Ken Ward's Writing Pages contact: Ken Ward Writing: Parts of Speech Main Page: Writing Contents Page Contents Parts of Speech .................................................................................................................. 5 Nouns................................................................................................................................ 5 Common and Proper Nouns ........................................................................................... 6 Identifying Nouns .......................................................................................................... 6 Plurals of Acronyms, Letters and Numbers .................................................................... 8 Abstract and Concrete Nouns ........................................................................................ 9 Nominalizations .......................................................................................................... 10 General and Specific Nouns......................................................................................... 11 Countable and Uncountable Nouns (Mass Nouns) ....................................................... 12 Collective Nouns (Group Nouns) ................................................................................. 13 Quantity Nouns ........................................................................................................... 14 Pronouns ......................................................................................................................... 15 Why Pronouns ............................................................................................................. 15 Identifying Pronouns ................................................................................................... 15 Types of Pronoun ........................................................................................................ 16 Personal Pronouns ....................................................................................................... 16 Relative Pronouns ....................................................................................................... 16 Restricting and Non-Restricting Clauses ...................................................................... 17
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Ken Ward's Writing Pages contact: Ken Ward
Writing: Parts of Speech
Main Page: Writing Contents
Page Contents
Parts of Speech .................................................................................................................. 5
Personal pronouns have a possessive form. (These are sometimes called adjectives.)
We can say:
They are our hats. Or
They are ours.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns relate a noun to a clause which they introduce. They can be
defining or restricting, or non-defining and non-restricting. For instance:
The man who ate the food was hungry.
If we ask who ate the food, we find who stands for the noun phrase, the man. If we
substitute the noun phrase, the man, for who in who ate the food, the resulting
sentence, the man ate the food, makes sense. Therefore, who is a pronoun because
it passes our test. It is a relative pronoun because it relates the man to ate the
food. It defines (or at least identifies) the man we are referring too, and also
restricts the meaning of the man to the particular man who ate the food. This use is
therefore restricting.
Restricting relative pronouns do not follow a comma. The clauses with a relative
pronoun are adjectival in function: they modify a noun.
Examples of relative pronouns
that, which, who, whom, whose, when, where, and why
Restricting and Non-Restricting Clauses
A non-restricting relative pronoun follows a comma, to indicate the clause it
introduces is not essential to define the noun. (The clause should, however, be
relevant). A restricting relative pronoun does not have a comma.
The report that is most relevant is in the book.
The word that is a pronoun because it stands for the report. Substituting this in that
is most relevant, we get: the report is most relevant. As this makes sense, that passes our pronoun test.
It is a relative pronoun because it relates the report to most relevant. It defines
the report, and restricts the meaning of the word report to the particular report that is
most relevant. There is no comma between the word that and the noun phrase the
report. We cannot omit this clause because it is essential to the meaning of the
sentence - it tells us which report we are talking about.
The word that is special in that it is never preceded by a comma, and is always used
in the restricting sense. It is widely believed and taught that the word which is always
used in the non-restricting sense. There is no authority for this belief. The word
‘which’ can be used in both a restrictive and non-restrictive sense. It is true, however,
that the word ‘that’ must never be used in a non-restricting sense (and never follows a
comma):
The Smith Report, that is most relevant, is in the book.
The Smith Report, which is most relevant, is in the book. The report is defined already by the adjective, Smith, so we do not need a defining
clause. So we cannot use that.
Using which without a comma, however, is also correct:
The report which is most relevant is in the book. The word ‘which’ introduces a clause that defines and restricts the meaning of ‘the
report’—so no comma—and it relates ‘most relevant’ to ‘the report’.
It is sometimes better to write:
The report which caused the controversy that brought down the
government. Than to write:
The report that caused the controversy that brought down the
government. to avoid the "rata-tat-tat" sound of the repeating thats, but this is a question of style,
not grammar. Both are grammatically correct.
Example Sentences With Relative Pronouns -Restricting and Non-Restricting
Our friend Tom, who likes to sing in the bath, visited the concert
today.
The word who stands for the subject of the sentence, our friend Tom, and so it is a
pronoun. It is a relative pronoun because it relates Tom to likes to sing in the bath,
but it does not define, or restrict the meaning of the word Tom: the phrase, our friend
Tom, is a clear definition of the person we are referring to. Because this clause is non-
restricting, we separate it from the rest of the sentence with commas.
The place where they found the treasure was on a desert island.
The word where is a pronoun because it stands for the place. It is a relative
pronoun because it relates the place to they found the treasure. It defines and
restricts the place, so there is no comma after place.
The elephant that we saw in the circus has escaped.
