißtenAkEnøgmansMBaF TabCagenHnwgBuHenAsItuNðPaBRbEhl86GgSaes. eTaHCaya:gNak¾eday vaminEmnCaGMeBIénkarBuH b:uEnþvaCabrimaNkMedARtUv)anpþl;eGayeTAsu‘tEdlkMBugcMGin.


11-56

brimaNkMedAEdlRtUv)anpþl;eGayKWsmamaRteTAnwgsItuNðPaBrbs;Twk. cMeBaHehtuplenH vanwgcMNayeBlyUrCageRcInKWRbEhlCa 30naTI edIm,Iesa¶rsu‘trbs;Gñk. cRcRcRcRggggááááaaaansMBaFnsMBaFnsMBaFnsMBaF \TiæBlsMBaFeTAelIcMNucrMBuHk¾pþl;karBnül;BImUlehtuEdlcRgaánsMBaFGacsnSMeBl enAkñúgpÞH)ay. cRgaánsMBaFKWCakugtWn½rbiTCitEdlGaceGaycMhayTwkecjEtenAeBlsMBaF ekInelIskMritCak;lak;. sMBaFenAelITwkkñúgcRgaán KWCaplbUkénsMBaFbriyakasnigsMBaF cMhayTwk. CalTæpl TwkenAkñúgcRgaánsMBaFnwgBuHenAsItuNðPaBx<s;Cag100GgSaes ehIy GaharenAkñúgenaHnwgekþACag ehIyqi¥nelOnCag. karCiHsIÁrGilelITwkkkkarCiHsIÁrGilelITwkkkkarCiHsIÁrGilelITwkkkkarCiHsIÁrGilelITwkkk

sMBaFRtUvsMBaFRtUvsMBaFRtUvsMBaFRtUv))))aneRbIRaneRbIRaneRbIRaneRbIR))))asasasas;;;;edayGñkCiHsIedayGñkCiHsIedayGñkCiHsIedayGñkCiHsIÁelITwkkkÁelITwkkkÁelITwkkkÁelITwkkkbBa©bBa©bBa©bBa© úHúHúHúHcMNucrlayrbscMNucrlayrbscMNucrlayrbscMNucrlayrbs;;;;vavavava ehIyRsTabehIyRsTabehIyRsTabehIyRsTab;;;;esIþg esIþg esIþg esIþg énTwkEdlénTwkEdlénTwkEdlénTwkEdl))))anbegIátenABIeRkammuxEsanbegIátenABIeRkammuxEsanbegIátenABIeRkammuxEsanbegIátenABIeRkammuxEs,,,,keCIg edIrtYCaGñkrMGilrvagsIÁ nigTwkkkkeCIg edIrtYCaGñkrMGilrvagsIÁ nigTwkkkkeCIg edIrtYCaGñkrMGilrvagsIÁ nigTwkkkkeCIg edIrtYCaGñkrMGilrvagsIÁ nigTwkkk.... \LÚvenH eyIgKitGMBIlMnwgTwk-Twkkk. RkabeRTtGviC¢manénExSekagGgÁFaturwg-GgÁFaturavmann½yfacMNucrlayrbs;TwkkkfycuHCamYynwgkarekIneLIgénsMBaFxageRkA (rUbTI40). )atuPUtenHeFVIeGaykarCiHsIÁrGilelITwkkkGaceTArYc. mnusS130-lbGaceRbIR)as; sMBaFsmmUlnwg500Gat;mU:EsV‘eTAelITwkkk edaysarEtEs,keCIgCiHsIÁmanGñkCiHEdlman rUbragesIþg. cUrcaMfasMBaFKWCakMlaMgkñúgmYyxñatépÞ. ehtudUecñH enAsItuNðPaBTabCag 0GgSaresTwkkkEdlsißtenAeRkamEs,keCIgrlay ehIyRsTab;esIþgénTwk)ankekIteLIgenA BIeRkamEs,keCIgrbs;GñkCiHsÁIelITwkkk. karKNna bgðajfacMNucrlayrbs;TwkkkfycuH 7.4 x 10 -3 0 C eBlsMBaFekIneLIg 1 Gat;mU:Es‘V. dUecñH eBlsMBaF500Gat;mU:Es‘VRtUv)aneRbI edayGñkCiHsIÁelITwkkkcMNucrlayFøak;cuHdl;eTA – (500 x 7.4 x10-3)rW -3.7 GgSaes. b:uEnþ

CMBUkTI11

11-57

karCiHsIÁrGilelITwkkkenAxageRkAGacRbRBwtþeTA)an eTaHbIsItuNðPaBFøak;cuHeRkam-20

GgSaes edaysarkarsgát;KñarvagmuxEs,keCIgCamYynwgTwkkkCYyeFVIeGayTwkkkrlay. segçbsmIkarKnøwH

- 2d sinθ =nλ ( 1) smIkarrbs; Bragg sMrab;KNnacMgay rvagbøg;rbs;GatUmkñúgbNþajRkam.

-ln p = -RT

vap∆Η+ C ( 2) smIkar Clausius- Clapeyron edIm,IkMNt;

vapH∆ rbs;GgÁFaturav.

- ln 2

1

P

P=

Rvap∆Η

−

21

21

TT

TT( 5) edIm,IKNna vapH∆ sMBaFcMhay rWcMNucrMBuH

énGgÁFaturav.

- subH∆ = fusH∆ + vapH∆ ( 6) karGnuvtþc,ab; Hess. karsegçbRBwtþkarN_nigbBaØtiþ 1. RKb;sarFatuTaMgGs;manGtßiPaBkñúgsNæanmYykñúgcMeNamsNæanbI³ rwg rav b¤]sµ½n. PaBxusKñacMbgrvagPaBravnigPaB]sµ½n KWcMgayEjkm:UelKul.

2. kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulKWCakMlaMgrvagm:UelKul b¤rvagm:UelKulnigGIuy:ug. CaTUeTA kMlaMgTMnaj TaMgenHKWexSayCagkMlaMgsm<½n§.

3. kMlaMgDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul nigkMlaMgGIuy:ug-DIb:UlTajm:UelKulEdlmanm:Um:g;DIb:Ul eTAnwgm:UelKul b:UElrepSgeTotb¤GIuy:ug.

4. kMlaMgr):ayKWCalT§plénm:Um:g;DIb:UlbbeNÑaHGasnñ EdlRtUv)anGnÞgenAkñúgm:UelKulFmµta minb:UEl. visalPaBEdlm:Um:g;DIb:UlGacRtUv)anGnÞgenAkñúgm:UelKulehAfaPaBb:Ulkmµ. BaküfakMlaMgv:an;dWvlS (Van der Waals) KWsMedAelIDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul DIb:Ul-GnÞgDIb:Ulnig kMlaMgr):ay.

5. karcgsm<½n§GIuRdUEsnKWCaGnþrkmµDIb:Ul-DIb:UlxøaMgKYrsmrvagsm<½n§b:UElEdlmanGatUm GIuRdUEsnCamYynwgGatUm O N b ¤ F eGLicRtUGviC¢man. sm<½n§GIuRdUEsnrvagm:UelKulTwk KW xøaMgkøaNas;.


11-58

6. GgÁFaturavmanTMenarkMNt;TMrg;FrNImaRtEdlbRgYmépÞrbs;va. tMNwgépÞKWCafamBlEdl RtUvkaredIm,IBRgIképÞrbs;GgÁFaturav. kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulxøaMgnaM[tMNwgépÞkan;EtFM.

7. PaBGn§ilKWCargVas;PaBF¶n;rbs;GgÁFaturaveTAnwglMhUr. PaBGn§wlfycuHCamYynwgkMenIn sItuNðPaB.

8. m:UelKulTwkenAkñúgPaBCaGgÁFaturwgbegáIt)anCabNþajvimaRtbIEdlGatUmGuksIuEsnnImYy²cgsm<½n§kUv:aLg;CamYynwgGatUmGIuRdUEsnBIr nigcgsm<½n§GIuRdUEsneTAnwgGatUmGIuRdUEsnBIr. TMrg;edayELkenH Bnül;BIehtukarN_EdlTwkkkRsalCagTwkrav EdlCalkçN³Gac[ CIvitGacrs;ran)anenAeRkamTwkkkkñúgbwgnigRtBaMgenAmanGakasFatuRtCak;.

9. TwkKWsm\tex©aHeTAnwgtYnaTIeGkULÚsuIrbs;va edaykMedAyfaRbePTrbs;vaEdlCalkçN³ RtUv)anpþl;edaysm<½n§GIuRdUEsnd¾xøaMgrbs;va. brmaNTwkeRcInGacCYyeFVI[GakasFatu rbs;EpndIsmrmülµmedaykarbeBa©jb¤RsUbkMedAbrimaNeRcInCamYynwgkarERbRbYl sItuNðPaBrbs;TwkEtbnþicbnþÜcb:ueNÑaH.

10. GgÁFaturwgTaMgGs;GacmansNæanCaRkam ¬CamYynwgTMrg;erobryénGatUm GIuy:ugb¤ m:UelKul¦ b¤CanisNæan ¬KµanTMrg;erobry¦. EkvKWCa]TahrN_mYyrbs;GgÁFaturwg nisNæan.

11. ÉktaTMrg;RKwHrbs;GgÁFaturwgRkamKWCaftÉktaEdltMerobKñadEdl² edIm,IbegáIt)anCa bNþajRkamvimaRtbI. DIRhVak;súüúgkaMrsµI X )anpþl;nUvcMeNHdwgy:ageRcIndl;eyIgGMBI TMrg;Rkam.

