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2011 United Nations Environment Programme

Publication: Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. Published October 2011ISBN: 978-92-807-3190-3

Job Number: DEW/1234/NA

This Report has been prepared within the framework of UNEPs fth Global Environment Outlook (GEO-5) reporting process. Itcomplements the detailed information on the status and trends of the global environment and information on related policy measures.

Disclaimers

The content and views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reect the views or policies, or carrythe endorsement of the contributory organisations or the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The designations employed andthe presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning thelegal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers and boundaries. Reference to acommercial company or product in this publication does not imply the endorsement of UNEP.

Maps, photos, and illustrations as specied.

Reproduction

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-prot purposes without special permissionfrom the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publicationthat uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoeverwithout prior permission in writing from UNEP. Applications for such permission, with a statement of purpose and intent of the reproduction,should be addressed to the Director, Division of Communications and Public Information (DCPI), UNEP, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100,Kenya. The use of information from this publication concerning proprietary products for publicity or advertising is not permitted.

This publication was printed on 100 Per Cent chlorine free paper from sustainable managed forests using vegetable inks and

water-based varnish.

Citation

UNEP (2011). Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012).Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi

Produced by

UNEP Division of Early Warning and AssessmentUnited Nations Environment Programme

P.O. Box 30552Nairobi, 00100, Kenya

Tel: (+254) 20 7621234Fax: (+254) 20 7623927E-mail: [email protected]: www.unep.org

This publication is available from http://www.unep.orgUNEP

promotes environmentally sound

practices globally and in its own activities. This

publication is printed on 100 Per Cent chlorine free paperfrom sustainably managed forests. Our distribution policy

aims to reduce UNEPs carbon footprint.


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i

Keeping Track of Our Changing EnvironmentFrom Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)


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ForewordIn 1992, the rst United Nations Conference on SustainableDevelopment, popularly known as the Rio Earth Summit, was convenedin Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to address the state of the environment and

sustainable development. The Earth Summit yielded several importantagreements including Agenda 21, a plan of action adopted by over178 governments to address human impacts on the environment atlocal, national and global levels, and key treaties on climate change,desertication and biodiversity. At the second Conference in 2002theWorld Summit on Sustainable Developmentgovernments agreedon the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, reafrming theircommitment to Agenda 21. In 2012, the United Nations Conferenceon Sustainable Development, or Rio+20 Earth Summit, will focuson the Green Economy in the context of sustainable development,

poverty eradication, and the institutional framework for sustainabledevelopment. The object is to renew political commitment tosustainable development, review progress and identify implementationgaps, and address new and emerging challenges.

This publication serves as a timely update on what has occurredsince the Earth Summit of 1992 and is part of the wider GlobalEnvironment Outlook-5 (GEO-5) preparations that will lead to therelease of the landmark GEO-5 report in May 2012. It underlineshow in just twenty years, the world has changed more than most ofus could ever have imaginedgeopolitically, economically, sociallyand environmentally. Very few individuals outside academic andresearch communities envisaged the rapid pace of change or foresawdevelopments such as the phenomenal growth in information andcommunication technologies, ever-accelerating globalisation, privatesector investments across the world and the rapid economic rise ofa number of developing countries. Many rapid changes have alsotaken place in our environment, from the accumulating evidenceof climate change and its very visible impacts on our planet, to

biodiversity loss and species extinctions, further degradation of landsurfaces and the deteriorating quality of oceans. Certainly, there havebeen some improvements in the environmental realm, such as thesignicant reduction in ozone-depleting chemicals and the emergenceof renewable energy sources, new investments into which totalledmore than $200 thousand million in 2010. But in too many areas,the environmental dials continue to head into the red.

This innovative report is based entirely on statistical data and indicatorsand shows where the world stands on many social, economic and

environmental issues as we enter the second decade of the 21st century.Drivers of environmental change including population increase andeconomic growth, and especially the status of natural resources andlandscapes, are clearly illustrated. Numbers plotted on straightforward

graphs show upward and downward trends, which, along with satelliteimages, tell the story of dramatic changes.

Maintaining a healthy environment remains one of the greatest globalchallenges. Without concerted and rapid collective action to curb anddecouple resource depletion and the generation of pollution fromeconomic growth, human activities may destroy the very environmentthat supports economies and sustains life.

The upcoming Rio+20 Conference presents a timely, global-levelopportunity to address one of its own stated objectives: to assessprogress and gaps in implementing goals as part of an accelerationand scaling-up of transformative actions, programmes and policies. As

we move towards the Rio+20 Conference in an ever-more globalisedand integrated world, the need to chart progress towards a globalGreen Economy and more efcient and effective internationalenvironmental governance becomes vital. Without quantied targets,our environmental goals cannot turn theory into reality. Numeric andtime-bound targets have certainly aided in progress made towards theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs), for example, and should beapplied towards our environmental objectives as well.

