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Key Elements of the Research Proposal
These are the key elements of a research proposal. Click on each
to learn more about each element.
Title Page | Introduction | Procedure or Methodology |
References | Appendices
The title page provides the first impression for your audience
of your proposal. Your title must be complete and itshould provide
the focus of your investigation. Be sure that the title gives a
glimpse of the nature of the proposedinvestigation and includes the
key ideas.
1. Your title should serve as a mini-abstract of your
investigation and should put the most important words first.
For example:
Title No. 1 "Left-handness in students and its relationship to
learning preferences" implies that thefocus will be on
"left-handness."
Title No. 2 "Learning preferences in students and the connection
to left-handness" implies that thefocus will be on "learning
preferences."
2.Word choice and syntax are so precise in a research proposal
title that some researchers create the titlesfor their projects
last in the proposal writing process. They do this so that they can
be as precise aspossible in their wording and sentence structure in
order to best represent their investigation.
The following list contains example of research proposal titles
in a variety of fields ofinvestigation. Review each to see the
phrasing and terms that are commonly used on titlepages.
A linguistic analysis of slang used in Eminem album song lyrics
A study of the role of cultural materials in contemporary graphic
design Changing factors for team support in English football: How
geographic determinants play a role indetermining match attendance
You Looks Like Youse Yo Own Daughter: Figuring (in)fertility and
maternity in Their Eyes WereWatching GodThe effects of estrogen,
alcohol, and age on the astrocytes in female rats following an
inflammatorystimulus
3. When a title page is created, it often is arranged in this
format: Example of title page.pdf
4. This website provides formatting tips to assist you in the
general layout and design of a research proposaltitle page. It also
contains general guidelines and further descriptions for the parts
of a research proposal.
REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal, explain why the title is
so important to a research proposal. You may include information
from above or from your own ideas and experiences. Your
responseshould be 2-3 paragraphs in length.
Your introduction is very important, actually the most important
part of your proposal. If your introduction gets youraudience's
attention, they will stay with you throughout your proposal. An
effective introduction discusses the
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Clear Statement of theProblem
Purpose of the Study
Definitions
Significance of theInvestigation
Literature Review
Questions or Hypothesis
audience's attention, they will stay with you throughout your
proposal. An effective introduction discusses themeaningfulness of
the study with presentation of problem or issue. It also serves as
an argument advocating theneed of study for your chosen object and
gives a clear insight into your intentions. Thus the introduction
presents abackground and statement of context for your
investigation.
The rest of your proposal supports this section. It doesnt need
to be overly long, a few paragraphs should beenough, but it is the
most critical as it establishes the nature, context, and scope of
your project. Key parts of theIntroduction often become a part of a
research abstract that may be used when you present your
completedinvestigation and conclusions to an audience. Although
these aspects of an introduction are described separately,some
parts may, in reality, be combined together when the actual
proposal is written.
A.All introductions include these items in some form in the
introduction.
Clear Statement of the ProblemPurpose of the Study Definitions
Significance of the InvestigationLiterature ReviewQuestions or
Hypothesis
B.. The way that Introductions are crafted is as individualized
as the proposal that follows. You will see actualintroductions
later when you begin to review Research Proposals for specific
disciplines, but here are some"How To" procedures from research
courses that explain the construction of the Introduction
paragraph. Asyou read the samples below, compare and contrast the
requirements of each instructor in order to determinethe common
features of Introductions.
1.Begin with something interesting, e.g., a quote or story, to
capture the reader's interest.Introduce your question or curiosity.
What is it that you want to know or understand? How didyou get
interested in the topic? If your question has evolved since you
have begun, describethe process.Tell why there's a need for the
study. Cite relevant literature that calls for the need for
theresearch in this area, or demonstrates the lack of attention to
the topic. In your own words,describe how you think this study will
be useful.Describe the intended audience for your research (e.g.,
the public, family therapists).Describe your research product. What
form will the report take (e.g., scholarly manuscript,magazine
article for the public, script for a documentary video)?Conclude
the introduction with an overview of your proposal.
2. Introduction (2 pages)
\What is the topic of your research?What area of sociology is
concerned with questions related to your research interest?
Formulate your research question(s) or the problem you want to
address as clearly aspossible. What is research goal, for example
descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, evaluation?Explain how you
came to this question/problem based on your previous interests
(researchyou might have been involved in, other courses you have
taken, your work experience,discussions, etc.).Explain the
assumptions you are making in researching your question. Explain
the conceptsyou are using; what indicators/variables will you need
to measure these? What is yourhypothesis and your independent/
dependent variables? Or what are you trying to explain?Share
tentative thesis (argument) (your best answer to the research
question based on yourwork to date)What is the significance of this
research question? Explain why this research is worthpursuing. Why
is answering this research question important?
3. Introduction
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3. Introduction
This section sets the context for your proposed project and must
capture the reader's interest.Explain the background of your study
starting from a broad picture narrowing in on yourresearch
question.Review what is known about your research topic as far as
it is relevant to your thesisCite relevant references.The
introduction should be at a level that makes it easy to understand
for readers with ageneral science background, for example your
classmates.
REFLECTION: Based on the three examples, what are the
characteristics that most introductions seemto have in common? What
are key differences that you noticed among the three? Why do you
thinkthat these differences exist? Answer these questions as an
entry in your Reflection Journal,
Back to Introduction
Clear Statement of the Problem
The most important aspect of a research proposal is the clarity
of the research problem. For a short statement, itcertainly has a
lot of power. The statement of the problem is the focal point of
your research. It should state whatyou will be studying, whether
you will do it through experimental or non-experimental
investigation, and what thepurpose of your findings will be. As a
part of the Introduction, effective problem statements answer the
questionWhy does this research need to be conducted?