The word that stands for the elephant, and is a pronoun. It relates the elephant to
we saw in the circus, and so is a relative pronoun. It tells us which particular
elephant we are referring to, so it defines and restricts the elephant. There is no
comma after elephant, because the clause is defining or restricting.
Yesterday, we planned our journey across the desert. The plan, which
is sound, will enable us to make the journey safely.
The pronoun, which, does not define the plan (We know which plan from the
previous sentence). It is therefore neither defining nor restricting. We do not begin the
clause with that here, but we begin with which, and surround the clause with
commas, showing it is not essential to understand the sentence (But it is relevant.)
The reason why they did it will never be known.
The word why is a pronoun because it stands for the reason. It relates, restricts and
defines the reason, so it is a relative pronoun. It is restrictive, so no comma.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns refer to someone or something that has not been clearly
identified. The indefinite pronoun someone refers to a noun, but this noun is not
definitely identified. It means a person in general, or any person.
Indefinite Pronouns
Singular
another, anyone,
anybody, anything,
each, either, enough,
everyone, everybody,
everything, neither,
nobody, nothing, no
one, someone,
somebody,
something, sufficient
Plural both, few, many,
several
Any and Some
Any is used in negative statement and in questions. Some is used in positive
statements. Any can be singular or plural.
Are there any people here?
Yes, there are some.
No, there aren't any.
No, none have arrived.
Is anyone here?
Yes, someone is waiting.
No, there isn't anyone here.
No, no one is here. Gender Problems
These are in the third person, and so their pronouns are he, she or it. As we do not
have a gender-free, third person singular personal pronoun, we get sentences like this:
If anyone replies, ask him his name.
If all those considered are male (or in the equivalent sentence using her and her, are
all female), then this is acceptable. However, when the replies can be from either sex,
we might wish to be clearer:
If anyone replies, ask him or her his or her name. This is currently correct in standard English.
We can say, or write informally:
If anyone replies, ask them their names.
It is grammatically incorrect, because, at present, anyone is singular, and them and
their are plural. (Perhaps in the future this will be allowed). Nonetheless, when the
gender is indeterminate or mixed, we may co-opt ‘their’ to serve as a third person
gender-free singular! Nowadays, I use nearly always us ‘their’ in this context.
Sometimes we can use a plural to avoid this problem:
If there are any replies, ask them their names. That is, we say it in a different way, retaining correct grammar and good style.
Notes on Gender Free
Traditionally, he can refer to either a male or a female; however, she is always
feminine. When she is used, it definitely excludes males. However, when he is used,
it does not necessarily exclude females. It is less sexist to use he than to use she,
when both genders are referred to. Sometimes she is used in a document to refer to
both genders, but if ‘he’ is considered sexist, then so is ‘she’. It seems that ‘they’ will
replace ‘he’ and ‘she’ in the future, and, personally, this is what I write. It seems no
more intrusive to say that ‘they’ is used for the third person singular, than to say,
‘she’, or ‘he’ is used to mean both sexes. The advantage, however, is that ‘they’ is
gender free.
The following use of ‘their’, however, is definitely wrong:
Every father wants the best for their daughter. ‘Every father’ requires the pronoun ‘his’, just as ‘Every mother’ requires ‘she’.
Demonstrative Pronouns
We use the demonstrative pronouns, this, that, these and those, when pointing to
something or some things, or referring to something previously mentioned.
Examples
The pronouns this, that, these and those can be pure pronouns, or both pronouns and
determiners. As determiners, they appear before a noun, and tell us which noun we are
talking about. For example, that woman refers to a particular woman who is being
pointed out or has been mentioned earlier, or otherwise identified.
Pronoun Comment Determiner and
Pronoun
That is the woman who
pressed the button.
that is a pronoun because
it stands for 'the woman
over there'.
That woman
pressed the button.
He gave me this.
this is a pronoun because
it stands for 'the thing
here'.
He gave me this
report.
Of all the flowers in the
garden, these are the
ones I like best.
these is a pronoun because
it stands for 'the flowers
here'.
These flowers are
the ones I like best..
Can I have some of
those?
those is a pronoun
because it stands for 'the
things over there'.
I'd like those
chocolates, please.
Possessive Pronouns
mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs are possessive pronouns. They are also
personal pronouns.
Examples
The pen is my pen. The pen is mine.
Is this your hat? Is this yours?
His car is in the garage. His is in the garage.
Her money has been paid. Hers has been paid.
Can you see their book? This one is theirs.
Our time has come. Ours has come.
Interrogative Pronouns
These pronouns are part of questions:
Who was there? The interrogative pronouns are: what, which, who, whom, and whose.
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
The following are reflexive or intensive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
Reflexive pronouns are used when the object of the action is the subject. For instance:
I washed myself. (reflexive) The person washing and the person being washed are the same.