This publication helps to tell the story of where the world was 20

years ago and where we collectively stand today, and to show thedirection in which we need to move in a post-Rio+20 world. It alsohighlights the missing pieces in our knowledge about the state ofenvironment such as those related to freshwater quality and quantity,ground water depletion, ecosystem services, loss of natural habitat, landdegradation, chemicals and wastedue to lack of regular monitoring,collection and compilation of data. Scientically-credible data forenvironmental monitoring remains inadequate and the challenge ofbuilding in-country capacity to produce better policy-relevant dataneeds urgent attention.

We hope this report will inform all those participating in the Rio+20events and the entire process and help set the world on a path towardsa more sustainable environment.

Achim Steiner

United Nations Under-Secretary-General

and Executive Director, UNEP


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Table of Contents ivIntroduction & Scope

vWhats New Since Rio 1992?

viiGoals & Targets in theGlobal Environment

Population & Human Development 2 Total Population

2 Historical World Population

3 Population Growth Rate

4 Urban Population

5 Megacities

5 Top 10 Megacities

6 Population in Chinas Pearl River Delta(Satellite Image)

7People Living in Slums

8 Age Distribution

8 Life Expectancy

9 Food Supply

10 Human Development Index

11 Proportion of Seats Held by Womenin National Parliaments

Economy 13 GDP per Capita, Total13 GDP per Capita, Change

14 Per Capita Gross Domestic Product

14 Gross Domestic Productper Capita (Map)

15 Trade

16 Global Materials Extraction

17 Resource Efciency

Environmental Trends

Atmosphere21 Emissions of CO2

- Total

21 Emissions of CO2

- per Capita

22 Emissions of CO2

- Total, by Type

22 Emissions of CO2

- Change, by Type

23 Emissions of CO2

per GDP

24 GHG Emitters by Sector

25 Consumption of Ozone-Depleting Substances

25 Ozone Hole, Area and Minimum Ozone

26 Ozone Hole Images

Climate Change28 Atmospheric CO

2Concentration/Keeling Curve

29 Global Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly

29 Temperature Deviation 2000-2009 vs. Mean1951-1980 (Map)

30 Warmest Years on Record

31 Earth Global Temperature Changes by Latitude

32 Ocean Temperature Deviation

32 Global Mean Sea Level33 Ocean Acidication

34 Mountain Glacier Mass Balance

35 September Arctic Sea Ice Extent

35 September Arctic Sea Ice Extent (Satellite Image)

Forests

37 Forest Net Change

37 Mangrove Forest Extent

38 Mato Grosso, Amazon Rainforest (Satellite Image)

39 Forest Plantation Extent

39 Roundwood Production

40 Certied Forest Area

Water

42 Improved Sanitation & Drinking Water Coverage

43 Mesopotamian Marshlands (Satellite Image)

Biodiversity

45 Living Planet Index

46 Red List Index

47 Protected Areas, Total Area

47 Protected Areas, Per cent

Chemicals & Waste

49 Oil Spills from Tankers

50 Plastics Production

Natural Hazards

52 Impacts of Natural Disasters

52 Reported Natural Disasters

53 FloodsMortality Risk, Exposure and Vulnerability

53 Tropical Cyclones - Mortality Risk, Exposure

and Vulnerability

Governance

55 Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Numberand Signatories

55 Number of MEAs Signed (Map)

56 ISO 14001 Certications

57 Carbon Market Size

58 Total Foreign Aid and Environmental Aid

59 Aid Allocated to Environmental Activities

Agriculture61 Food Production Index

62 Cereal Production, Area Harvestedand Fertilizer Consumption

63 Total Area Equipped for Irrigation

64 Saudi Arabia Irrigation Project (Satellite Image)

65 Organic Farming

66 Selected Crops in Humid Tropical

Countries, Area66 Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries,

Change in Area

67 Grazing Animal Herds

Fisheries

69 Exploitation of Fish Stocks

70 Total Fish Catch

70 Tuna Catches

71 Fish Catch and Aquaculture Production

72 Shrimp and Prawn Aquacultures (Satellite Image)

Energy74 Energy Consumption per Capita - Total

74 Energy Consumption per Capita - Change

75 Electricity Production

75 Electricity Production per Capita

76 Nightlights

77 Primary Energy Supply

78 Renewable Energy Supply, Total

78 Renewable Energy Supply, Change

79 Biofuels Production80 Investment in Sustainable Energy

81 Nuclear Power Plants

81 Electricity Production & Nuclear Share

82 Oil Sands (Satellite Image)

Industry, Transport & Tourism84 Cement & Steel Production

85 Air Transport

86 International Tourism, Arrivals

Technology88 Internet Users & Mobile Phone Subscribers

90 Epilogue

91 Data Sources

93 References

93 Acronyms

97 Technical Notes

98 Annex for Aid ToEnvironmental Activities

99 Acknowledgments


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Introduction & ScopeThis publication was conceived with the idea of showing howthe planet has changed in two decadesjust twenty yearssince decision-makers met at the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. Torelay this information in a compelling and succinct manner,environmental and related trends are charted and presentedusing globally-aggregated (and mainly statistical) data setscollected by international agencies, research bodies and otherofcial entities.