12. RbePTbYny:agrbs;RkamnigkMlaMgEdlP¢ab;PaKl¥itrbs;vaCamYyKñaKW 1-RkamGIuy:ug EdlP¢ab;Kñaedaysm<½n§GIuy:ug 2-RkamkUva:Lg;EdlPöab;Kñaedaysm<½n§kUv:aLg; 3-Rkamm:UelKulEdlPöab;KñaedaykMlaMgv:andWvalS (Van der Waals) nig b¤sm<½n§GIuRdUEsn nig 4-Rkamelah³EdlPöab;Kñaedaysm<½n§elah³.

13. GgÁFaturavenAkñúgepIgbiTCitbegáItCalMnwgDINamicrvagrMhYtnigkMNejIs. sMBaFcMhay eTAelIGgÁFaturaveRkamlkçxNÐTaMgenHKWsMBaFcMhaylMnwgEdlCaeRcInEtsMedAeTAelI sMBaFcMhayy:agsamBaØ.

14. enAcMNucrMBuH sMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturavesµInwgsMBaFxageRkA. kMedAm:UElénkarbgðÜÜt GgÁFaturavKWCafamBlEdlRtUvkaredIm,IbgðÜt1mU:lrbs;GgÁFaturav. eKGackMNt;va)an edaykarvas;sMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturavCaGnuKmn_nwgsItuNðPaB nigRtUv)ankMNt;eday

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kareRbIsmIkarClausius-Clapeyron. kMedAm:UElénkarrlayrbs;GgÁFaturwgKWCafamBl EdlRtUvkaredIm,IrMlayGgÁFaturwg1m:Ul.

15. sMrab;ral;sarFatumansItuNðPaBmYyehAfasItuNðPaBRKITic Edlx<s;CagenHpas]sµ½n minGacRtUv)aneFVIkøayeTACaGgÁFatu rav)aneT.

16. TMnak;TMngrvagpasrbs;sarFatueTalRtUv)anbgðajedaydüaRkampas EdltMbn;nImYy² tag[passuT§ nigRBMEdnrvagtMbn;bgðajBIsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFEdlpasTaMgBIrmanlMnwg. enAcMNucRbsBVbI pasTaMgenaHsßitenACalMnwg.

BaküKnwøH CMnabCMnabCMnabCMnab;;;;si¥tsi¥tsi¥tsi¥t Adhesion 11-13

GgÁFaturwgnisNaænGgÁFaturwgnisNaænGgÁFaturwgnisNaænGgÁFaturwgnisNaæn Amorphous solid 11-35

cMNucrMBuHcMNucrMBuHcMNucrMBuHcMNucrMBuH Boiling point 11-46

bgÁúMhabbgÁúMhabbgÁúMhabbgÁúMhab;;;; Closest packing 11-22

PaBhabPaBhabPaBhabPaBhab;;;; Cohesion 11-13

kMNejIskMNejIskMNejIskMNejIs Condensation 11-42

cMnYnkUGrDINasüúgcMnYnkUGrDINasüúgcMnYnkUGrDINasüúgcMnYnkUGrDINasüúg Coordination number 11-20

sMBaFsMBaFsMBaFsMBaFRKITicRKITicRKITicRKITic Critical pressure- Pc 11-48

sItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBsItuNðPaBRKITicRKITicRKITicRKITic Critical temperature- Tc 11-47

GgÁFaturwgCaRkamGgÁFaturwgCaRkamGgÁFaturwgCaRkamGgÁFaturwgCaRkam Crystalline solid 11-17

karbgákkarbgákkarbgákkarbgák Deposition 11-52

kMlaMgDIbUkMlaMgDIbUkMlaMgDIbUkMlaMgDIbU:: ::llll----DIbDIbDIbDIb:::: UlUlUlUl Dipole-dipole forces 11-4

kMlaMgrkMlaMgrkMlaMgrkMlaMgr))))aaaa:: ::yyyy Dispersion forces 11-7

lMnwgDINamiclMnwgDINamiclMnwgDINamiclMnwgDINamic Dynamic equilibrium 11-42

sMBaFcMhaylMnwgsMBaFcMhaylMnwgsMBaFcMhaylMnwgsMBaFcMhaylMnwg Equilibrium vapor pressure 11-42

rMhYtrMhYtrMhYtrMhYt Evaporation 11-40

cMNuckMNkcMNuckMNkcMNuckMNkcMNuckMNk Freezing point 11-49

EkvEkvEkvEkv Glass 11-36

smsmsmsm<<<< ½næGIuRdÚEsn½næGIuRdÚEsn½næGIuRdÚEsn½næGIuRdÚEsn Hydrogen bond 11-9

DIbDIbDIbDIb:::: UlGnÞgUlGnÞgUlGnÞgUlGnÞg Induced dipole 11-5


11-60

kMlaMgGnþrmUkMlaMgGnþrmUkMlaMgGnþrmUkMlaMgGnþrmU:: ::elKulelKulelKulelKul Intermolecular forces 11-3

kMlaMkMlaMkMlaMkMlaMggggkñúgkñúgkñúgkñúgmUmUmUmU:: ::elKulelKulelKulelKul Intramolecular forces 11-3

kMlaMgGIuykMlaMgGIuykMlaMgGIuykMlaMgGIuy:::: ugugugug----DIbDIbDIbDIb:::: UlUlUlUl Ion-dipole forces 11-4

cMNucrlaycMNucrlaycMNucrlaycMNucrlay Melting point 11-49

kMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlUlUlUlénénénénrlayrlayrlayrlay Molar heat of fusion 11-51

kMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlénrMehIr UlénrMehIr UlénrMehIr UlénrMehIr (ΔHsub) Molar heat of sublimation 11-52

kMedAmkMedAmkMedAmkMedAm:::: UlénUlénUlénUlénkarbgkarbgkarbgkarbgðÜðÜ ðÜðÜtttt (ΔHvap) Molar heat of vaporation 11-42

paspaspaspas Phase 11-2

bMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpas Phase changes 11-37

düaRkamdüaRkamdüaRkamdüaRkampaspaspaspas Phase diagram 11-54

rMehIrrMehIrrMehIrrMehIr Sublimation 11-52

karkarkarkareFIVeGayRtCakeFIVeGayRtCakeFIVeGayRtCakeFIVeGayRtCak;;;;xøaMgxøaMgxøaMgxøaMg Supercooling 11-52

tMNwgépÞbtMNwgépÞbtMNwgépÞbtMNwgépÞb::::HHHH Surface tension 11-12

cMNuHcMNuHcMNuHcMNuHRbsBVbIRbsBVbIRbsBVbIRbsBVbI triple point 11-54

fffftÉktatÉktatÉktatÉkta Unit cell 11-18

kMlaMg kMlaMg kMlaMg kMlaMg van der Waal Van de Waals forces 11-4

karbgðÜtkarbgðÜtkarbgðÜtkarbgðÜt Vaporation 11-40

PaBGniælPaBGniælPaBGniælPaBGniæl Viscosity 11-13

DIRDIRDIRDIRhVahVahVahVakkkk;;;;süúgkaMrsIµGiucsüúgkaMrsIµGiucsüúgkaMrsIµGiucsüúgkaMrsIµGiuc X-ray diffraction 11-26

sMNYrniglMhat; kMlaMgGnþrmUkMlaMgGnþrmUkMlaMgGnþrmUkMlaMgGnþrmU:: ::elKulelKulelKulelKul sMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeron 1. cUreGay]TahrN_sMrab;RbePTnImYy²énkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul. k> GnþrkmµDIb:Ul-DIb:Ul x> GnþrkmµµDIb:Ul-DIb:UlGnÞg K> GnþrkmµGIuy:ug-DIb:Ul X> kMlaMgr):ay g> kMlaMg Van der Waals . 2. cUrBnül;Bakü :PaBb:Ulkmµ :etIm:UelKulRbePTNamanPaBb:Ulkmµx<s;? etIvamanTMnak;TMng GVIrvagPaBb:UElkmµnigkMlaMgGnþrkmµm:UelKul?

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3. cUrBnül;BIPaBxusKñarvagm:Um:g;DIb:UlGciéRnþy_nigm:Um:g;DIb:UlbeNþaHGsnñ? 4. cUreGayPsþútagxøH²EdlbBa¢ak;fa GatUmnigm:UelKulTaMgGs;mankMlaMgTMnajKñaeTAvij eTAmk. 5. etIlkçN³rUbGVIxøHEdleyIgykmkeRbobeFobBIPaBxøaMgénkMlaMgGnþrkmµm:UelKulenAkñúg GgÁFaturwgnigGgÁFaturav? 6. etIFatumYyNaxøHEdlcUlrYmenAkñúgsMB½n§GIuRdUEsn? ehtuGVI)anCamanEtGIuRdUEsnmYyKt; kñúgRbePTGnþrkmµenH? lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 7. smasFatu Br2 nig ICl mancMnYneGLicRtugdUcKña b:uEnþ Br2mancMNucrlayenAsItuNðPaB

–7,20C ehIy ICl mancMNucrlayenAsItuNðPaB 27,20C. cUrBnül;. 8. RbsinebIGñkrs;enAtMbn; Alaska etIGñkrkSa]sµ½nmYyNakñúgcMeNam]sµ½nteTAenHeGayenA eRkApÞHenArdUvrga? cUrBnül;ehtuGVI. emtan(CH4), RbU):an(C3H8), rWb‘uytan(C4H10). 9. smasFatupSMGIuRdUEsnénFatuenAkñúgRkum 4A nigcMNucrMBuHrbs;va KW CH4 –1620C, SiH4