Intensive pronouns, as their name suggests, intensify statements:
I saw it myself.
We created it ourselves.
Subjects, Objects and Predicates
Subjects and Predicates
A simple sentence has a subject and a predicate. The subject tells us who or what the
sentence is about, and the predicate tells us about the subject. In the table below, the
simple sentences are divided into subject and predicate.
Subject Predicate
I sneezed.
Martin ate the food.
Cecile likes fish and
chips.
The man in the iron
mask was in jail.
Thinking too much makes you
miserable.
The subject of a sentence functions as a noun. A word, phrase or clause that functions
as noun can be replaced by a pronoun. This fact can sometimes help us to identify the
subject of a sentence. In the sentences above, we can replace the subject with a
pronoun, and it still makes sense (with a possible change in the person of the verb).
Another approach is to ask, Who or what before the verb, and the answer is the
subject of the sentence. For instance:
Down into the depths went the old steamer.
Ask, 'What went (down into the depths)?', and the answer is the subject: the old
steamer.
Her work on the new virus brough her instant fame.
Ask Who or what brought (her instant fame)? and we have the subject: Her
work on the new virus.
The subject does not have to come first in the sentence:
To succeed in maths (object) the student (subject) needs to study for
many years.
What is important (object) is that the scientists (subject) think it out.
Over the wall appeared a familiar face (subject).
Objects
A verb may have a direct object or an indirect object, or no object at all. Verbs that
have an object are called transitive verbs, and those which do not are called
intransitive. (See also, linking verbs).
Example Alternative Comment
The parson gave a
sermon to the
congregation.
The parson gave
the congregation a
sermon.
The thing given is a
sermon (the direct
object) and it was
given to the
congregation (the
indirect object).
Jo said it was late. (Only a direct
object)
The thing said is "it
was late", and is the
direct object.
They handed me the
papers.
They handed the
papers to me.
The thing handed over
is "the papers" (direct
object) and the indirect
object is "me".
The officer made the
cake for me.
The officer made
me a cake.
The thing made is "the
cake" (direct object)
and the receiver of this
object is "me".
(indirect object).
I gave her them. I gave them to her.
The direct object is
"them" and "her" is the
indirect object.
The indirect object can sometimes be identified because it can be preceded by to or
for. In the above examples, the indirect object is either preceded with to or for, or it
comes before the direct object.
Note: In "Can you attend to this for me?", the ‘to’ is part of the verb,
and the direct object, the thing attended to, is this. The indirect object
is ‘me’.
Verbs
Verbs have person, number, tense, voice and mood.
Identifying Verbs
A verb shows an action, or a state or condition. The verbs in the table below are in
bold.
Verbs
Example Comment
The elephant
trumpeted.
trumpeted is what
the elephant did.
The store is open. is tells us the state of
the store.
The point strikes
you at once.
strikes tells us what
the point did.
I feel good feel tells us I am in a
good condition.
She is wrong. is tells us she is in a
wrong state.
We can identify verbs in sentences by asking the question: What is (the subject) doing
(or being)?
Pronoun Test Only a verb can follow a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, it) and make sense.
verb non-verb
I think I cognitive event
I ran I running
I sneezed I nose
I contemplated I thinker
I am I human
I feel I pain
Therefore, we can test whether a word is a verb by seeing if it makes sense when it
following I, you, he, she, it. If we replace the subject of the sentence (or clause) with a
personal pronoun and the sentence makes sense, the word following must be a verb.
For instance:
The lost boys returned home.
In the sentence, we can replace "The lost boys" with the pronoun They to get "They
returned home". Because returned follows a pronoun in the given sentence, returned
is a verb in that sentence.
In addition, we can ask "What did they do?". Here we are applying the definition of a
verb. The answer, "They returned", shows returned is the verb.
Parts of Verbs
The main parts of a verb are:
The infinitive, which is normally the to- form: to be, to have, to work, to feel,
to think. The infinitive often functions as a noun.
The present participle, which is the -ing form: being, having, working,
feeling, thinking. This is sometimes called a gerund, when it acts as a noun. It
can also act as an adjective.
The past participle, which is regularly the -ed form: been, had, worked, felt,
thought. It can function as an adjective.
Auxiliary Verbs
There are verbs that help other verbs to form verb phrases. The primary auxiliary
verbs are:
be, do and have.
In these sentences:
I am going tomorrow.
I did answer the letter.
I have eaten enough. The auxiliary verbs help other verbs to make a verb phrase.
The three main auxiliary verbs in English can also be main verbs, when they can stand
alone:
I am happy.
I did it.
I have a coat.
There are 11 other auxiliary verbs, called modal auxiliary verbs:
can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, and ought to
and used to
These help other verbs to indicate certainty and uncertainty, and in various ways show
time.