It is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of
elaboration). In it, you are looking for something wrong,something
that needs close attention, or something where existing methods no
longer seem to be working.
Example of a problem statement:
"The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a
loss of productivity in middle management workers."
In your wording, be succinct and on target. Give a short summary
of the research problem that you have identified. A research
proposal may not be considered acceptable or credible if you fail
to clearly identify theproblem. Your biggest difficulty might be
narrowing the topic since the topic is still relatively unfamiliar
to you. Your Literature Review should be a helpful source.
While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is
always accompanied in the larger Introduction byseveral paragraphs
that help to elaborate and that may include other elements of the
research proposal. You mightpresent persuasive arguments as to why
the problem is important enough to study or include the opinions of
others(politicians, futurists, other professionals). Explain how
the problem relates to business, social or political trendsby
presenting a bit of evidence from your Literature Review that
demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem.Try to give
dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing
the Introduction, however, make sureyou can still easily identify
the single sentence that is the problem statement.
Use this tutorial to help you to understand the components of a
problem statement.
REFLECTION: Can you clearly identify the statement of problem in
a study? In your Reflection Journalbriefly describe two studies
that you read about when completing your review of the literature.
Identifythe statement of problem in each. Evaluate the statement
for each based on the characteristicsexplained above in a paragraph
or two in your journal.
Return to Introduction
Purpose of the Study
This describes the goals and objectives that are the targets and
desired outcomes of work done by you to findanswers to the problem
or issue under investigation.
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The purpose often starts with a single goal statement that
explains what the study intends to accomplish. A fewtypical
statements are:
The goal of this study is to... ... overcome the difficulty with
... ... discover what ... ... understand the causes or effects of
... ... refine our current understanding of ... ... provide a new
interpretation of ... ... understand what makes ___ successful or
unsuccessful
It is then followed by a paragraph which describes the
objectives that support the goal of the researchinvestigation.
The words goal and objective are often confused with each other.
They both describe things that a person maywant to achieve or
attain; however, each is different in its scope. Goals are more
global in nature, affecting largerpopulations over longer time
frames. They are the big vision and are more general in wording.
Objectives are morespecific and defined in nature. They are
time-related to achieve a certain task, and are the measurable
outcomesof activities undertaken to achieve goals; they are
described as achieved or not achieved. Objectives should alignwith
a studys goals.
The following chart can help you in determine whether a
statement that you have written is a goal or an objective.
Goal Objective
What is the meaningof the statement? The purpose toward
which
an investigation is directed. Something that one's efforts or
actions areintended to attain or accomplish; purpose; target
What is the timeframe of thestatement?
Long term Short term
How would youmeasure the actiondescribed in thestatement?
Cannot be measured Can be measured
What is the type ofoutcome of the actiondescribed in
thestatement?
Intangible Tangible
What kind of action isdescribed in thestatement?
Generic action Specific action
What overall plan isthe statementdescribing?
Broad plan Narrow plan
Statement example The after-school program willhelp children
read better.
The after-school remedial education program willassist 50
children in improving their reading scoresby one grade level as
demonstrated onstandardized reading tests administered
afterparticipating in the program for six months.
REFLECTION: Which do you think are easier to craft, goals or
objectives? Why? Explain your answer
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REFLECTION: Which do you think are easier to craft, goals or
objectives? Why? Explain your answerin 2-3 paragraphs in your
Reflection Journal. Be sure to include specific ideas from the
content aboveand your own ideas and experiences.
Return to Introduction
Definitions
Be sure that your proposal is understandable to a general reader
who does not know much about your field ofinvestigation. This
section gives the definition of important terms and concepts that
are usually stated in theobjectives, hypothesis, and research
questions. Define subject-specific and technical terms. If you are
usingwords that are different in meaning in the context of your
experiment from traditionally accepted meanings, definethe terms.
Be sure to refer to authoritative sources in your definitions.
Explain any operational definitions, the definitions that you
have created just for your study. An example of anoperational
definition is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is
operationally defined as posttest scoreminus pretest score".
The clearest way to arrange your definitions page is to arrange
terms in alphabetical order, with definitions stated incomplete
sentences.
The following is an example of a definition section from a
proposal entitled "Self-directed learning readiness and
lifesatisfaction among older adults."
Definition of Key Terms
Life Satisfaction a self reported assessment of ones overall
psychosocial well-being. It is a combination of (a)personality
factors such as mood and self-concept, (b) more socially-related
factors such as the nature of onessocial interactions, (c)
perceived health, and (d) financial security.
Older Adult for the proposed study, older adult is defined as
any person who is at least 65 years of age.
Self-Directed Learning a process in which individuals take the
initiative, with or without the help of others, indiagnosing their
learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and
material resources for learning,choosing and implementing
appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning
outcomes.
Self-Directed Learning Readiness the degree to which one
perceives oneself to possess the attitudes andskills needed to be
an effective self-directed learner. It is measured in the proposed
study through the Self-DirectedLearning Readiness Scale (SDLRS),
developed by Guglielmino (1977).
Explore the following excellent sources for defining terms:
ThinkMap Visual Thesaurus
Your Dictionary
REFLECTION: Write one paragraph for each of the sources linked
above in your Reflection Journal,
describing what is there and how you might be able to use
it.
Significance of the Investigation
An explanation of the significance of a study may include the
meaning of the research work to you personally andshould include
how your research benefits or impacts others in part or whole.
Discuss what people or groups ofpeople might benefit from reading
your research. Show how this project is significant to developing a
body ofknowledge. If your investigation will contribute to a
portion of a larger investigation, describe that larger
investigation as well.