-1120C, GeH4 -88 0C nig SnH4 -520C. cUrBnül;BIkMeNIncMNucrMBuHBI CH4 eTA SnH4? 10. cUrerobrab;BIRbePTkMlaMgGnþrkmµrvagm:UelKulenAkñúgRbePTKImIxageRkamenH. k> bg;Esn (C6H6) x> CH3Cl K> PF3 X> NaCl g> CS2 . 11. Gam:Uj:ak;CaGñkpþl;GIuRdUEsnpgnigCaGñkTTYlGIuRdUEsnenAkñúgkMNsMB½n§GIuRdUEsn. cUrKUs düaRkamEdlbgðajBIsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnrbs;m:UelKulGam:Uj:ak;CamYym:UelKulGam:Uj:ak;BIr epSgeTot. 12. etIRbePTKImImYyNaxøHkñúgcMeNamRbePTKImIxageRkamEdlGaccgsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnkñúg cMeNamxøÜnva)an? k> C2H6 x> HI K> KF X> BeH2 g> CH3COOH 13. cUrtMerobsmasFatuteTAenHeTAtamlMdab;kMeNIncMNucrMBuH³ RbF, CO2, CH3OH,

CH3Br. cUrBnül;BIehtuplrbs;Gñk. 14. DIeGTIleGETrmancMNucrMBuH 34,50C ehIyb‘uytaNulmancMNucrMBuH 1170C:


11-62

smasFatuTaMgBIrenHmancMnYnnigRbePTGatUmdUcKña. cUrBnül;PaBxusKñaéncMNucrMBuHrbs;va. 15. etIKUNakñúgcMeNamKUénRkumTaMgGs;xageRkamEdlGñkrMBwgfavamancMNucrMBuHx<s;Cag? k> O2 nig N2 x> SO2 nig CO2 K> HF nig HI

16. etIsarFatuNakñúgcMeNamKUxageRkamEdlGñkrMBwgfamancMNucrMBuHxøaMgCag? cUrBnül;ehtuGVI. k> Ne rW Xe x> CO2 rW CS2 K> CH4 rW Cl2 g> F2 rW LiF c> NH3 rW PH3

17. cUrBnül;tamn½ykMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul ehtuGVI)anCa k> NH3 mancMNucrMBuHx<s;Cag CH4

ehIyehtuGVI)anCa KCl mancMNucrlayx<s;Cag I2. 18. etIkMlaMgTMnajRbePTNaEdleFVIeGay k> Twkkkrlay x> m:UelKulRbUmBuH K> GIuy:Utrwgrlay nig X> bMEbkF2 eTACaGatUm F ?

19. smasFatuxageRkamenHmanrUbmnþdUcKña KW(C4H10). etIsmasFatumYyNaEdlGñkKitfa mancMNucrMBuHx<s;Cag?

20. cUrBnül;BIPaBxusKñaéncMNucrlayrbs;smasFatuxageRkamenH.

¬manEtsmasFatumYyeTEdlGacbegáItsMB½n§Gnþrm:UelKulGIuRdUEsn)an.¦ lkçNlkçNlkçNlkçN³³³³énGgÁFaturavénGgÁFaturavénGgÁFaturavénGgÁFaturav sMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwksMNYrrMlwkemeronemeronemeronemeron 21. cUrBnül;faetIehtuGVI)anCaGgÁFaturavminGacbENÑn)andUc]sµ½n>? 22. dUcemþcEdlehAfatMNwgépÞb:H? etIkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulmanTMnak;TMngGVICamYynwgtMNwg épÞb:H?

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23. karBiteTaHBICaEdkEfbF¶n;CagTwkk¾eday k¾EpøLamEdleFVIBIEdkEfbGacGENþtenAelITwk )anEdr. ehtuGVI?

24. cUreRbITwknig)artmkeFVICa]TahrN_edIm,IBnül;BICMnab;s¥it nigPaBhab;? 25. kalNaeKcak;Twkdak;EkveGayeBjdl;EKmmat;Ekv eBlenaHTwkminhUrecjeLIy. cUrBnül;.

26. cUrKUsdüaRkamEdlbgðajBIskmµPaBkUnbMBg;rbs; k> Twk x> )artenAkñúgbMBg;bIEdlman kaMxusKña.

27. GVICaPaBGn§il? cUrniyayBITMnak;TMngrvagkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulnigPaBGn§il. 28. ehtuGVI)anCaPaBGn§ilrbs;GgÁFaturavfycuHkalNasItuNðPaBekIneLIg? 29. ehtuGVI)anCaTwkkkRsalCagTwk? 30. TueyaTwkxageRkApÞH)anRtUvdak;bgðÚrTwkrWdak;eGaydac;BIeKenArdUvrgarkñúgGakasFatu RtCak;. ehtuGIV?

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 31. cUrBüakrN_emIlGgÁFaturavxageRkamenHfaetIGgÁFaturavmYYyNamantMnwgépÞb:HFMCag³ eGtaNul rWDIemTIleGET.

32. cUrTsSn_TayBIPaBGn§ilrbs;eGTIlELnKøIkulEdlTak;TgeTAnwgeGtaNulnigKøIkul ¬emIltarag3¦

CH2 – OH CH2 – OH

TMrgTMrgTMrgTMrg;;;;RkamRkamRkamRkam sMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeron 33. cUreGayniymn½yBaküdUcteTAenH³ GgÁFaturwgRkam cMNucbNþaj ftÉkta cMnYn kUGrDINasüúg nigkarpÁúMCitbMput.

34. cUrBIBN’naBITMrg;FrNImaRtrbs;ftKUbteTAenH³ KUbsamBaØ KUbmanp©itenAépÞmux nigKUb manp©itenAxagkñúg. etITMrg;NakñúgcMeNamTMrg;TaMgGs;enHEdlpþl;eGayGatUmRbePT dUcKñanUvdg;sIuetx<s;CageK? nigdg;sIuetNaTabCageK?

35. cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;PaBGgÁFaturwgkñúgn½yRbePTRkamrbs;FatuenAkñúgxYbTI3éntaragxYb. cUrTsSn_TayBITMenaréncMNucrlaynigcMNucrMBuHrbs;va.


11-64

36. cMNucrlayénGuksIutrbs;FatuenAkñúgxYbTI3RtUv)anpþl;kñuúgvg;Rkck³ Na2O(1275oC)

MgO(2800oC) Al2O3(2045oC) SiO(1610oC) P4O10(580oC)

SO3(16,8oC) Cl2O7(-91,5oC) cUrEbgEckGgÁFaturwgTaMgenHeTAtamRbePTRkam. lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 37. etIcMnYnkUGrDINasüúgénEsV‘nImYy²esµIb:unµanenAkñúg ¬k¦ftKUbsamBaØ ¬x¦ftKUbman p©itenAépÞmux ¬K¦ftKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúg. snµtfaEs‘VTaMgGs;enaHKWdUcKña.

38. KNnacMnYnEsV‘EdlGacRtUv)anrkeXIjenAcMNucbNþajkñúgKUbsamBaØ KUbmanp©itenA xagkñúg KUbmanp©itenAépÞmux. snµtfaEsV‘TaMgGs;enaHdUcKña.

39. elah³EdkeLIgRkamenAkñúgbNþajKUbmYy. RbEvgEKmftÉktarbs;vaKW287pm. dg;sIuet Edk KW 7,87g/cm3. etImanGatUmEdkb:unµanenAkñúgmYyftÉkta?

40. elah³ Ba eLIgRkakmenAkñúgbNþajKUbEdlmanp©itenAxagkñúg ¬GatUm Ba KWenAEtRtg; cMNucbNþaj¦ RbEvgEKmftÉktaKW502pm ehIydgsIueténelah³enaHKW3,50g/cm3. edayeRbITinñn½yenH cUrKNnacMnYnGav:UkaRdU¬tMruy³ dMbUgKNnamaDCaCm3 EdlmankñúgmYy m:Ulrbs;GatUm Ba kñúgftÉktaenaH. bnÞab;mkeTotKNnamaDKitCa cm3 EdlpÞúkmYy GatUm Ba kñúgftÉktaenaH. edaysnµtfa 68% énftÉktaenaHKWmanGatUm Ba¦.

41. v:aNadüÚm (V) eLIgRkamenAkñúgbNþajKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúg ¬GatUm V TaMgGs;sßitenA EtRtg;cMNucbNþajeT¦. etIGatUm V b:unµanmanenAkñúgmYyftÉkta?

42. GWr:UBüÚm (Eu) eLIgRkambNþajKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúg¬GatUm Eu TaMgGs;sßitenARtg; cMNucbNþajeT¦. dg;sIuetén Eu KW 5,26g/cm3. cUrKNnaRbEvgEKmrbs;ftÉkta enaHCaBIkUEm:Rt (pm).

43. Si RkammanTMrg;CaKUb. RbEvgEKmftÉktarbs;vaKW 543 pm. dg;sIuetrbs;GgÁFaturwg enaH 2,33g/cm3. cUrKNnacMnYnGatUm Si kñúgmYyftÉkta.

44. ftKUbmanp©itenAépÞmuxmYyman 8 GatUm X enARCugénftenaH nigman 6 GatUm Y enA épÞmux. etIrUbmnþgayrbs;GgÁFaturwgenaHdUcemþc?

DIRhVDIRhVDIRhVDIRhVakakakak;;;;süúgkaMrsµIsüúgkaMrsµIsüúgkaMrsµIsüúgkaMrsµI XénRkaménRkaménRkaménRkam sMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeron 45. cUreGayniymn½yDIRhVak;süúgkaMrsµI X. etICMhanrlktYy:agrbs;kaMrsµI X esµIb:unµanKitCa

nm ¬cUremIlrUbTI4 CMBYkTI7¦?

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46. cUrsresrsmIkar Bragg. cUrR)ab;n½yral;BakünigBiBN’naBIrebobeRbIsmIkarenHedIm,Ivas; cMgayGnþrGatUm.