Major economic, environmental, social and technologicaltrends are shown through numerically-based graphs, with theirupward, downward or stable trend lines as dictated by thedata. While most of these trends speak for themselves, shortexplanations of the phenomena observed are also provided forfurther elucidation. Also included are a number of illustrativebefore and after satellite images, primarily covering the sametime period of 1992-2010 and showing environmental changesat the local level. In some cases, these impacts are ongoing.

Scope and MethodologyMost of the time-series data were collected directly fromcountries and aggregated to regional and global levels byauthoritative international agencies. The time series indicatorspresented here are based on the best and most comprehensivedata available to date.

Three main criteria were used to select the indicators employedin this publication. First, an approximately 20-year temporal

data record on which the trend charts could be based wasrequired, so as to accurately portray the time period in question.In a few cases (and particularly for recent phenomena such ascarbon trading), a correspondingly shorter time period was usedto provide at least a partial picture to date. Second, the data onwhich the charts are based had to be global in coveragethatis, covering all or at least most countries so as to represent theentire world and not only certain regions. Third, the data hadto be clearly sourced and taken from authoritative and reliableinstitutions with extensive experience in the thematic areastreated in each case.

To ensure reliability, indicator charts are only presented for areaswhere all three data requirements were met. For areas whereone or another of the criteria was not met, such as freshwaterwater availability, groundwater depletion, land degradation andchemicals and waste, any analysis might not be reliable, and sotrends are not provided. Also, the availability of data related tothe environment and natural resources that are disaggregatedby gender (i.e., qualitatively) or sex (i.e., quantitatively) isgenerally poor, especially for developing countries.

The implications of any shortcomings in the data are clear. Topromote evidence-based environmental policies and actions,the underlying data needed to support sound decision-makingmust be part of the equation and be of proven scienticquality. Today, there are several reasons why the quality ofinternational statistics varies greatly. First, statistics may notbe available at the national level; second, the statistics thatare collected may be of poor quality or outdated; and third,the comparability of statistics over time inherently presentschallenges. These deciencies and issues demonstrate the need

for a comprehensive data and information system to optimallymanage the vast array of related policy, scientic, technical,methodological and practical issues. For this to be achieved,the following steps are necessary:

(1) strengthen national-level capacity for collecting andcompiling environmental observations, especially where datagaps exist;

(2) publish and provide access to data using various media; and

(3) develop services to efciently and rapidly provide informationto decision-makers in (an) understandable format(s).

Thus, a comprehensive capability at the global scale is neededto pull together and analyze the wealth of data collectionsthat are available, and to enhance data collection for areaswhere information may be lacking. Within these limitations, itis hoped that this publication provides a clear and reasonably

comprehensive twenty-year story on the state and trends inenvironment and development since 1992.


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v

Whats New? since Rio 1992In terms of environment, what did not exist or was not well-known in 1992?

In the twenty years since the rst Earth Summit in 1992, theworld has changed in ways most of us could not imagine.The Internet, mobile phones and other information andcommunications technologies have made the world a muchsmaller placeand more of a globalized village. An estimatedve billion people have subscribed to mobile phone servicesand there are some two billion Internet users worldwide. Socialmedia have further increased connectivity in recent years, withFacebook, for example, having more than 800 million users

since it was launched in 2004. At the same time, space-basedsatellites can now even zoom in to street level, and providedetailed images in real-time on sophisticated smart-phones.We also see that economic power and production patterns areshifting among regions to the East and South, and that overalltrade volumes are rising steeply.

Perhaps the ways in which our environment has changed arenot so immediately obvious to everyone, but they are at least assignicant. Natural resources are being depleted or degradedsometimes before we realize itand certain metals seem tobecome rare all of a sudden. The ever-increasing demandfor resources such as water, energy, food, minerals and landis driven by growing populations with rising incomes, whilein parallel these resources are increasingly constrained byecosystem changes, inherent variability of weather conditions

and resource productivity, and the impacts of climate change.Within the context of the mega-trends taking place inour rapidly changing world and society, a number of newenvironmental issues and phenomena have arisen since 1992:

1992

2012

Evolution of the Internet: 1992-2012


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New Multilateral Environmental Agreementsand Conventions

Several new Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) andConventions have been established or entered into force in thelast two decades to address emerging global environmentalissues, including the United Nations Framework Convention

on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD), agreements related to chemicals (Basel,Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions), and the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertication (UNCCD).