Continue with more indepth exploration of this section.
REFLECTION: Can you clearly identify the significance of the
investigation for studies you have read in
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REFLECTION: Can you clearly identify the significance of the
investigation for studies you have read inyour review of the
literature? Select three studies from your literature review
readings. Briefly describeeach, and explain the significance of
each of those investigations. Write one paragraph for each studyin
your Reflection Journal.
Return to Introduction
Literature Review
Your literature review is already completed (Step 3) and can be
included here. The literature review develops broadideas of what is
already known in a field, and what questions are still unanswered.
This process will assist you infurthering narrowing the problem for
investigation, and will highlight any theories that may exist to
supportdeveloping hypotheses. You must show that you have looked
through the literature and have found the latestupdates in your
field of study in order for a proposal to be convincing to an
audience. This process also helps youto be sure that your
investigation is not just reinventing the wheel. A discussion of
the present understanding
and/or state of knowledge concerning the problem or issue sets
the context for your investigation.
Return to Introduction
Questions or Hypothesis
Questions and hypotheses are testable explanations that are
proposed before the methodology of a project isconducted, but after
the researcher has had an opportunity to develop background
knowledge (much like theliterature review that you just finished).
Although research questions and hypotheses are different in their
sentencestructure and purpose, both seek to predict relationships.
Deciding whether to use questions orhypothesis depends on facts
such as the purpose of the study, the approach and design of the
methodology, andthe expected audience for the research
proposal.
A research question proposes a relationship between two or more
variables. Just as the title states, it isstructured in form of a
question. There are three types of research questions:
A descriptive research question seeks to identify and describe
some phenomenon.
An example: What is the ethnic breakdown of patients seen in the
emergency room for non- emergencyconditions.
A differences research question asks if there are differences
between groups on some phenomenon.
For example: Do patients who receive massage experience more
relief from sore muscle pain than patients whotake a hot bath?
A relationship question asks if two or more phenomena are
related in some systematic manner.
For example: If one increases his level of physical exercise
does muscle mass also increase?
A hypothesis represents a declarative statement, a sentence
instead of a question, of the cause-effectrelationship between two
or more variables. Make a clear and careful distinction between the
dependent andindependent variables and be certain they are clear to
the reader. Be very consistent in your use of terms. Ifappropriate,
use the same pattern of wording and word order in all
hypotheses.
While hypotheses come from the scientific method, to see how
political scientists use hypotheses, imagine howyou might use a
hypothesis to develop a thesis for this paper: Suppose that we
asked "How are presidentialelections affected by economic
conditions?" We could formulate this question into the following
hypothesis:"When the national unemployment rate is greater than 7
percent at the time of the election, presidentialincumbents are not
reelected."
Hypotheses can be created as four kinds of statements.
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1. Literary nulla no difference form in terms of theoretical
constructs. For example, There is no relationship between support
services and academic persistence of nontraditional-aged college
women. Or, There is no difference in school achievement for high
and low self-regulatedstudents.
2. Operational nulla no difference form in terms of the
operation required to test the hypothesis.For example, There is no
relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-aged
college women usethe student union and their persistence at the
college after their freshman year. Or, There is no
differencebetween the mean grade point averages achieved by
students in the upper and lower quartiles of the
distribution of the Self-regulated Inventory. The operational
null is the most used form for hypothesis-writing.
3. Literary alternativea form that states the hypothesis you
will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected,stated in terms of
theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you
hope the results will show.For example, The more that
nontraditional-aged women use support services, the more they will
persistacademically. Or, High self-regulated students will achieve
more in their classes than low self-regulatedstudents.
4. Operational alternativeSimilar to the literary alternative
except that the operations are specified.For example, The more that
nontraditional-aged college women use the student union, the more
they willpersist at the college after their freshman year. Or,
Students in the upper quartile of the Self-regulatedInventory
distribution achieve significantly higher grade point averages than
do students in the lowerquartile.
Regardless of which is selected, questions or hypotheses, this
element of the research proposal needs to be asspecific as possible
in whatever field of study you are investigating. It should be
realistic and feasible, and be
formulated with time and resource constraints in mind.
REFLECTION: Identify some of the Questions or Hypothesis within
studies you have read in yourLiterature Review. How do you think
that the researchers were able to determine these were
soundpropositions to make? Are there things that you disagreed with
in the questions or hypothesis, or thatyou would do differently?
What did you learn from reviewing your literature review that might
behelpful when you write your own paper? Record your response in
your Reflective Journal.
Return to Introduction
Design Approach
Type of Design Used
Role of the Researcher
Data Collection and Analysis
Ethics
Reliability and Validity ofMethods and Results
Timetable
Resources and Materials
Do you know that the key element of your research proposal will
be its methodology section?
Imagine this: You are competing with several other organizations
for grant money to conduct an investigation into anew treatment for
cancer. You will need to convince the grant foundation that their
money will be well spent,and that you will manage this
investigation well. How can they believe that you will produce
results if you do not tellthem about the methods you intend to use
in order to assess and study your research and data? Will you
conductexperiments, or will you study existing groups of
individuals? Will you collect numerical data or anecdotes? Howwill
you know that you have tested the correct populations of people or
that your reasoning was sound? Based onyour research proposal's
methodology, the grant foundation will either approve or disapprove
your investigation,and will determine the amount of your grant.
It is time to examine and study research proposal methodology. A
research proposal's methodology outlines thestrategy for conducting
an investigation in order to answer a research question. As a part
of an overall researchproject proposal, the researcher will need to
plan out and share the procedures that will be used in
theinvestigation.
In this section you will review different approaches, designs,
procedures, and methods for investigating your area ofresearch.