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 47. enAeBlkaMrsµI X EdlmanCMhanrlk 0,090 nm rgDIRhVak;süúgedayRkamelah³mYymMu DIRhVak;süúglMdab;TI1 (n=1)RtUv)anvas;eXIjfaman15,2o. etIcMgayrvagRsTab;rbs; GatUmEdlTTYlxusRtUvDIRhVak;süúgenHesIµb:unµan KitCa pm?

48. cMgayrvagRsTab;enAkñúgRkam NaCl KW 282 pm . kaMrsµI X RtUv)anBIRsTab;TaMgenHenAmMu 23o . cUrKNnaCMhanrlkénkaMMrsµI X KitCa nm edaysnµtfa n=1.

RbePTrbsRbePTrbsRbePTrbsRbePTrbs;;;;RkamRkamRkamRkam sMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeron 49. cUrBiBN’nanigeGay]TahrN_RbePTRkamteTAenH³ ¬k¦RkamGIy:ug ¬x¦RkamkUv:aLg; ¬K¦Rkamm:UelKul ¬X¦Rkamelah³.

50. GgÁFaturwgmYyKWrwg RsYy nigmincMlgcrnþGKÁisnI. varlay ¬CaTMrg;GgÁFatuuravrbs; sarFatu¦nigsUluysüúgTwkmansarFatucMlgcrnþGKÁisnI. cUreFVIcMNat;fñak;GgÁFaturwg enaH.

51. GgÁFaturwgmYyKWTn;nigmancMNucrlayTab¬enAeRkam1000C¦GgÁFaturwgenaH rlaynig sUluysüúgravrbs;vapÞúksarFatumincMlgcrnþGKÁisnI. cUreFVIcMNat;fñak;GgÁFaturwgenaH.

52. GgÁFaturwgmYyrwgNas; nigmancMNucrlayx<s;. TaMgGgÁFaturwg TaMgTMrg;rlayrbs;va suT§EtmincMlgcrnþGKÁisnI. cUreFVIcMNat;fñak;GgÁFaturwgenaH.

53. ehtuGVI)anCaelah³cMlgkMedAnigcrnþGKÁisnIl¥? ehtuGVI)anCasmtßPaBcMlgcrnþGKÁisnI rbs;elah³fycuHkalNasItuNðPaBvaekIneLIg?

54. etIsmasFatuxageRkamenHNaCaGgÁFaturwgm:UelKulnigNaCaGgÁFaturwgkUv:aLg;? Se8, HBr, Si, CO2, C, P4O6, SiH4.

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 55. cUrEbgEckPaBGgÁFaturwgénsarFatudUcxageRkamenHCaRkamGIuy:ug Rkam kUv:aLg; Rkamm:UelKul rWRkamelah³. ¬k¦> CO2 ¬x¦> B12 ¬K¦> S8 ¬X¦> KBr

¬g¦> Mg ¬c¦> SiO2 ¬q¦> LiCl ¬C¦. Cr


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56. cUrBnül;faetIehtuGVI)anCaeBRCrwgCagRkaPIt. ehtuGVI)anCaRkahVItcMlgcrnþGKÁisnI ehIy eBRCmincMlgcrnþGKÁisnI?

GgÁFaturwgnisNaænGgÁFaturwgnisNaænGgÁFaturwgnisNaænGgÁFaturwgnisNaæn sMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeron 57. etIGVICaGgÁFaturwgnisNæan? etIvaxusKñaBIGgÁFaturwgRkamdUcemþc? 58. cUreGayniymn½yEkv? etIFatubgásMxan;rbs;vaCaGVI? cUreGayeQµaHEkvbIRbePT? bMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpasbMErbMrYlpas sMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeron 59. etIbMErbMrYlpasCaGVI? cUrniyayBIbMErbMrYlEdlGacekItmaneLIgkñúgcMeNampascMhay pasrav nigpasrwgrbs;sarFatu.

60. etIGVICasMBaFcMhaylMnwgrbs;GgÁFaturav? etIeKvas;vay:agdUcemþc? ehIyvaERbRbYl y:agdUcemþcCamYynwgsItuNðPaB?

61. cUreRbIbMErbMrYlpasNamYyk¾)ankñúgcMeNambMEr:bMrYlpasTaMgGs; edIm,IBnül;faetI lMnwgDINamicmann½yy:agdUcemþc?

62. cUreGayniymn½yénBaküteTAenH³ ¬k¦>kMedAm:UlénkarbgðÜt ¬x¦>kMedAm:Ulénkarrlay ¬K¦> kMedAm:UlénrMehIr. etIGVICaxñatrbs;va?

63. etIkMedAm:UlénrMehIrTak;TgeTAnwgkMedAm:UlénkarbgðÜtnigkarrlayy:agdUcemþc? etITMnak; TMngenHEp¥keTAelIc,ab;GVI?

64. etIeyIgGaceronsURtBIkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulenAkñúgGgÁFaturavBIkMedAm:UlénkarbgðÜtGVIxøH? 65. kMedAm:UlénkarbgðÜtrbs;GgÁFaturavkan;EtFM sMBaFcMhayrbs;vak¾kan;EtFMEdr. etIRtUv rWxus?

66. cUreGayniymn½ycMNucrMBuH. etIcMNucrMBuHrbs;GgÁFaturavGaRs½yeTAelIsMBaFxageRkA y:agdUcemþc? tamtaragTI3 CMBYkTI5 etITwkmancMNucrMBuHesµIb:unµanenAeBlEdlsMBaF xageRkAman 187,5 mmHg?

67. enAeBlEdleKkMedAGgÁFaturavmYyenAsMBaFefr sItuNðPaBrbs;vaekIneLIg. TMenarenH bnþrhUtdl;cMNucrMBuHrbs;GgÁFaturavenH. KµankarekInsItuNðPaBénGgÁFaturavGVIeTotbgá eLIgedaykardutkMedA. cUrBnül;.

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68. etIsItuNðPaBRKITicCaGVI? etIsItuNðPaBRKITicmanGtßRbeyaCn_GVI enAkñúgkarBRgav]sµ½n eGayeTACaGgÁFaturav?

69. etIvamanTMnak;TMngGVIrvagkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul cMNucrMBuH nigsItuNðPaBRKITicrbs;GgÁFatu rav? ehtuGVI)anCasItuNðPaBRKITicrbs;TwkFMCagsItuNðPaBRKITicrbs;sarFatuPaKeRcIn epSg²eTot?

70. etIcMNucrMBuHnigcMNucrlayrbs;Twknigrbs;kabUnetRtakørYERbRbYly:agdUcemþc ebIeFob eTAnwgsMBaF. cUrBnül;BIlkçN³xusKñarvagsarFatuTaMgBIrenH?

71. ehtuGVI)anCakabUnDIGuksIutrwgehAfaTwkkks¶Üt? 72. etIsMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturavenAkñúgkugtWn½rbiTCitGaRs½yeTAnwglkçxNÐNakñúgcMeNam lkçxNÐteTAenH? ¬k¦>maDxagelIGgÁFaturav ¬x¦>cMNuHrbs;GgÁFaturav ¬K¦>sItuNðPaB ¬X¦>kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulrvagm:UelKulenAkñúgGgÁFaturav.

73. eyageTAelIrUbTI35 cUr):an;sµanBIcMNucrMBuHrbs;eGTIleGET Twk nig)art enAsMBaF 0,5atm.

74. sMelokbMBak;EdlTTwkgays¶ÜtenAéf¶ekþAs¶ÜtCag éf¶ekþAesIm. cUrBnül;. 75. etIGnþrkmµpasxageRkamenHNabeBa©jkMedAeRcInCag? ¬k¦> 1 moléncMhayeTACa 1 mol TwkenAsItuNðPaB 100 0C

¬x¦>1 molTwkeTACa 1 mol TwkkkenAsItuNðPaB 0 0C

76. EkvebEs‘TwkmYyRtUv)ankMedAeGayBuHedayeRbIGNþatePøIg Bunsen. etIeKGacbEnßmePøIg NaeTot)aneT edIm,IbegáIncMNucrMBuHrbs;Twk? cUrBnül;.

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat; 77. cUrKNnabrimaNkMedAKitCa kJ EdleKRtUvkaredIm,IbMElg 74,6g TwkeGayeTACacMhayenA sItuNðPaB 100 0C.

78. etIkMedAKitCa kJ b:unµanEdleKRtUvkaredIm,IbMElg 866g TwkkkenAsItuNðPaB –10 0C edIm,IeGaykøayeTAcMhayenAsItuNðPaB1260C? ¬kMedAyfaRbePTrbs;TwkkknigcMhay KW 2,03 J/g.0C nig 1,99 J/g. 0C tamerog¦.

79. etIel,ÓnrMhYtrbs;GgÁFaturavmYyrg ¬k¦>sItuNðPaB ¬x¦>RkLaépÞGgÁFaturavEdlRtUvxül; ¬K¦> kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKuly:agdUcemþc?


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80. kMedAm:Ulénkarrlay nigrMehIrénbMErbMrYlGIuy:Utm:UelKulKW 15,27kJ/mol nig 62,30kJ/mol

tamerog. cUr)a:n;sµankMedAm:UlbgðÜtrbs;GIuy:Utrav. 81. smasFatuxageRkamenHKWCaGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaB-100C EdlRtUv)anrayeQµaHCamYy nwgsItuNðPaBrMBuHrbs;va³ b‘uytan –0,50C/ eGtaNul 78,30C/ tUluyEGn 110,60C. enA sItuNðPaB-100C etIGgÁFaturavNakñúgcMeNamGgÁFaturavTaMgGs;enH EdlGñkKitfaman sMBaFcMhayx<s;CageK ehIyGgÁFaturavNamansMBaFcMhayTabCageK? cUrBnül;.