Verb Phrases
A verb phrase is the verb part of a sentence. It can have one verb or several.
He ran.
He could have run.
The dog is being stroked by him. The words in bold above are verb phrases.
Verb Tenses
We have two verb tenses in English: present and past; the future is formed by using
auxiliary verbs. There is no future verb tense in English.
Present Tense
Simple Present The present simple is simply the present tense of the verb.
The simple present is used to indicate something that is always true, or a present state
or disposition. The following examples are statements that are always true, now,
yesterday, and in the future, so we use the present simple:
The sun rises every morning.
Animals can move.
Mathematics is the science of number.
Hydrogen is the lightest gas. Scientific truths and principles are often stated in the simple present.
The next statements are ones that are true habitually, or under certain circumstances,
but not necessarily at the time they are said:
I seek the truth.
Do you play tennis.
The army moves on the enemy.
He loses his temper. The statements may not be true at the time they are uttered. For instance, a person
might claim they play tennis, but this does not mean they are playing it at the time.
Similarly, a scientist might seek the truth, but might not be seeking it at the time the
statement is made. We use the present progressive to say what we are doing at the
moment.
The present simple is used to indicate a present state:
I feel good.
I am full.
She is happy These statements are true at the time they are uttered. In speaking of feelings we often
use the present simple to refer to the present state. (This is an exception because
normally we use the present progressive for reporting on the present.)
The simple present can be used to refer to the future:
The bus leaves in 5 minutes.
Or the past:
The car drives at me. I scream and try to avoid it. There is a screech of
brakes... This is sometimes called the historic past and is meant to dramatize the action, making
the reader think it is happening now.
Present Progressive (Present Continuous)
This is formed by using the present tense of the verb to be and the present participle.
The present progressive is used to refer to what is happening at the moment:
The sun is rising.
The birds are chirping.
Share prices are dropping.
Sometimes it is used to refer to something that is true temporarily:
I live in London, but I am living in New York (temporarily, at the
moment).
I am coughing a lot. (As I have a cold at the moment.)
She is travelling to work by horse, while here car is in the garage. Present Perfect The present perfect is formed from the present tense of have and the past participle.
The present perfect form of the verb is used to refer to something that has been
happening up to the present, but has now stopped.
I have eaten the food.
I have played sport this morning.
I have studied physics.
I have had a cold. These refer to past events which have now finished.
been and gone
Consider these sentences:
He has been to America.
He has gone to America. The first means has travelled to America and returned. The second means he has
travelled to America, but has not yet returned. These are two forms of the past
Words which are normally considered conjunctions, such as and, but, for, nor, yet,
and or are considered linking adverbs when they begin a sentence. Conjunctions
cannot be used to begin a sentence, because they link two words or two clauses, not
two sentences. But words which look like conjunctions, when acting as linking
adverbs, can be so used. For instance:
She hated cricket. And she hated soccer even more. She hated
cricket. She hated soccer even more.
And is a linking adverb not a conjunction. It, unlike a conjunction, can be omitted
without drastically affecting the sentences. Also, unlike a conjunction, it does not link
two words or clauses, but links two sentences.
Because they link sentences, not clauses, linking adverbs are always preceded by a
full stop or a semicolon. For instance:
Bob does not like sport; hence, he isn't coming to the game. Bob does not like sport; he
isn't coming to the game.
Or
Bob does not like sport. Hence, he isn't coming to the game. Bob does not like sport. He
isn't coming to the game.
In the above sentences, we can omit the linking adverb, hence, and the sentences
remain grammatical and still make sense. (Of course, we also need to omit the
comma, and need to capitalise the first word of the sentence).
Stance
These adverbs often show the speakers attitude or emotion and include: probably, perhaps, surely, oddly, actually, officially, obviously, clearly, wisely, morally,
disgustingly
Adding in Positive and Negative Sentences
Some adverbs have the effect of adding or subtracting. I went fishing. So did Harry.
I went fishing. Harry went too.
I went fishing. Harry went also.
The adverbs so, also and too add some of the meaning of the first sentence in the
pairs above to the second one. They have the idea of in addition.
In these sentences: Teresa did not go. Nor did I. (I, too, did not go.)
Teresa did not go. Neither did I.
Teresa did not go. I didn't either.
The words nor, neither and either also have the idea of in addition (too), and are
used in negative expressions.
Words used like this include: neither, nor, too, so, either, else, also
Prepositional Adverbs (or Particles)
Prepositional adverbs have the word form of a preposition, but function as an adverb,
that is they modify verbs, often saying where the action takes place. For example:
Some shady characters were hanging around.
We stayed in.
Put that down!
It was living inside.
She lives opposite.
We examined it through and through.