Specific tools will be described and evaluated so that you can
determine which ones will help you tomeet your research goals.
Design Approach
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Budget
Limitations
Delimitations
Final Product
The overall design of a research project consists of its methods
and procedures. Research design can be
described as Qualitative or Quantitative in approach. It is also
possible to have a mixture of the two approaches,both in overall
design and in the specific methods used in the investigation.
All researchers, including you, need to understand the full
nature of both quantitative and qualitative approaches toresearch
and evaluation methodologies in order to appropriately select the
overall design that best fits yourinvestigation. While described as
distinct terms, qualitative and quantitative approaches to research
methods anddesign are complementary and can overlap often.
Qualitative? Quantitative?
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Type of Design Used
What are the main types of qualitative approaches to
research?
While there are many different investigations that can be done,
a study with a qualitative approach generally can bedescribed with
the characteristics of one of the following three types:
Historical research describes past events, problems, issues and
facts. Data are gathered from written or oraldescriptions of past
events, artifacts, etc. It describes what was in an attempt to
recreate the past. It is differentfrom a report in that it involves
interpretation of events and its influence on the present. It
answers the question:What was the situation?
Examples of Historical Research
A study of the factors leading to the historical development and
growth of cooperative learningA study of the effects of the
historical decisions of the United States Supreme Court on American
prisonsA study of the evolution of print journalism in the United
States through a study of collections of newspapersA study of the
historical trends in public laws by looking recorded at a local
courthouse
Ethnographic research develops in-depth analytical descriptions
of current systems, processes, and phenomenaand/or understandings
of the shared beliefs and practices of a particular group or
culture. This type of designcollects extensive narrative data
(non-numerical data) based on many variables over an extended
period of time in anatural setting within a specific context. The
background, development, current conditions, and
environmentalinteraction of one or more individuals, groups,
communities, businesses or institutions is observed, recorded,
andanalyzed for patterns in relation to internal and external
influences. It is a complete description of presentphenomena.
One specific form of ethnographic research is called a case
study. It is a detailed examination of a single group,individual,
situation, or site.
A meta-analysis is another specific form. It is a statistical
method which accumulates experimental andcorrelational results
across independent studies. It is an analysis of analyses.
Examples of Ethnographic Research:
A case study of parental involvement at a specific magnet
schoolA multi-case study of children of drug addicts who excel
despite early childhoods in poor environments
The study of the nature of problems teachers encounter when they
begin to use a constructivist approach toinstruction after having
taught using a very traditional approach for ten yearsA
psychological case study with extensive notes based on observations
of and interviews with immigrantworkersA study of primate behavior
in the wild measuring the amount of time an animal engaged in a
specificbehavior
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behavior
Narrative research focuses on studying a single person and
gathering data through the collection of stories thatare used to
construct a narrative about the individuals experience and the
meanings he/she attributes to them.
Examples of Narrative Research:
A study of the experiences of an autistic student who has moved
from a self-contained program to aninclusion settingA study of the
experiences of a high school track star who has been moved on to a
championship-winninguniversity track team
REFLECTION: In your Reflective Journal freewrite for one minute,
listing as many terms and conceptsassociated with qualitative
methodology that you can recall. Use those terms to jog your memory
as youwrite a one paragraph summary of what you understand the
qualitative approach to research design tobe. Do NOT look back at
the information on this website, and do NOT try to write a
dictionary definition. Just your own words and ideas.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Role of the Researcher
Determine what your role will be in the collection of the
research material. In this section describe your majortasks in your
research procedure. Explain whether you will be an unobtrusive
observer, a participant observer, or acollaborator. Evaluate how
your own bias may affect the methodology, outcomes, and analysis of
findings.
Many times this element of the research Proposal will be
affected by Ethics. In addition, this section is ofteninterwoven in
a narrative design explanation with other elements of the
proposal.
Review the excerpt below from a research proposal. See if you
can identify how the researcher has defined his orher role in the
investigation from the narrative explanation that is provided.
Research Design and Procedures
Following these lines of thinking, a qualitative study of the
social world of full-time adult undergraduates isproposed, using
semi-structured interviews as the primary research approach. It is
proposed to begin theinterviewing process in the fall of 1996. They
will begin with unstructured questions such as the following:
"Whathas it been like to be a full-time student at Central
College?" Often, with only an occasional question from me
forclarification, it is anticipated that the adults will talk about
a wide variety of topics throughout an extended interview.
It is anticipated that up to 30 interviews and any necessary
follow-up interviews will be conducted during thatacademic year. In
addition, follow-up clarifying interviews will be conducted with at
least a dozen of these studentsduring the second academic year
after I have completed some data analysis and obtained a
beginningunderstanding of the findings.
All interviews will be tape-recorded and, based on four pilot
interviews already conducted, are expected to vary in
length from 45 minutes to one hour and 45 minutes. The
interviews will be informal and open-ended, and carried outin a
conversational style.
I will write field notes in conjunction with the interviews,
follow-up interviews, observations, and casual encounterswith
subjects. Memoranda also will be written while listening to taped
interviews, typing transcripts, and reflectingupon a particular
interview. In addition to the interviews and follow-up interviews,
I expect to obtain other datathroughout the study, such as comments
from administrative and teaching colleagues, papers or other
materialssubjects care to give to me, and ongoing literature
review.
REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal answer the following in a
2-3 paragraph response. How doesthe researcher characterize his or
her role in the research process, both directly and indirectly, in
theproposal?