82. eKerobcMkaehVs¶ÜtRtCak;edaybgákkaehVenaH ehIybnÞab;mkeKykFatubgáTwkkkenaHecj edaym:asIunbUmxül;. cUrBiBN’nanUvbMErbMrYlpas EdlekIteLIgkñúglMnaMTaMgenH.

83. sisSmñak;halsMelokbMBak;esImenAxageRkApÞHeBlrdUvrgarKWenAeBlEdlsItuNðPaB

-150C. BIrbIem:ageRkaymk sMelokbMBak;enaHs¶Ütlµm. cUrBiBN’naBIbMErbMrYlpasEdl ekIteLIgkñúglMnaMsMgYtenH.

84. cMhayenAsItuNðPaB 1000C KWeqHxøaMgCagTwkenAsItuNðPaB1000C. ehtuGVI? 85. rgVas;sMBaFcMhayrbs;)artenAsItuNðPaBepSg²KñaRtUv)anbgðajdUcxageRkam. cUrkMNt;kMedAm:UlénkarrMhYt)artenHedayRkab.

t(0C) 200 250 300 320 340 P(mmHg) 17,3 74,4 246,8 376,3 557,9

86. sMBaFcMhayrbs;bg;Esn C6H6 KW 40,1 mmHg enAsItuNðPaB 7,60C. etIsMBaFcMhay rbs;vaesµIb:unµanenAsItuNðPaB 60,60C ? kMedAm:UlbgðÜtrbs;bg;esnKW 31,0 kJ/mol.

87. sMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturav X KWtUcCagsMBaFcMhayrbs;GgÁFaturav Y enAsItuNðPaB

200C b:uEnþvax<s;CagenAsItuNðPaB 600C. etIGñkGacsnñidæan)any:agdUcemþcGMBITMhMeFob énkMedAm:UlbgðÜtrbs; X nigY?

88. cUr):an;sµankMedAm:UlbgðÜtrbs;GgÁFaturavmYyEdlsMBaFcMhayrbs;vaekIneLIgCaBIrenA eBlsItuNðPaBekIneLIgBI 850C eTA 950C.

düaRkampasdüaRkampasdüaRkampasdüaRkampas sMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeronsMNYrrMlwkemeron 89. etIGVICadüaRkampas? etIBt’mand¾mansar³RbeyaCn_GVIxøHEdleKGacTTYl)anBIrkarsikSa düaRkampasenH?

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90. cUrBnül;faetIehtuGVI)anCadüaRkampasrbs;TwkvaxusBIdüaRkampasrbs;smasFatu PaKeRcInepSgeTot? etITwkmanlkçN³GVIEdlbNþaleGaymanPaBxusKñaenH?

lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;; 91. muxrbs;Es,keCIgsMrab;Ci³rMGilTwkkkKWesþIgNas; dUecñHsMBaFeTAelITwkkkedayEs,keCIg enaHKWGacsMxan;Nas;. cUrBnül;faehtukarN_EdlmnusSGacCi³sÁIenAelITwkkk)an.

92. RbEvgrbs;ExSePøIgRtUv)andak;BIelIdMuTwkkk. cugénExSePøIgRtUv)anlatsn§wgBIelIEKmén TwkkkenaH ehIykUnCBaöIgF¶n;RtUv)anPöab;eTAnwgcugExSePIøgnImYy². eKeXIjfaTwkkkEdl enAeRkamExSePøIgenaHrlaybnþicmþg² dUecñHExSePøIgeFVIclnacuHeTAkñúgdMuTwkkky:agyWt. kñúgeBlCamYyKñaenaHEdr TwkEdlenAelIExSePøIgenaHcab;epþImkkvij. cUrBnül;BIbMErbMrYl pasEdlGacbNþaleGayman)atuPUtenH.

93. cMNucrMBuHnigcMNuckMNkéns<an;F½rDIGuksIutKW -10o C nig -72.7o C erog²Kañ enAsMBaF 1 Gat;mU:EsV‘. cMNucRbsBVbI KW-75.5oC nig1.65 x 10-3 atm nigcMNucRKITic rbs;vaKW 157o C

nig78atm. edayEp¥keTAelImUldæanRKwHénB½t’manenH cUrKUrKMnUrRBagdüaRkampasrbs; s<an;Fr½DIGuksIut.

94. düaRkampasrbs;TwkKWRtUv)anbgðajenAxagcugénlMhat;enH. cUrdak;eQµaHelItMbn;nana kñúgdüaRkam. cUrTsSn_TayemIlfa etIGacmanGVIekIteLIgedaysarkarERbRbYlpasxag eRkamenH.

¬k¦> cab;epþImenAcMNuc A eyIgbegáInsItuNðPaBenAsMBaFefr ¬x¦> cab;epþImenAcMNuc C eyIgbBa©úHsItuNðPaBenAsMBaFefr ¬K¦> cab;epþImBIcMNuc B eyIgbBa©úHsMBaFenAsItuNðPaBefr lMhatlMhatlMhatlMhat;;;;bEnßmbEnßmbEnßmbEnßm 95. cUreGayeQµaHRbePTkMlaMgTMnajEdlRtUvEtRtUv)anCMnHedIm,I ¬k¦> daMeGayBuHGam:Uj:ak;rav ¬x¦> rMlaypUsVrrwg¬P4¦ ¬K¦> rMlay CsI enAkñúgHFrav ¬X¦> rMlayelah³ K


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96. etIlkçN³NakñúgcMeNamlkçN³xageRkamenH Edlcg¥úlbgðajBIkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulxøaMg kñúgGgÁFaturav ¬k¦>tMNwgépÞb:HTabxøaMg ¬x¦>sItuNðPaBRKITicTabxøaMg ¬K¦>cMNucrMBuHTabxøaMg ¬X¦>sMBaFcMhayTabxøaMg

97. enAsItuNðPaB –350C HI ravmansMBaFcMhayx<s;Cag HFrav. cUrBnül;. 98. edayEp¥kelIlkçN³xageRkamenHrbs;Fatubr cUrcat;fñak;vaCaRbePTRkammYykñúgcMeNam GgÁFaturwgRkamTaMgGs;Edl)anBiPakSaenAkñúgEpñkTI6: cMNucrlayx<s; ¬23000C¦ Fatu cMlgkMedAnigcrnþGKÁisnIexSayminrlayenAkñúgTwksarFaturwgxøaMgNas;.

99. Ep¥keTAelIrUbTI41 cUrkMNt;passißrPaBrbs; CO2 enA ¬k¦> 4 atm nig –600C nig ¬x¦> 0,5 atm nig –200C.

100. etIsarFatuteTAenH etINaEdlmanPaBb:Ulkmµx<s;CageKbg¥s;? CH4, H2, CCl4, SF6,

H2S. 101. ]bkrN_Bnøt;ePøIgeRbIeday]sµ½nCO2RtUv)andak;enAxageRkAGaKarkñúgrdæMassachusetts. enAkñúgrdUvrgar eKGaclWsMelgdUcTwkkMBb;ecjBIfUenAeBleKRkLúk]bkrN_enaHfñm². enArdUvekþACajwkjyeKminlWsMelgenAeBlEdleKGRgYnvaeT. cUrBnül;edaysnµtfa bMBg;dak;]sµ½nenaHminelc nigminRtUv)anFøab;eRbIeT.

102. etIsMBaFcMhayrbs;)artesµIb:unµanenAcMNucrMBuHFmµtarbs;va ¬3570C¦? 103. Ekv)aLúgdak;TwkmYyRtUv)anP¢ab;eTAnwgsñb;suBaaØkas. enAeBlEdleKebIksñb;enaH Twkk¾cab;epþImBuH. bnÞab;BIBIrbInaTIeRkaymk TwkdEdlenaHk¾cab;epþImkk. enATIbBa©b; Twkkkk¾)anrlay)at;. cUrBnül;faetImanGVIekIteLIgenAdMNak;kalnImYy²enaH.

104. bnÞat;xNÐGgÁFaturav-cMhayenAkñúgdüaRkampasénsarFatuNamYyEtgEtecatxøaMgenA cMNucCak;lak;mYy. ehtuGVI?

105. cMgayGnþrGIuy:ugénRkamGaLÚEsnrbs;FatuGal;kaLaMgmYycMnYndUcxageRkamenHKW³ NaCl NaBr NaI KCl KBr KI 282 pm 299 pm 324 pm 315 pm 330 pm 353 pm

cUrKUsExSekagfamBlbNþajeFobeTAnwgcMgayGnþrGIuy:ugeTAvijeTAmk. etIGñkGacBnül; y:agdUcemþcGMBIExSRkabeRTtkñúgn½yPaBGaRs½yKñaénfamBlbNþajeTAelIcMgayénkarEjk rvagGIuy:ug? etIc,ab;GVIEdlGnuvtþkñúgGnþrkmµenH? ¬cMeBaHfamBlbNþaj cUremIltarag1 CMBUk TI9¦

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106. etIFatuNamandg;sIuetFMCagrvag SiO2 Rkam nig SiO2 nisNæan? ehtuGVI ? 107. eKeGayPaKsMNakCaGgÁFaturwgbYn³ W, X, Y nig Z. FatuTaMgGs;enaHsuT§Etman Catielah³. eKR)ab;faGgÁFaturwgTaMgenaH GacCamas sMNrs‘ulpY mIka ¬GacCakVat rW SiO2¦ nigGIuy:Ut. lT§plénkarsikSaKW³ ¬k¦>WKWCaFatuEdlcMlgcrnþGKÁisnI)anl¥ ehIy

X,Y nig Z KWCaFatuEdlcMlgcrnþGKÁisnIexSay. ¬x¦>enAeBlEdleKykGgÁFaturwgenaH eTAdMnwgjjÜr W sMEb:t X EbkexÞceTACabMENk² Y Ebkm:dæeTACaemSAEtmþg nig Z

Kµanrgb:HBal;GVITaMgGs;. ¬K¦>enAeBlEdleKykGgÁFaturwgenaHeTAdutnwgcMBuHb‘unsin Y

rlayCamYyrMehIrxøH b:uEnþ X,Y nig Z minrlayeT. ¬X¦> kalNaeKeRbI HNO3 6 M X rlay EtKµanplb:HBal;GVIdl; W,Y nig Z eT. Ep¥keTAelIkareFVIetsþTaMgenH cUrkMNt; smasFatuTaMgenaH.