All the words in bold above are prepositional adverbs. They differ from prepositions
in that they modify a verb (adverbial) and they do not stand before a noun.
Prepositional adverbs are used to form phrasal verbs. When they do this, they change
the meaning of the verb. That is, act as an adverb by modifying a verb. For instance:
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words or phrases that join two nouns, phrases or clauses. There are
two types: coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions join two grammatically equal elements; for instance, two
main clauses. These conjunctions include: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Remembered with the mnemonic FANBOYS.
Other classes of words have a linking function. For instance, linking adverbs can link
clauses together. The table below shows the four main functions of coordinating
conjunctions. (The adverb column has been added for comparison).
Function Example
Conjunctions
Example
Linking
Adverbs
Addition and, nor furthermore
Alternative Or alternatively
Contrast but, yet however
Inference for, so therefore
Examples
When they got there the place was
empty and they found no evidence
the place had been occupied recently.
and joins the clause before to the one
after. It does not indicate any particular
relationship between them, and the clauses
can be interchanged.
There was a bang and the lights went
out.
and joins the two clauses, but they cannot
be interchanged. It tells us that event of the
first clause comes before the event of the
second.
She had waited all day but couldn't
get in to see them.
but joins the two clauses, indicating some
contrast between them.
You can choose this one or that one,
but not both.
or joins the first and the second clauses,
indicating an alternative. but joins the
second and third clauses, indicating an
exception
The Morning Star or the Evening Star
are names for Venus
or indicates an alternative name, not
two choices.
He always studied hard, yet he never
seemed to do well.
yet joins the two clauses, indicating a
contrast.
He felt despondent, for he had
searched all day, yet he had not found
them.
for joins the first two clauses indicating a
cause or reason. yet joins the last two
clauses, indicating a contrast.
The conjunction and sometimes tells us little or nothing about the relationship
between the two clauses, but implies they belong together. Sometimes it means after
that, and the first clause occurs earlier in time than the second. When used like this,
the clauses cannot be interchanged. For instance: There was a bang and the lights went out. (‘after that’)
Do that again and I’ll leave. (Cause and effect)
The other conjunctions in the table above tell us some relationship. For instance, yet tells us the two clauses are contrasted. If the only conjunction we can think of to relate
two clauses is and, then we should make sure the two clauses really belong together.
For instance: The police and the doctors are trying to find out the cause of death.
The police and the doctors are seeking the same end, discovering the cause of death.
So they belong together in the sentence.
Mary is beautiful. She has a pretty face and plays the violin.
If the topic is beauty, we might wonder how and plays the violin is relevant. This
should be made clear.
Mary is beautiful both to look at and to listen to. She has a pretty face and a fine
figure. She plays the violin expertly.
Subordinating Conjunctions
While the coordinating conjunctions join two equal parts of the sentence, the
subordinating conjunctions join a modifying clause to a main clause. Subordinating
conjunctions include:
time
When he comes, I will be ready.
Before the clock struck seven, they had assembled
in the road.
After the sun rises, we will set out on our journey.
Once we have the information, we will begin the
analysis.
place The city was located where the old castle had been.
comparison They were as ready as they would ever be.
He was as tall as she was (tall).
condition The church bells will ring, if the Vikings land.
Unless we stay till late, we can get a bus home.
contrast
Although she was very popular, she wasn't pretty.
She was a good actress, while he was only a
mediocre actor.
He used to be reckless, whereas now he is
cautious.
cause or
reason
The bomb went off because they lit the fuse.
She was annoyed, as they had not completed the
work.
All had been forgotten, since it was long ago.
Double Conjunctions (Correlatives)
Coordinating double conjunctions join two equal clauses:
Correlating Conjunctions
Double
Conjunction Example
both...and He told them both where to go and how to get there.
either...or She could either have one week abroad or two weeks at
home.
neither...nor It was neither possible nor advisable.
not only...but
(also) She was not only their mentor, but also their friend.
Subordinating double conjunctions join two clauses: one clause is subordinated
to the other.
Subordinating Double Conjunctions
Double
Conjunction Example
if ...then If he had told the truth, then he wouldn't be in trouble.
scarcely...when Scarcely had she gone out, when he arrived.
hardly...when He had hardly finished cleaning the car, when they
arrived.
more...than No one loves you more truly than I.
less...than He was less a rogue than a fool.
so...that She was so angry that she could have cried.
such...that The place was such a problem in terms of maintenance
that he sold it.
Prepositions
Prepositions are words that relate noun phrases, or pronouns, with another part of the
sentence. They always have an object (a noun), but they do not always precede this
object, although they often do. The prepositions in the table below are in bold. To find
the object, ask "<preposition> whom or what?" For example, "Under what?" Simple
prepositions are ones that consist of one word.