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Return to Procedure or Methodology
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures: Sampling and
Instrumentation
Design and describe a specific methodology consistent with your
academic discipline, your purpose, your mode ofinvestigation, and
your type. This section of your proposal should explain the details
of the proposed plan. Youshould discuss how you will go about
exploring your problem or issue and what specific tools and methods
thatyou would use. If you are not the only person working on the
project, you need to explain who else is involved.
There are many devices that you can use to collect your data.
Click to see a larger version of the chart.
Each section links to a separate page which would includes:
Pros/Cons, Guide, Resources,
Examples and Tools.
Interviews Observation Focus
Groups
Case
Studies
Questionnaires/
Surveys
Document
Reviews
Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons Pros/Cons
Guide Guide Guide Guide Guide Guide
Resources Resources Resources Resources Resources Resources
Examples Examples Examples Examples Examples Examples
Tools Tools Tools Tools Tools
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Ethics
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Ethics
Ethics must be considered in all phases of a research project,
from brainstorming ideas, to fundraising grants, todesigning
studies, to conducting interviews, and right through to final
publication of final results.
The National Institute of Environmental Heath Science and the
National Institutes of Health have a thoroughconsideration of all
aspects of research ethics for all types of research designs in the
article, What is Ethics inResearch & Why is It Important? by
David B. Resnik, J.D., Ph.D.
As you read the article, generate a list of all of the various
ways in which ethics impacts the research process.
Read "What is Ethics in Research & Why is It Important?"
REFLECTION: Which one of all of the concerns related to research
ethics is the most important toremember? Why? Defend your choice in
an informal essay of at least five paragraphs in yourReflection
Journal. Although you are only defending one concern, you should
also refer others in youressay as well.
Now use tutorials, case studies, and other resources to allow
you to clarify your understanding of ethical concernsin
research.
REFLECTION: Go through one of the tutorials linked above. Which
one did you select? Why? What didyou learn that might prepare you
to consider ethics for your own research investigation? Describe
yourthoughts in 2-3 paragraphs in your Reflection Journal.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Reliability and Validity of Methods and Results
You need to convince your reader that your methods and results
are both reliable and valid. The more resultsprove consistent over
time and reflect accurate representations of the total populations
under study, the more
scientifically reliable they are. If the results of a study can
be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the
research methods are considered to be reliable.
Validity determines whether the research truly measures what it
was intended to measure, or how truthful theresearch results are.
In other words, does the research instrument allow you to hit "the
bulls eye" of your researchobjectives? Researchers generally
determine validity by asking a series of questions, and will often
look for theanswers in the research of others. Each type of
research design has its own standards for reliability and
validity.
Qualitative
Researchers argue that maintainingthe trustworthiness of
qualitative research depends onthe same issues of quantitative
studies known asvalidity and reliability. While it is difficult in
qualitativeresearch to prove validity and reliability
throughreproducing the same results over and over, like aresearcher
can do in quantitative research, somequalitative researchers
believe that the concept ofdependability and consistency in results
can develop asense of validity for qualitative research.
Consistency of data is achieved when the steps of theresearch
are verified through examination of suchitems as raw data, data
reduction products, andprocess notes. Because it is more difficult
to define
Quantitative
Quantitative methodology frames its concerns about
validity and reliability using the terms internal
andexternal.
1. Internal validity concerns the soundness of aninvestigation.
In particular, studies of cause and effectneed to be internally
valid. Causal studies includeclinical trials, experiments or
quasi-experiments. Todemonstrate causality, three conditions should
bemet:
a. The cause must precede the effectb. The size of the effect
varies with the size of thecausal factorc. Other causes for the
effect can be ruled out.
Example:
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process notes. Because it is more difficult to definereliability
and validity in qualitative terms, manyresearchers have developed
their own concepts ofvalidity and have often generated or adopted
what theyconsider to be more appropriate terms, such as,quality,
rigor and trustworthiness. The idea ofdiscovering truth through
measures of reliability andvalidity is replaced by the idea of
trustworthiness,which is defensibleand establishing confidence in
thefindings.
Triangulation is one test for improving the validityand
reliability of research or evaluation of findings. Asthe name
implies, triangulation is a strategy thatcontrols bias and helps to
establish valid conclusionsbecause it uses at least three (thus,
the "tri-" prefix)different types of methods or tools to collect
data fromwhich conclusions are made. Many researchersargue that
triangulation strengthens a study bycombining methods. This can
mean using severalkinds of methods or data, including using
bothquantitative and qualitative approaches. By using at
least three different methods, the researcher is aboutto obtain
multiple, diverse perceptions of a singleconcept.
Many research tools and models have their own testsfor
reliability and validity built in to their basicprocedures and
methodologies. As you explore andapply these methods to your own
researchinvestigation, always question if you are implementingthem
in a way that makes the process and the resultsreliable and
fair.
More resources on this topic:
Qualitative ValidityValidity and Reliability in
QualitativeResearchEnhancing the quality and credibility
ofqualitative analysis.Research Methods Tutorials
REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal, sketcha visual
representation of what triangulationmeans in a general sense. You
may use adrawing program or import a clip art. Bycreating or
selecting a visual definition of a term,you will have provided
yourself another way toremember the meaning of the term.
Example:
a. Food poisoning may be the cause of stomach painif eating the
food preceded the pain. If the pain waspresent before eating the
suspected food then the foodcould not be the viewed as a possible
cause.
b. The second condition for establishing causalitywould be
fulfilled if the degree of pain experiencedvaries with the amount
of the food consumed, i.e. thegreater the amount of food consumed,
the worse thepain experienced.
c. Finally, other alternative explanations must be ruledout,
such as distention or other non-bacterialdiseases.
Thus a causal study is internally valid or has goodinternal
validity if the effects observed can becorrectly attributed to the
treatments administered orto the independent variable. This implies
that variableshave been controlled, and any possible error or
biasdue to those variables have been removed or reduced.