108. etIXøateTAenHNaEdlxus?¬k¦>GnþrkmµDIb:Ul-DIb:Ulrvagm:UelKulKWFMCageKebI m:UelKul enaHmanEtm:Um:g;DIb:UlbeNþaHGasnñ. ¬x¦>smasFatuTaMgGs;EdlmanGatUm GIuRdUEsnGaccUlrYmkñúgkMNsMB½n§GIuRdUEsn. ¬K¦>kMlaMgr):aymanrvagGtßiPaBm:UelKul GatUm nigGIuy:ugTaMgGs;. ¬X¦>visalPaBénGnþrkmµGIuy:ug-DIb:UlGnÞgKWGaRs½yEteTAelI bnÞúkenAelIGIuy:ugb:ueNÑaH.

109. düaRkamxageRkamenHbgðajBIkMesovénTwkBuHenAelIcRgáan. cUrkMNt;paskñúgtMbn; A

nig B.

110. b:Ulxagt,ÚgénPB Mars RtUv)anRKbdNþb;edayTwkkks¶Üt EdlehIrxøHenArdUvekþA. cMhayrbs; CO2 kCaejIeLIgvijenArdUvrgar eBlEdlsItuNðPaBFøak;cuHmkdl; 150 K. eKdwgfakMedAén CO2 enHKW 25,9 kJ/mol cUrKNnasMBaFbriyakasenAelIépÞBiPB Mars

enaH [tMruy³ eRbIrUbTI 40 edIm,IkMNt;BIsItuNðPaBrMehIrFmµtaénTwkkks¶Üt nigsmIkar13 EdleKGnuvtþcMeBaHrMehIr.

B


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111. lkçN³rbs;]sµ½n/ GgÁFaturwg nigGgÁFaturavKWxusKñaedaylkçN³mYycMnYn. etIGñk eRbIRTwsþIm:UelKulsIuenTicy:agdUcemþc ¬cUremIlEpñkTI 5.7¦ edIm,IBnül;BikarsegátteTA enH. ¬k¦> karbENÑnfycuHBI]sµ½neTAGgÁFaturavBIeTAGgÁFaturwg. ¬x¦> GgÁFaturwgsßit enAkñúgTMrg;kMNt; b:uEnþGgÁFaturavnig]sµ½nminEmneT ¬K¦> sMrab;sarFatuPaKeRcIn maDén brimaNsarFatuEdleKeGayekIneLIgenA eBlERbRbYlBIGgÁFaturwgeTAGgÁFaturavnigeTA ]sµ½n.

112. cUreRCIserIssarFatuenAkñúgKUnimYy²EdlmancMNucrMBuHx<s;Cag. enAkñúgkrNInImYy² cUrkMNt;BIkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul sMxan;EdlTak;TgeTAnwgkareRCIserIsrbs;Gñk.

¬k¦> K2S rW (CH3)3N ¬x¦>Br2 rWCH3CH2CH2CH3. 113. tMNk;d¾tUcmYyrbs;eRbgenAkñúgTwkmanragEsV‘. cUrBnül;. ¬tMruy³ eRbgKWbgáeLIg edaym:UelKulminb:UEl EdlmanTMenareCosvagkarb:HTwk¦.

114. enAeRkamlkçxNÐsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFdUcKña etI]sµ½nNakñúgcMeNam]sµ½nteTAenH EdlGñksgÇwmfamanlkçN³l¥ticCag³ CH4, SO2 ? cUrBnül;.

115. PøúyGrYénFatuenAkñúgxYbTIBIrnigcMNucrlayrbs;vaKW LiF 8450C, BeF2 8000C,

BF3126, 70C, CF4-1840C, NF3-206, 60C, OF2-223, 80C, F2-219, 60C. cUrcat;fñak;RbePTénkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulenAkñúgsmasFatunImYy².

116. Gg;tal;BIsþg;daénkMNRbUmm:UelKul]sµ½nKW 30,7kJ/mol. . cUreRbIBt’manenHedIm,I KNnakMedAm:UlénbgðÜtrbs;RbUmm:UelKulenAsItuNðPaB 250C.

117. cMgayrvagGIuy:ug Li+ nigGIuy:ug Cl- KW 257 pm enAkñúg LiCl rwg nig 203 pm enAkñúgft

LiCl enAkñúgpas]sµ½n. cUrBnül;BIPaBxusKñaénRbEvgsMB½n§. 118. kMedAénGIuRdatkmµ EdlCabMErbMrYlkMedAEdlekItmanenAeBlGIuy:ugkøayCaGIuRdatenA kñúgsUluysüúg KWedaysarGnþrkmµGIuy:ug-DIb:UlCasMxan;. kMedAGIuRdatkmµsMrab;GIuy:ug elah³Gal;kaLaMgKW Li+ -520kJ/mol, Na+ -405kJ/mol, K+ -321kJ/mol. cUrbBaöak; BITMenaréntMélTaMgenH.

119. RbsinebITwkKWCam:UelKullIenEG‘ ¬k¦>etIvaenAEtCasmasFatub:UElEdrrWeT? ¬x¦>etIm:UelKulrbs;TwkenAEtGacbegáItsMB½n§GIuRdUEsnCamYyKµaEdrrWeT?

120. KNna ∆ H0 sMrab;lMnaMdUcxageRkamenHenAsItuNðPaB 250C .

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¬k¦> Br2(l) Br2(g) ¬x¦> Br2(g) 2Br(g) cUrBnül;BITMhMeFobrbs;tMél∆ H0 TaMgenHkñúgn½yfakMlaMgcUlrYmkñúgkrNInImYy² { tMruy³ emIltaragTI9>4 ehIy∆ H 0

f [Br2(g)]=30,7 kJ/mol}. 121. etIGgÁFaturavNaEdlGñkrMBwgfamanPaBGn§ilFMCagrvagTwk nigeGTIleGET? 122. EkvebEs‘TwkmYyRtUv)andak;enAkñúgkugtWn½rbiTCitmYy. cUrTsSn_TayBI \T§iBlénsMBaFcMhayrbs;TwkenaHenAeBl³ ¬k¦>sItuNðPaBrbs;vafycuH ¬x¦> maDrbs;kugtWn½rRtUv)antMeLIgBIrdg ¬K¦>TwkRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgEkvebEs‘.

123. GUsUn¬O3¦KWCaPñak;garGuksIutkmµd¾xøaMgmYyEdlGaceFVIGuksIutkmµeTAelIelah³ samBaØ²TaMgGs;elIkElgEtmasnig)øaTIn. etsþsmRsbsMrab;GUsUnKWEp¥keTAelIGMBI rbs;vaeTAelI)art. enAeBldak;eGayRtUvGUsUn )artkøayeTACal¥k; emIlmineXIj ehIy Cab;enAnwgbMBg;Ekv¬vaminhUredayesrItambMBg;enaHeT¦. cUrsresrsmIkarlMnwgsMrab; RbtikmµenH. etIlkçN³)artRtUvva)anbþÚredayGnþrkmµCamYyGUsUn?

124. PaKsMNakénfµkMe)ar(CaCO3)RtUv)andutenAkñúgPaCn_biTCitmYyrhUtdl;RtUv)an bMEbkxøH. cUrsresrsmIkarsMrab;RbtikmµenaH ehIybBa¢ak;faetIvamanvtþmanpascMnYn b:unµan?

125. sIulIsüÚmEdleKeRbIenAkñúgQIbkMuBüÜT½rRtUvEtmankMritminsuT§enAeRkam10-9 (KWmantic CagmYyGatUmminsuT§sMrab;ral;109 GatUm Si TaMgGs;). Si RtUv)anplitedayerdukmµén kVat (SiO2)CamYynwgFüÚg (Coke) enAsItuNðPaBRbEhl 20000C³

SiO2(s) + 2C(s) Si(l) + 2CO(g)

bnÞab;mkeTot Si rwgRtUv)anbMEbkecjBIGgÁFatuminsuT§epSgeTotedayRbRBwtþkmµ CamYyGIuRdUEsnkørYenAsItuNðPaB 3500C edIm,IbegáItCa (SiCl3H). Si(s) + 3HCl(g) SiCl3H(g) + H2(g)

cugeRkay Si G‘ulRtasuT§GacTTYl)anedaybMElgRbtikmµxagelIenAsItuNðPaB 10000C:

SiCl3H(g) + H2(g) Si(s) + 3HCl(g)

¬k¦>RTIkørUsuILanmansMBaFcMhay0,258atm enAsItuNðPaB–20C. etIcMNucrMBuHFmµta rbs;vaesµIb:unµan? etIcMNucrMBuHrbs;RTIkørUsuILanRtUveTAnwgkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulEdlmanGtßiPaB kñúgcMeNamm:UelKulrbs;va? ¬kMedAm:UlkñúgkarbgðÜtrbs; RTIkørUsuILan KW 28,8 kJ/mol.¦ ¬x¦>etITMrg;RkamRbePTNaEdl Si nig SiO2 begáIteLIg? ¬K¦>SimanTMrg;RkameBRC ¬emIlrUb 28¦ ftÉktaKUbnImYy² ¬RbEvgRCug a =543pm¦man Si 8GatUm. RbsinebImanGatUmbr


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1x1013 kñúg 1 cm3 enAkñúgPaKsMNakmYyrbs; Si suT§ etImanGatUm Si b:unµancMeBaHGatUm B

nImYy²enAkñúgPaKsMNakenaH? etIPaKsMNakenaHvabMeBjnUvtMrUvkar PaBsuT§ 10-9 sMrab; Si

kMriteGLicRtUnicEdrrWeT? 126. kabUnnigsIulIsüÚmsßitenAkñúgRkum IV A éntaragxYb ehIymanr)ayeGLicRtugv:aLg;dUc Kña(ns2np2). ehtuGVI)anCasIulIsüÚmDIGuksIutmancMNucrlayx<s;CagkabUnDIGuksIuteRcIn?