Simple Prepositions
Sentence Comment
The book was
under the chair.
Under what?
The chair. The chair is
the object of the
preposition "under".
The cat jumped
on the table.
On what?
The table. .
We left before
the end.
Before what?
The end.
The bird flew
over the house.
Over what?
The house.
It is ten past five.
Past what?
Five.
She dreamed of travelling
beyond the stars.
Of what?
Travelling.
Beyond what?
The stars.
The waste is
produced during
the process.
During what?
The process.
He argued
strongly against them.
Against what?
Them.
They worked for
the mayor.
For whom?
The mayor.
The following words in bold are also prepositions:
Example Comment
They visited circa
321 BC
circa what?
321 BC.
The diploma was
awarded cum laud.
Cum what?
Laud.
He comes everyday
except Saturdays.
Except what?
Saturdays.
10 minus 1 plus 2
is 11.
Minus what?
1.
Plus what?
2.
He did it
notwithstanding
the risk.
Notwithstanding
what?
The risk.
She was paid per
hour.
Per what?
Hour.
We travelled via the
underpass.
Via what?
The underpass.
I was happy with
this project vis a vis
the other one.
Vis a vis what?
The other one.
The phrase formed by a preposition is an adverbial phrase, or an adjectival phrase.
Complex Prepositions
Simple prepositions consist of one word only. The examples in the previous section
are simple prepositions. Complex prepositions consist of more than one word. Some
are wordy and in bad style.
Complex
Preposition Example
according to Stranding prepositions is
acceptable, according to
Fowler.
ahead of We are releasing the document
ahead of time.
along with
as a consequence
of
As a consequence of their
discussion, plans were made for
the new department.
as far as The land is clear as far as the
sea.
as for As for Tom
as per Please bring all the items as
per our letter.
as to
as well as You can do it as well as him.
aside from Aside from the earlier matter,
we can go ahead.
because of Because of the storm, the roads
were impassable.
by means of We will get their by means of boat.
close to Keep close to the shore.
due to The absence was due to
illness.
except for Except for Jill, everyone is
welcome.
far from They were far from home.
for use in This is for use in medical
products only.
in accordance
with
This is quite in accordance
with the regulations.
in addition to In addition to soap, bring a
towel.
in association
with
This page is produced in
association with Brian.
in breach of He was in breach of our sacred
laws.
in case of
in charge of He is in charge of the project.
in conjunction
with
I shall investigate the matter in
conjunction with my
colleagues.
in contrast to Her response was sharply in
contrast to his.
in control of She was in control of the
machine.
in front of The cat sat in front of the
dairy.
in keeping with This is in keeping with the
prevailing paradigm.
in lieu of You can stay here in lieu of payment.
in line with The action taken was in line
with our policy.
in order to He measured the quantities in
order to avoid error.
in place of Use this in place of that.
in reference to My work is in reference to
previous research.
in respect of There was disagreement in
respect of the new plan.
in response to I am writing in response to
your letter.
in spite of In spite of the war, he
continued his work.
instead of I'd like the ice cream instead
of the cake.
on behalf of I would like to thank everyone
on behalf of the government.
on top of On top of the building was a
strange, metallic thing.
on top of The fairy is on top of the
Christmas tree.
owing to Owing to the quarrel, we have
not spoken for days.
prior to They were always together,
prior to their quarrel.
regardless of All are welcome, regardless
of race, creed or religion.
subsequent to Subsequent to our discussion,
I would like to add some more
points.
See also: Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal Verbs and Prepositional Verbs
These are constructions that are used frequently in conversation. They are not traditionally
studied as part of grammar. But are very important to people learning English as a second
language. They are also important for native speakers. For instance, it may not be a good idea
to use a preposition to end a sentence with. But in the previous sentence, we need to know
whether ‘with’ is acting as a preposition, or whether it is part of the phrasal verb ‘end with’.
In the latter case, the object (a sentence) can come between the base verb (end) and its
particle (with).
Different writers use the terms ‘phrasal verb’ and ‘prepositional verb’ differently.
This section refers to verbs that are accompanied by particles (often ones that have the form
of prepositions). The ‘phrasal verbs’ are ones that have a different meaning from the base
verb and the particle can be separated from the base verb. For instance, the phrasal verb ‘look
up’ can be split, as in the following sentences:
Look up the word
Look the word up
The meaning of look up, here, is ‘seek information (from)’, which is different from the
normal meaning of ‘look’. [The expression, ‘look up’, in ‘Look up there!’ is not a phrasal
verb, and ‘up’ is a simple adverb.]