2. External validity refers to the extent to which theresults of
an investigation can be generalized to othersamples or situations.
There are two types of externalvalidity:
a. Population validityb. Ecological validity
a. Population validity concerns generalizing from thesample, a
part of an identified group from which youwant to make a
conclusion, to the population, thegroup about whom you want to make
the conclusion.Limits to population validity may arise when
thepopulation one wishes to generalize to is not the samepopulation
from which the sample was taken.
Example:
A study on controlling hypertension draws a randomsample of 50
male patients from a population attendingthe general practice X.
Its findings can be really onlybe generalized to the population of
male patientsattending that surgery and NOT to ALL male
patientswith hypertension attending different surgeries or
indifferent parts of a country.
b. Ecological validity refers to generalizing findingsto other
situations, settings or conditions.
Examples:
Drug A may relieve acute pain due to injury but not thetype of
pain induced by laboratory means.
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remember the meaning of the term. type of pain induced by
laboratory means.Patients may be able to make a cup of tea in
arehabilitation unit but not in their own homes. Programs to break
addiction to alcohol may not besuccessful in cases of addiction to
heroin.
External validity depends on the use of appropriatebasic
concepts of sampling and sample size.Probability sampling methods
are more likely to resultin selecting a sample that is
representative of thepopulation that the researcher wishes to
study. Non-probability methods usually do not ensure
arepresentative sample but may be appropriate forsome studies
depending on the study aims.
An adequate sample size reduces the likelihood ofsampling error.
The following tool is helpful in
generating appropriate sample sizes.
This abstract from the National Institutes ofHealth details the
degree to which sample size andpopulation sample characteristics
can demonstratethe reliability of conclusions drawn from data.
For more information about Reliability and Validity
inQuantitative studies, visit the resources below.
Knowledge BaseResearch Methods TutorialsValidity &
Reliability In Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research
DesignValidity and Reliability
REFLECTION: In your Reflection Journal create aT-chart, either
using a table or drawing tool. Onone side list as many details
about validity thatyou can recall. On the other side, list
detailsabout sampling. After you have done this frommemory, re-skim
some of the material above andthe preceding web page. Add more
details toyour chart. These are complex, complicatedideas. Creating
this T-chart will begin to help youto digest this advanced
material.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Timetable
You want to be sure that your investigation is feasible for the
timeframe that you have. Inexperienced researcherstend to
underestimate the amount of time that the various stages of
research will take. Be generous when working
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tend to underestimate the amount of time that the various stages
of research will take. Be generous when workingout time frames and
check them with a more experienced researcher. In order to do this,
you need to map outwhat you will do and when you will do it. You
also have to keep your goals and objectives for the proposal in
mindwhen setting deadlines for progress and consider what
benchmarks you will use to determine your progress. Thismay take
the form of a chart, timeline or flowchart (or any other organizer
you choose).
Give an overview of when you are going to do each specific step
of your project. This does not need to be a day-to-day list, but it
should give an overview biweekly or monthly. Be sure to include
time to review and synthesize yourdata or reflect on the overall
study. You should include time to prepare the final research
product as well.
Consider the following questions when setting up your
schedule:
When will your research start and finish?Are there particular
stages to the research - e.g. piloting, then main research?
screening interviews, then amain study? If there are stages, what
are they?What objectives have I set for this investigation? Are
they addressed in the timeline? Is the timetable realistic?Is it
influenced by external constraints or deadlines?How will you
provide regular updates and progress reports and to whom will you
provide them? How will youdemonstrate progress?
One way to organize yourself is to create a basic table in a
Word document or do look at other templates.
There are also online calculators that will assist you in
setting deadlines for phases of the research process.
Reviewing samples of other research investigation timelines can
give ideas for what you would like to include inyour own schedule
and how you will budget your time. Study the following example to
see how this researcherorganized his timeline.
Management Plan
This section presents my schedule, costs, and qualifications for
completing the proposed research. This researchculminates in a
formal report, which will be completed by December 5, 1997. To
reach this goal, I will follow theschedule presented in Figure 1.
Since I already possess literature on the subject of Yucca Mountain
as a nuclearwaste site, most of my time will be spent sorting
through the literature to find key results, and presenting
thoseresults to the audience.
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Now review a few more. Consider how each was organized and what
components were included
Sample Research TimelineProjected TimelineSample Project
TimelineResearch Repository Project Example Timeline
REFLECTION: Based on your exploration of the timetables above,
what are the key requirements fora research proposal's timetable?
What are some of the differences that you observed? Why do youthink
that these differences exist? Answer these questions in several
paragraphs in your ReflectionJournal.
The following web applications could also assist you in the
creation of your timeline and help you to remindyourself of when
deadlines are approaching.
ReddyNoteNexty
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Resources and Materials
List the equipment and resources that are already available that
you expect to use in your study. Itemize whatother equipment and
resources you will need to complete the investigation. You must
identify the resources youwill need to complete the project with a
clear understanding of each stage of your project. Be sure to
considerpeople, materials, and equipment/tools in your explanation.
While exhaustive details are not required for a generalproposal, an
assessment of the potential resource requirements is essential for
good research planning. Aproposal that neglects resource use or
underestimates the resources required suggests a poorly thought
outproject.
The materials and equipment that you need for your research
investigation will vary based on your methodology. The following
questions should help guide you in determining what you should
include in this section of yourproposal.
*What apparatus are you going to use?
*What materials are you going to use?
*Are you going to administer any tests? If so, which ones?
*Are there any special supplies you require?
*Do you need an apparatus or device to observe or record
behavior?