127. cRgáansMBaFKWCakugtWn½rEdlGaceGaycMhayeKcecj)an enAeBlEdlvaelIssMBaF EdlRtUv)ankMNt;TukCamun. etI]bkrN_enHbnßyeBlevlaRtUvkarsMrab;cMGinGahary:ag dUcemþc?

128. PaKsMNakrbs;TwkmYyEdlmanTMgn;1,20gRtUv)aneKcak;bBa©ÚleTAkñúgEkv)aLúgbUm xül;EdlmancMNuH5,00L enAsItuNðPaB650C. etITwkb:nµanPaKrynwgeTACacMhayenA eBl EdlRbB½n§enHeTAdl;cMNuclMnwg? edaysnµtfalkçN³suT§rbs;TwknigmaDrbs;Twk ravKWminsUvsMxan;. sMBaFcMhayrbs;TwkenAsItuNðPaB 650C KW 187,5mmHg.

129. etIGVICaGtßRbeyaCn_énkarcMGinxat;NaedaycMhuyCMnYseGaykares¶arenAkñúgTwk? 130. rgVas;brimaNénrebobpÁúMEs‘VeGaymanRbsiT§PaBcUleTAkñúgftÉktaKWehAfaRbsiT§PaB énkarpÁMú EdlCaPaKryénkEnøgfttaMgenAedayEs‘V. cUrKNnaRbsiT§PaBénkarpÁúMrbs;ft KUbsamBaØ ftKUbmanp©itenAépÞmux nigftKUbmanp©itenAxagkñúg¬tMruy³ sMedAeTAelIrUbTI 22 ehIynigkareRbITMnak;TMng EdlmaDénEsV‘mYyKW

3

4πr3 Edl r KWCakaMrbs;EsV‘¦.

131. cUrpþl;nUvkarBnül;sMrab;)atuPUtdUcxageRkamenH³ ¬k¦ Ar rwg ¬cMNucrlay –182,20C cMNucrMBuH –185,70C¦GacRtUv)anerobcMeLIgeday

karRCmuCEkv)aLúgmanpÞúk]sµ½n Ar eTAkñúg N2 rav ¬cMNucrMBuH-195,80C¦ rhUtdl;vakøayeTA Carav ehIybnÞab;mkP¢ab;Ekv)aLúgeTAnwgbMBg;suBaØakas. ¬x¦> cMNucrMBuHrbs; C6H12 ¬suIkøÚGicsan¦ekIneLIgkalNasMBaF sgát;elIsIukøÚGicsan

rwgekIneLIg. ¬K¦> BBkenAry³kMBs;x<s;mandMNk;TwkenAsItuNðPaB –100C. ¬X¦> enAeBlEdldMuTwkkks¶ÜtRtUv)anbEnßmeTAelIEkvebEs‘TwkenaH G½BÞkekIteLIgenAelI

épÞTwk.

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132. Ar eLIgRkamenAkñúgkartMerobKUbmanp©itenAépÞmuxenAsItuNðPaB40K. eKeGaykaMGatUmrbs; Ar KW 191 pm cUrKNnadg;sIuetrbs; Ar rwgenaH?

133. RKUENnaMKImImñak;)aneFVIkarbgðajBIGaf’kM)aMgmYydUcteTAenH. enAmuneBlEdlsisS mkdl;fñak; Kat;)andaMTwkeGayBuHenAkñúgdbEG‘LinmIuEy. bnÞab;mkKat;k¾ykdbenaH ecjBIePøIg ehIycukdbedayqñúkekAs‘U eRkayeBlcab;epþImbeRgon Kat;)ankan;dbenAxag muxnisiStTaMgGs;nigRbkasR)ab;nisSitKat;GaceFVITwkeGayBuH edayRKan;EtRtdusduMTwkkk BIxageRkAdb. KYreGayPJak;ep¥IlKWvaBuHEmn cUrBnül;BI)atuPUtenH.

134. tamry³düaRkampasxageRkamrbs;kabUn cUreqøIynwgsMNYrdUcxageRkamenH. ¬k¦>etImancMNucRbsBVbIcMnYnb:unµan ehIyetIpasGVIxøH EdlmanshGtßiPaBenAcMNucRbsBV bInImYy²enaH? ¬x¦>etIRkahVIt rWeBRCEdlmandg;sIuetx<s;Cag? ¬K¦>eBRCsMeyaKGacRtUv )anplitBIRkahVIt. edaykareRbIR)as;düaRkampasenH etIGñkGaceFVIeBRCy:agdUcemþc?

135. RKUbgðat;EhlTwkeBlxøHKat;)anesñIfabnþk;Gal;;kulmYydMNk;cUleTAkñúgRtecok edIm,IykTwkecj. cUrBnül;GMeBIenHtamTsSn³m:UelKul.

cMelIylMhat;Gnuvtþn_ 1.(a) kMlaMgGIuy:ugnigkMlaMgr)a:y ; (b) kMlaMgr)a:y ; (c) kMlaMgDIbU:l-DIbU:l nigkMlaMgr)a:y ; 2.manEt (c) b:ueNaÑH ; 3. 10.50 g/cm3 ; 4. 315 pm; 5. manBIr ; 6. 361

pm ; 7. 369 mmHg ; 8. 173 kJ


11-76

cMelIy 8. emtan ; 10. (a) kMlaMgr)a:y ; (b) kMlaMgr)a:y nigkMlaMgDIbU:l-DIbU:l ; (c) kMlaMgr)a:y nigkMlaMgDIbU:l-DIbU:l ; (d) kMlaMgr)a:y nigkMlaMgGIuyu:g-GIuy:ug ; (e) kMlaMgr)a:y ; 12. (e) ;

14. manEt 1-bu‘ytaNuleTEdlGacbegáItsm½<næGIuRdÚEsn ; 16. (a) Xe. (b) CS2 . (c) Cl2 . (d)

LiF. (e) NH3. 18 . (a) sm½<næGIuRdÚEsn ; kMlaMgDIbU:l-DIbU:l nigkMlaMgr)a:y ; (b) kMlaMgr)a:y ; (c) kMlaMgr)a:y (d) sm½<nækUva:Lg; ; 20. smasFatuEdlenAxageqVgGacbegIátsm<½næGIuRdÚEsn GnþrmU:elKulxagkñúg)an ; 32. rvageGtaNulnigKIøesr:ul ; 38. scc: 1; bcc: 2; fcc: 4. 40. 6.17

x1023 / mUU:l ; 42. 458 pm ; 44. XY3 ; 48. 0.220 nm ; 56. GatUmkabUn nImYy²enAkñúgeBRCKWRtUv)ancgsm<½nækUva:Lg;nwgGatUmkabUn 4 epSgeTot. RkahIVtman eGLicRtúgdalenAkñúgvimaRtbId¾FM. 78. 2.67 x103 kJ ; 80. 47.03 kJ/mol ; 82. kMNk ; rMehIr 84. eBlcMhaykkenAsItuNðPaB100GgSaes vanwgbeBa©jkMedAesµwnwgkMedAénkarbgðÜt ; 86.

331 mmHg ; 88.75 kJ/mol ; 92. dMbUgTwkkkrlayedaysarkarekIneLIgénsMBaF. enAeBlExSliccUleTAkñúgTwkkk enaHTwkEdlenAxagelIvakkCafIµ. tamry³meFüa)ayenH ExSGacpaøs;TIqøgkat;TwkkkedayKµankarkat;vaCaBak;kNþaleT. 94. (a) Twkkkrlay; (b)

cMhayTwkbgákeTACaTwkkk; (c) TwkBuH ; 96. (d) ; 98. RkamkUva:Lg; ; 100. CCl4 ; 102. 760

mmHg ; 104. vaCacMNuclMnwg ; 106. Rkam SiO2 ; 108. (a); (b); (d); 110. 8.3 x10-3

Gat;mU:EsV‘ ; 112. (a) K2S; (b) Br2 ; 114. SO2 ; 116. 30.7 kJ/mol ; 118.

GIuy:ugEdltUcCagmandg;sIuetFMCag nigmanTMhMGIuRdatkmµd¾eRcIn. 120. (a) 30.7 kJ; (b)

192.5 kJ; 122. (a) fycuH ; (b) KµankarERbRbÜl ; (c) KµankarERbRbÜl ;

124. CaCO3(s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) ; pasTaMgBI ; 126. SiO2 CaRkamkUva:Lg;mYy ; CO2

CamU:elKulEdlRtUv)anpþac;ecj ; 128. 66.8 PaKry ; 130. scc: 52.4 PaKry; bcc: 68.0

PaKry ; fcc: 74.0 PaKry ; 132. 1.69 g/cm3 ; 134.(a) manBIr (eBRC/RkahIVt/ GgÁFaturav nigRkahVIt /GgÁFaturav/cMhay) ; (b) eBRC ; (c) eRbIsMBaFx<s;enAsItuNðPaBx<s;.