Compared with phrasal verbs, the ‘prepositional verb’, ‘look at’, forms a single unit of
meaning and cannot be split into ‘look’ and ‘at’. Also ‘at’ does not change the meaning of
‘look’. It still means ‘direct the gaze’.
A verb plus prepositional adverb is a phrasal verb only when:
1. The verb's meaning changes.
For instance, the phrasal verb ‘look up’ has a different meaning from the verb
‘look’.
2. It is possible to place the object of the verb (if there is one) between the verb
and the prepositional adverb.
For example, the phrasal verb ‘look up’ (in red below) can have its
prepositional adverb, ‘up’, before the object (shown in bold):
‘I looked up the word’
Or after the object:
‘I looked the word up.’
Phrasal Verbs
Example Alternative
I looked the word up. I looked up the word.
She brought up an She brought an interesting
interesting point in the
meeting. point up in the meeting.
Oh! Have they fallen out [had a quarrel] again?
(No object)
They have decided to give
smoking up.
They have decided to give up
smoking.
Phrasal verbs differ from prepositional verbs in the previous mentioned two ways.
See comparison of phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs.
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are composed of a verb and a prepositional adverb. The prepositional
adverb, which has the word form of a preposition, modifies the verb and changes its
literal meaning. In addition, the prepositional adverb can precede the object as a Noun
Phrase, or follow it, as in the examples in the table below. If the object is a pronoun, it
must come before the particle (prepositional adverb).
Phrasal Verbs
Example Alternative
The lift has broken down. (No object)
Noun Phrase
She brought an interesting
point up in the meeting.
She brought up an
interesting point in the
meeting.
Preposition She brought it up in the
meeting.
She brought up it in the
meeting.
No object Oh! Have they fallen out [had a quarrel] again?
(No object)
Noun Phrase They have decided to give
smoking up.
They have decided to give
up smoking.
Preposition They have decided to give
it up.
They have decided to give
up it.
No object His children are grown
up. (No object)
Noun Phrase I looked the word up. I looked up the word.
Preposition I looked it up. I looked up it.
Noun Phrase She put the meeting off.
She put off the meeting.
Preposition She put it off. She put off it.
Noun Phrase They ran the dog over. They ran over the dog.
Preposition They ran it over. They ran over it. [But
this isn’t the same verb—
perhaps it is ‘to cross by
running’, rather than ‘to
injure or kill by running
over. ]
Noun Phrase We turned the TV off. We turned off the TV.
Preposition We turned it off. We turned off it.
The phrasal verbs, shown in bold, differ in meaning from the literal form of the verb.
They differ from prepositional verbs.
See comparison of phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs.
Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are formed by adding a preposition to a verb.
The following are examples of prepositional verbs:
I switched the radio off, because there was nothing worth listening to.
This belongs to me.
You cannot live on bread alone.
This is more than I can put up with. [The end word, ‘with’ is not a
preposition, but part of the prepositional verb, ‘put up with’.]
Your cat keeps looking at me.
As she has everything, there is nothing else to wish for. [The end word, ‘for is
not a preposition, but part of the prepositional verb, ‘wish for’.]
Unlike phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs:
Form a single idea. The verb and the preposition cannot be separated (split).
So the object of the verb cannot follow the verb: This belongs me to.
The prepositional form does not change the verb's meaning.
The prepositional part of a prepositional verb may come at the end of a clause. See the
next section.
Comparison of Phrasal Verbs and Prepositional Verbs
Phrasal Verb Prepositional Verb
Stress
In speech you often stress the
particle, and your intonation
rises.
In speech, you do not stress the
preposition and your intonation
drops.
Meaning
The meaning of the verb
changes from its basic
meaning.
The verb and the preposition form
a single idea. The basic meaning
of the verb isn't changed.
Noun
Phrase
If you write the verb's object
as a Noun Phrase, you can
write it before or after the
particle.
If you write the verb's object as a
Noun Phrase, you must place it
after the preposition.
Pronoun
If you write the verb's object
as a Pronoun, you must write
the particle after it.
If you write the verb's object as a
Pronoun, you must write the
preposition before it.
Adverb
You cannot place an adverb
between the verb and its
particle.
You can place an adverb between
the verb and its preposition.
Pied
Piping
The phrasal verb cannot be
pied piped.
The prepositional verb can be
pied piped.
The following table shows examples of the points in the above table.
Phrasal Verb Prepositional Verb
Stress She wrote the project up. He wrote to his friend.
Meaning write up=compose a report,
etc, from notes.
write to= compose and send a
letter, etc, to
Noun
Phrase
She wrote the project up.
She wrote up the project.
He wrote his friend to.
He wrote to his friend.
Pronoun She wrote it up.
She wrote up it.
He wrote him to.
He wrote to him.
Adverb
She wrote the project willingly
up.
She wrote the project up
willingly.