*Will you need access to any special supervision, staff, or
advisors?
*Do you need any special training, knowledge, or
certifications?
Will you need any special literature or guides?
What access to facilities will you need that are outside of your
school? Inside of your school?
Examples from Actual Proposals
A. Apparatus
Data on answer speed and call handling time was attained
utilizing the Northern Telecom Meridian Max callreporting system. A
daily prayer log sheet was used as a self report by prayer
intercessors.
B. Materials
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B. Materials
Electromyography equipment (stimulator, pre-amplifier,
amplifier, display screen, recording device), electrodeleads,
surface disposable electrodes, conductant gel, skin preparation
solution, alcohol swabs, tape measure,recording paper, plotter
pens, thermometer.
c. FACILITIES
Supervision is available from the School of Theatre, and while
there is no special equipment needed, there arespecial requirements
for access to documents unique to the project. The principal
documents required for thisproject are published libretti of the
musicals of Peter Stone, personal papers of Peter Stone, and
interviews andarchival footage. Materials that cannot be acquired
(such as out-of-print libretti) or accessed via the Internet
(suchas archival video footage) will be sourced by visiting
institutions that hold the material. Central to this will be
thepersonal papers of Stone (at the University of California, Los
Angeles), correspondence held in the archives of theDramatists
Guild of America (New York), and oral histories, video-recordings
of interviews and archival footage ofperformances (New York). These
unique documents are not available on interlibrary loan and must be
consulted in-person.
This website lists the many resources that some universities
offer to students who are completing researchinvestigations. The
files may provide ideas for the types of resources and materials
that you may need in your owninvestigation.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Budget
Your list of budget items and the calculations you have done to
arrive at a dollar figure for each item should besummarized. A
narrative portion of the budget is used to explain the line items
in the budget. Projects thatinclude travel or need large amounts of
funding should be specific about benefits and reasons for the
cost.
You will be expected to detail the costs of the project,
including the cost of all resources such as travel,accommodation
and equipment.
Budgetary considerations are important for all students,
especially if you have limited access to funds. You need toensure
your project is feasible and establish where the funds will be
coming from to finance it.
Narrative Example:Given that all my sources are available
through the University of Wisconsin library system, there is no
appreciablecost associated with performing this review, unless one
takes into consideration the amount of tuition spent onmaintaining
the university libraries. The only other minor costs are
photocopying articles, creating transparenciesfor my presentation,
printing my report, and binding my report. I estimate these
expenses will not exceed $20.
Sample Budget (Narrative Form)
Cost Information
(Note: The evaluation panel reviews cost information after
considering the technical aspects of theproposals. The
responsibility for evaluation of costs often rests primarily with
the contracting officer, who
relies on input from other members of the evaluation panel.)
Is the overall cost within the rate of your (the contracting
agency's) budget?What is the relationship between the cost figures
and equivalent items in the technical proposal?Are the personnel
costs reasonable according to the tasks to be performed?Are the
appropriate personnel assigned to perform the appropriate
tasks?Have expenditures been set aside for subcontracting
requirements such as data processing?If a large-scale questionnaire
must be mailed, has an adequate sum been set aside for postage?Have
costs for development of instruments, purchase of materials, such
as scoring sheets, etc., beenincluded?Does the travel seem
reasonable when compared to the tasks to be accomplished?
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Does the travel seem reasonable when compared to the tasks to be
accomplished?If consultants or experts are included, is their daily
rate reasonable and within the proper financial range foryour
agency? Is the proposed time reasonable?If appropriate, have costs
for local personnel been included?
Data-based examples:
Example entry
Item Unit cost Total
Equipment rental and purchase
Digital voice recorder $150 $150
Transcription machine (hire) $130 $130
Materials and supplies
Lithium batteries (4) $7 $28
1 GB memory stick $95 $95
Stationery $100 $100
Communications
Telephone and Internet charges $200 $200
Postage $50 $50
Personnel
Indirect costs
N/A
TOTAL $753
Decision Making Tool 2.11 Developing a Research BudgetOnline
Calculator Excel Tutorial
REFLECTION: Beside calculating costs, what other benefits does
planning a budget provide aresearcher? Explain your ideas in a
one-paragraph response in your Reflection Journal.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Limitations
Limitations are influences that the researcher can not
control.
Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that
cannot be controlled by the researcher that placerestrictions on
your methodology and conclusions. Any limitations that might
influence the results should bementioned.
Things to think about:
- your analysis- the nature of self-reporting- the instruments
you utilized- the sample - time constraints
In qualitative research these limitations will often be that the
findings cannot be generalized to the largerpopulation. This is
especially true when the definition of the population is broad (ex:
elderly women)
Example
Implementing Communication Strategies in Listening/Speaking
Classes at the Foreign LanguageCenter- Cantho University (Dang Thi
Kim Mai)
-
Center- Cantho University (Dang Thi Kim Mai)
Although this research was carefully prepared, I am still aware
of its limitations and shortcomings.
First of all, the research was conducted in the two intermediate
classes which have lasted for eight weeks. Eightweeks is not enough
for the researcher to observe all of the students speaking
performance in their classes. Itwould be better if it was done in a
longer time.
Second, the population of the experimental group is small, only
thirty-five students and might not represent themajority of the
students of the intermediate level.
Third, since the questionnaire designed to measure the students
attitude towards the use of communicationstrategies might give
useful information about the impacts of communicative strategies;
it seems not to provideenough evidence of the students actual
behaving to communication skills in their speaking performance.
In addition, since the assessment of the pretest and post test
was conducted by the author herself, it isunavoidable that in this
study, certain degree of subjectivity can be found. In fact, it
would have been sort ofobjective if it had been decided by two or
three examiners.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Delimitations
Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be
mentioned.