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KImIGnuvtþn_ RkamRkamRkamRkamykSykSykSykSmYymYymYymYy

sñÚlxagkñúgénEpndIsñÚlxagkñúgénEpndIsñÚlxagkñúgénEpndIsñÚlxagkñúgénEpndIpÞúkCatiEdkedaysißtepÞúkCatiEdkedaysißtepÞúkCatiEdkedaysißtepÞúkCatiEdkedaysißteRkamsMBaFd¾FM EdlRtUvRkamsMBaFd¾FM EdlRtUvRkamsMBaFd¾FM EdlRtUvRkamsMBaFd¾FM EdlRtUv))))aneCOaneCOaneCOaneCO;;;;fafafafa CaGgÁFaturwgRkam CaGgÁFaturwgRkam CaGgÁFaturwgRkam CaGgÁFaturwgRkam eTaHbICasItuNðPaBeTaHbICasItuNðPaBeTaHbICasItuNðPaBeTaHbICasItuNðPaBelIsBIelIsBIelIsBIelIsBI4000oCkkkk¾eday¾eday¾eday¾eday. . . . RkamRkamRkamRkamGacGacGacGacmanTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrgmanTMrg;;;;qekaNqekaNqekaNqekaNbiTCit biTCit biTCit biTCit rWTMrgrWTMrgrWTMrgrWTMrg;;;;rbsrbsrbsrbs;;;;vavavava edayELkedayELkedayELkedayELk. . . . EpñkBN’RkhmEpñkBN’RkhmEpñkBN’RkhmEpñkBN’RkhmbgðajBIsñÚlEdkrlay ehIyvaCaGñkTTYlxusRtUvcMeBaHbgðajBIsñÚlEdkrlay ehIyvaCaGñkTTYlxusRtUvcMeBaHbgðajBIsñÚlEdkrlay ehIyvaCaGñkTTYlxusRtUvcMeBaHbgðajBIsñÚlEdkrlay ehIyvaCaGñkTTYlxusRtUvcMeBaH EdnmEdnmEdnmEdnm::::aejTicrbsaejTicrbsaejTicrbsaejTicrbs;;;;EpndIEpndIEpndIEpndI.... sñÚlxagkñúgénEpndIKWBi)akkñúgkarcUleTAdl; dUecñHcMeNHdwgrbs;eyIgsIþGMBIsmasPaB nigTMrg;rbs;vaRtUvBwgEp¥keTAelIPsþútagCaRbeyal. tamma:sEpndIPaKeRcInCaEdk bu:Enþ brimaNbniþcbnþÜcénelah³enHRtUv)aneKrkeXIjenAkñúgsMbkEpndI. kñúgkMlugeBlkekItEpndI PaKeRcInénbrimaNEdkRtUv)ansnñidæanfaelccUleTAEpñkxagkñúgénPBenH ehIybegIát)anCa sñÚlrlay. karsikSafIµ²enH)anesñI eLIgfaenAEpñkkNþalénsñÚlrlaymanRkamEdksuT§ Edllatsnw§gRbEhl 1500ma:y (1500miles) enAkñúgTMrg;vimaRtbI. eTaHbICasItuNðPaBenA Rtg;EpñkkNþalénEpndIeRcInCag 1535 oC EdlCacMNucrlayrbs;Edkk¾eday k¾sMBaFd¾FM sMebIm EdlRtUv)ansgát;edayma:sB½T§CuMvijénPBenH GacTb;eGaymansißrPaBdl;TMrg;Edkrwg Cab;Kñay:agF¶n;.


11-78

KMnitenHhak;dUcCaminsmehtusmpl GtßiPaBénRkamd¾FMsMebImGacCYyBnül; Gaf’kM)aMgmYycMnYnrbs;EpndI. dMbUgkarkt;RtaBIkarrBa¢ÜyEpndIbgðajfa rlkénkarrBaöÜy EpndIeFVIdMeNIrqøgkat;EpndIBIekIteTAlicCagBIeCIgeTAt,Úg. dUecñHrlkTaMgenaHRtUvEtqøgkat; EpñkkNþalEdlbB¢ÚanvaCamYyel,Ónxus²KñakñúgTisepSg²Kña. RkammYyGacmanlkçN³enH edaysarkarPöab;énGatUmEdk CaTMrg;RkamKWxus²KñaenAtambeNþayG½kS x, y nig z. müa:gvij eTotsñÚl rlayGacbB¢ÚanrlkCamYynwgel,ÓnesIµ²KñaedayminKitBITis.

edayedayedayedaykareRbIRkareRbIRkareRbIRkareRbIR))))asasasas;;;;EdlEdlEdlEdlRTnabRTnabRTnabRTnab;;;;eBRCeBRCeBRCeBRC GñkviTüasaRsþGacbegIátsMBaFGñkviTüasaRsþGacbegIátsMBaFGñkviTüasaRsþGacbegIátsMBaFGñkviTüasaRsþGacbegIátsMBaFrhUtdlrhUtdlrhUtdlrhUtdl;;;; 3.6 landglandglandglandgén én én én sMBaFbriyakassMBaFbriyakassMBaFbriyakassMBaFbriyakasenAkñúgTIBiesaFenAkñúgTIBiesaFenAkñúgTIBiesaFenAkñúgTIBiesaF. . . . lkçNlkçNlkçNlkçN³³³³TaMgLayénsMParTaMgLayénsMParTaMgLayénsMParTaMgLayénsMPar³³³³enAeRkamsMBaFenAeRkamsMBaFenAeRkamsMBaFenAeRkamsMBaFenHenHenHenH GacRtUvGacRtUvGacRtUvGacRtUv))))anananan BinitüemIledayBnWøLaEs‘BinitüemIledayBnWøLaEs‘BinitüemIledayBnWøLaEs‘BinitüemIledayBnWøLaEs‘.... bnÞab;mk Ednma:ejTicénEpndIRtUv)anbegIáteLIgedaysñÚlEdkrlayenARtg;Epñk kNþal. RbsinebIEpndICar)aemEdkd¾l¥\tex©aHmYy ehIyebIEpñkkNþalCaEs‘VÉksNæanén Edkrlay enaH :ExSénkMlMag : (the lines of force) enARtg;eGkVaT½rma:ejTic KYrEtRsbeTA nwgépÞEpndI. Cak;EsþgExSénkMlMagTaMgenaHbgðajBICRmalbYnkMrit. lMgakenHesIñeLIgfa vtþmanénEdnma:ejTiceRCotERCkmYy CaGaT×bgáedayRkam. etIRkamGacmanrUbragya:gdUcemþceTA? enAelIépÞEpndI EdkeLIgRkamCabNþajKUb manpi©tenAxagkñúg(emIlrUbTI17). enAxageRkamépÞ edaysMBaFekIneLIgRkamdMeNIrkar GnþrkalpasrwgeTACaKUbmanpi©tenAépÞmux(fcc). enAsMBaFFMCag 1.3 x105 Gat;mU:EsV‘TMrg;man sßirPaBKWCaTMrg;énbgMÁúbiTCitqekaN(emIlrUbTI21). bu:EnþvaGacminEmnTMrg;énRkamsuT§d¾FM mYy. naeBlfIµ² GñkviTüasaRsþ enAviTüasßan Carnegie Washington ¬enAqñaM1996¦ )andak;eGayEdkrgnUvsMBaFx<s;Cag 3.8 x105 Gat;mU:EsV‘enAsItuNðPaB 1500K enaHKat;)an segáteXIjTMrg;minTan;)ansÁal;rhUtmkdl;eBlenHrbs;EdkehAfa bgMÁúbiTCitRsTab;qekaN

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BIrCan;(dhcp). eTaHbIenHCaTMrg;énsñÚlEdkrbs;EpndIEdlKµannrNamñak;dwgBIkarBitkarsikSa RTwsIþ nigBiesaFn_ bnþenAEt)anRtUvkaredIm,IbBaöak;rbkKMehIjTaMgenH. eTaHbICaGñkviTüasaRsþ mansuTidæiniym EdlfasñÚlxagkñúgrbs;EpndIGaccab;epIþmebIkbgðajBIGaf’kM)aMgrbs;va.

enAsMBaFRbEhlenAsMBaFRbEhlenAsMBaFRbEhlenAsMBaFRbEhl 3.8x10-5 GatGatGatGat;;;;mUmUmUmU:: ::EsV‘ TMrgEsV‘ TMrgEsV‘ TMrgEsV‘ TMrg;;;;énbgMÁúbiTCiténbgMÁúbiTCiténbgMÁúbiTCiténbgMÁúbiTCitqekaNqekaNqekaNqekaNénEdkénEdkénEdkénEdk))))anananan bMEbøbMEbøbMEbøbMEbøgeTACaTMrggeTACaTMrggeTACaTMrggeTACaTMrg;;;;fIµ fIµ fIµ fIµ ehAfaehAfaehAfaehAfa dhcp(bgMÁúbiTCitRsTbgMÁúbiTCitRsTbgMÁúbiTCitRsTbgMÁúbiTCitRsTabababab;;;;qekaNBqekaNBqekaNBqekaNBIrCanIrCanIrCanIrCan;;;;). . . . naeBlbc©úbnaeBlbc©úbnaeBlbc©úbnaeBlbc©úb,,,,nñenñenñenñenHnHnHnH vavavavaminminminmincccc,,,,asasasas;;;;laslaslaslas;;;;eTeTeTeTfaetIfaetIfaetIfaetI RkamRkamRkamRkammYymYymYymYyeeeenAnAnAnAkNþalEpndImanTMrgkNþalEpndImanTMrgkNþalEpndImanTMrgkNþalEpndImanTMrg;;;;enHenHenHenHrWeTrWeTrWeTrWeT....

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kMl aMg Gnþr m:Ue lKul GgÁF atur wg nig GgÁF atur av · CMBUkTI11 11-1 kMl aMg Gnþr m:Ue lKul GgÁF atur wg nig GgÁF atur av (Intermolecular Forces and Solids and Liquid) ) esckþIepþIm

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