He wrote willingly to his
friend.
Pied
Piping
The project up which she
wrote.
The friend to whom he wrote.
Pro-forms
Pro-forms are not really part of grammar, and this topic could be discussed under
ellipsis or substitution. The purpose of this section is draw attention to the use of
words as replacements for other words and expressions.
A pro-form is a word that replaces a previously mentioned word or expression (or
idea) and takes its meaning. Pro-forms have a similar function to pronouns (which are
pro-forms). Strictly speaking, however, a pronoun is a word that stands for a noun.
Conventially, pronouns are considered to stand for groups of words including
sentences and even for ideas, inferred from the text. It is sometimes useful, however,
to be aware that some words stand for other parts of speech. For instance: Bob ran in the marathon. Betty did too.
In the sentence above, did means ran. Clearly, did isn't a pronoun (it replaces a verb),
although it has the substituting quality of pronouns. We can think of did as a pro-verb.
The word too is also a pro-form replacing in the marathon, and adding the normal
adverb too, meaning in addition to the previously mentioned (Bob).
Pro-nouns
A pro-noun is a word that substitutes for a noun. All pro-nouns are pronouns, but
some pronouns are not pro-nouns. For instance: My neighbour'cat was unwell. This made me feel sad.
The pronoun this refers to the previous sentence, and is a pro-sentence, not a pro-
noun.
Pro-verbs
The most common pro-verb is do. They speak too groups. I do too.
Where do replaces speak.
Jack could lift heavy weights. So could Mary.
We can consider could in the second sentence to mean could lift. In the second
sentence could is a pro-verb. However, in the meaning, could lift, could is a normal
verb: it does not stand for another word. A word acting as a pro-form is sometimes
repeated in the meaning in its normal form. The word so is also a pro-form replacing
heavy weights.
We could have written the sentence, using too instead of so, like this: Jack could lift heavy weights. Mary could too.
Where could is similarly a pro-veb meaning could lift. The word too is also a pro-
form meaning lift heavy weights (too), where the repeated word too is an adverb of
manner.
He is flying to America. I may too.
The word may is a pro-verb in the above sentence.
Pro-adjectives
Her dress is green. Mine is too.
The word too is a pro-adjective, standing for the adjective green. Again we could have
written the sentence using so instead of too: Her dress is green. So is mine.
Where so is a pro-adjective meaning green.
Pro-adverbs
He exercised regularly. I did too.
The word too stands for regularly, so it is a pro-adverb. (‘did’ stands for exercised,
and is a pro-verb). Jo did the work well. Bill did it similarly.
The word similarly stands for well, and is a pro-adverb.
Other pro-forms
Pro-forms can replace other expressions. I gave an example of a pro-sentence above.
The Substitution Test
If a word or phrase can substitute a word or phrase in a sentence; that is, the sentence
is grammatical with the substitute, then the substitute has the same or similar function
to the word substituted in that sentence. Sometimes, we cannot substitute a word or
expression in the same place in the sentence as another word or expression, although
the substitutions are nonetheless equivalent. For instance, see adjectives, where an
adjective usually precedes a headword, but an adjectival phrase follows it. Also, it
may be necessary to change the person of the verb.
Nouns
For instance, we can substitute Tom for Hermonie in the sentence:
Hermonie went home. Tom went home.
We know that Tom is a proper noun, and because substituting Tom for Hermonie
makes a grammatical sentence, then we can conclude that Tom and Hermonie
perform similar functions in the sentence. In fact, both are proper nouns.
Pronouns
We can substitute she for Hermonie in the above sentence:
Hermonie went home. She went home.
Because the sentence is grammatical, we can conclude that she and Hermonie have a
similar function in the sentence. We know that Hermonie is a noun, and so she must
be a noun, or a pronoun. It is, of course a pronoun.
Verbs
In the sentence below, we can substitute ran for helter-skeltered:
Tom helter-skeltered down the road. Tom ran down the road.
helter-skelter therefore has a function similar to ran. They are both verbs.
Adjectives
We can substitute big for black in the following sentence:
The black cat crossed the road. The big cat crossed the road.
With adjectives, we might have to substitute an expression after the noun with an
word before the noun.
We saw a man who was tall. We saw a tall man.
We cannot substitute the adjective tall in first sentence in the same place as the
expression who was tall, but need to put it before the noun man. However, the
expression who was tall has the same effect as the adjective tall, so it functions as an
adjective.
Conjunctions
If we substitute and for but in the following sentence, we get:
Harry was usually mean but he always gave to charity. Harry was usually mean and he
always gave to charity.
The sentence is still grammatical (although illogical) so ‘but’ performs the same
function as ‘and’ in this sentence. So ‘but’ is a conjunction.