Delimitations describe the boundaries that you have set for the
study. This is the place to explain:
the things that you are not doing (and why you have chosen not
to do them)the literature you will not review (and why not)the
population you are not studying (and why not)the methodological
procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them)
Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might
reasonably expect you to do but that you, forclearly explained
reasons, have decided not to do.
Delimitations define the parameters of the investigation. In
educational research the delimitations will frequentlydeal with
such items as population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and
instrumentation. For example, the studymay focus on children in
only one grade level or measure aptitude using only a group
intelligence test.(Suggestions for Preparing a Dissertation/Thesis
Proposal)
Examples:
A researcher chooses to look only at senior college swimmers or
adolescents between 18 to 19 years ofage.The researcher picks a
particular instrument to collect data with or limits the number of
questions asked
REFLECTION: Answer in a two or three paragraph response in your
Reflection Journal. Why isimportant that a researcher consider both
limitations and delimitations when planning his or hermethods? Be
sure to include the definitions of the terms and specific details
in your writing.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
Final Product
In the section, the researcher discusses the possible outcomes
of the study, its relation to theory and literature,and its
potential impact or application. A description of the possible
forms of the final product, e.g., publishablemanuscript, conference
paper, invention, model, computer software, exhibit, performance,
etc., should be outlined. Be specific about how you intend to share
your results or project with others. Although all of these ideas
maychange in light of the research process or the final results, it
is always good to plan with the end product in mind.
This section may also include an interpretation and explanation
of results as related to your question; a discussion
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This section may also include an interpretation and explanation
of results as related to your question; a discussionon or
suggestions for further work that may help address the problem you
are trying to solve; an analysis of theexpected impact of the
findings and product on the audience; or a discussion on any
problems that could hinderyour creative work.
Ask yourself the following questions:
In what form will your findings be presented?How will you be
disseminating your findings?To whom will you be disseminating your
findings?How will you ensure anonymity in any publications?Will you
need to create an abstract of your overall investigation?
Consider how this group presented their findings.
REFLECTION: Think back to the purposes for research conclusions
and findings (basic, practical, andapplied). Explain in a one or
two paragraph entry in your Reflection Journal what the connection
isbetween these purposes for research and the final product of the
research investigation. Use specificterms and details in your
answer.
Return to Procedure or Methodology
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Keep a running list of all references as you work through the
proposal. You will need to have this list to avoidplagiarism and
chances are you will need to go back to certain references
throughout the entire researchexperience. This includes all
textbooks, reference books, journal articles, Internet sources,
etc. Use theappropriate form of citations for your field.
See the references section from your Literature Review for a
comprehensive guide to completing the referencesection of your
proposal. You do not need to duplicate the efforts of your
Literature Review, but PLEASEremember to add any new references
that you utilized for your methodology, data collection tools,
etc.
Adding a few appendices to the end of your proposal allows you
to show how thoroughly you have prepared yourresearch project
without obliging the reader to wade through all the details. The
purpose of an appendix is todisplay documents which are relevant to
main text, but whose presence in the text would disturb rather
thanenhance the flow of the argument or writing. Results of the
literature search, pilot data, data collection forms,patient
information sheets, and consent forms can all be added as
appendices to include documents, pilot study
material, questions for interviews, survey instruments,
explanatory statement to participants,etc.
Some likely parts to incorporate in the appendices are as
follows:
Distribution Plan - A vital part of the proposal which is the
plan for distributing of information about the
project to the audience. It can also include financial
statements for the funding agencies which want to seestanding of
the project. This section may include radio broadcasts, training
programs, workshops, printedhandouts, , presentations, etc.
Cooperating Agency Information If references of different
cooperating agencies are given, then try to give
some detail about these agencies in appendices like name and
address, services or product, names of
important personals, etc.
Evaluation Tools It is good to include the copy of evaluation
tools planed to use which are used ininformation gathering like
questionnaires, survey, interview, etc.
Appendices have a format to include the following:
A. Pagination: Each Appendix begins on a separate page.B.
Heading:If there is only one appendix, "Appendix" is centered on
the first line below the manuscript page
header. If there is more than one appendix, use Appendix A (or B
or C, etc.). Double-space and type theappendix title (centered in
uppercase and lowercase letters).
C. Format: Indent the first line 5-7 spaces.D. Example of
APA-formatted Appendix
And now that you have reviewed all of the Elements of the
Research Proposal, it is time to start planning for yourown. You
are now ready to begin Stage Two: How Do I Write My Own Research
Proposal?
Return to the Stages of the Research Proposal
-
Unit Overview for Step 4a - Key Elements of a Research
Proposal
The unit is designed to teach students about the Elements of a
Research Proposal as well as to provide multiplemodels for students
as they prepare to write their own research proposal in Unit 4b.
Students will be able to:
Explain why a title is so important to a research
proposalIdentify the characteristics of effective introductions
State the problem in a teacher-selected research
proposalSummarize the differences between goals and objectives in a
research investigationDefine subject-specific and technical
research termsCite the significance of investigations included in
the literature reviewDescribe the factors that impact the decision
to use questions or an hypothesis in the research proposalCompare
and contrast qualitative and quantitative research methodsWrite an
extended constructed response characterizing the role of the
researcher in the research processIdentify the pros and cons of the
following data collection and analysis procedures: interview,
observations,focus groups, case studies, questionnaires/surveys,
and document reviewsGenerate a list of the various ways in which
ethics impacts the research processDefine reliability and validity
of methods and results
Explain how a timetable and management plan affects the
investigation
Additional resources and lesson plans are available through the
Research Course wiki.