Awareness of Climate Change

Among much debate and controversy, Climate Change hasbecome a hot topic and entered the policy arena, topping

the global environmental agenda.

The Green Economy

Viable pathways for fundamentally shifting economicdevelopment to become more low-carbon, climate resilient,resource efcient, and socially inclusive, as well as for valuingecosystem services, are now being proposed widely andincreasingly pursued.

Carbon Trading and other Environmental Market Tools

Placing a monetary value on greenhouse gas emissions andcreating a market for trade in carbon is a new and increasinglyutilized concept to address climate change. Other new marketframeworks include biodiversity offset and compensationprograms, habitat credit trading and conservation banking, witha goal toward reducing biodiversity loss and mainstreaming

impacts into economic decisions. Worldwide, at least 45compensatory mitigation programs and more than 1 100mitigation banks now exist (UNDP and GEF 2011).

Markets for Organic Products and Eco-labeling

Consumer demand for goods that are produced in a sustainableway has boosted certication and eco-labeling, such as theForest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the

Endorsement of Forest Certication (PEFC) for forest products,the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) for sh products, andbio or organic labels for many agricultural products includingcoffee, tea and dairy products.

Genetically Modied Organisms

Genetically Modied Organisms (GMOs) have been researchedfor decades, but have gained widespread attention in recentyears, mainly due to prospects for increased food production.However, they remain controversial for a variety of reasons.

Recycling

Although recycling efforts are only beginning in many partsof the world, processing waste into new resources, productsand materials is becoming mainstream policy and practice inseveral countries and regions.

Commercialization of Biofuels, Solar and Wind Energy

While the overall use of renewable energy is still modest,biofuels are gaining a signicant market share, and wind andsolar power production is increasing steeply. Windmills andsolar panels are increasingly abundant, and in the transportsector, hybrid cars have entered the streets and air transportusing biofuels are becoming a reality.

Chemicals Management

Management of toxic and other hazardous chemicals thatthreaten human and ecosystem health has improved. A numberof deadly chemicals have been banned, and as of January 2010

the world is free of chlorouorocarbons (CFC) production.

Nano Materials

Nanotechnology offers signicant opportunities and benetsfor industry and society at large, especially in the elds ofenergy, health care, clean water and climate change. But debateabout this new technology continues and related potentialenvironmental hazards and risks could be emerging.


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Goals & Targetsin the global environment

One of the obstacles to achieving environmental goals set by theinternational community is the lack of sufcient, solid data andmonitoring systems to measure progress. While for two of theinterdependent areas of sustainable developmenteconomicdevelopment and social developmentthe goals are normallymeasured and tracked quantitatively, environmental targetsare largely dened in qualitative terms. On the other hand,those environmental agreements for which specic numericaltargets were set, have been relatively successful. Already in

the 1960s, for example, the World Commission on ProtectedAreas (WCPA) set a target of 10% of global land area to bedesignated as formally protected; today, nearly 13% of theworlds surface is now set aside as protected. Similarly, theMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layerdenes mandatory targets and specic timeframes within whichthe required reductions must be met, and it conducts regularreviews of phase-outs in accordance with scientic updates.It has been hailed as perhaps the most effective environmental

agreement to date. More such initiatives are needed to promoteevidence-based environmental policies and measure progress.The following is a summary of environment-related goals thatincorporate targets and indicators since 1992.

Specic Sets of Environmental Targets

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

In September 2000, leaders from 189 nations agreed on a visionfor the future: a world with less poverty, hunger and disease;greater survival prospects for mothers and their infants; better-educated children; equal opportunities for women; a healthierenvironment; and a world in which developed and developingcountries work in partnership for the betterment of all. This

vision took the shape of eight Millennium Development Goals(MDGs), which provide a framework of time-bound targetsby which progress can be measured. A concise framework ofeight goals and 21 targets towards the MDGs was adopted,along with 60 indicators to measure and show progress. Whileenvironment as a crosscutting theme is part of several MDGs,its signicance in the overall framework is most prominentlyhighlighted in MDG-7: Ensuring Environmental Sustainability.MDG-7 is divided into four targets as set forth below. They

emphasize sustainability principles and reversing naturalresource degradation; reducing biodiversity loss; increasingaccess to safe drinking water and sanitation; and improvingslums (Table 1).

Table 1: UN Millennium Development Goal-7

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability targets IndicatorsTarget 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable 7.1 Proportion of land area covered by forest

development into country policies and programmes 7.2 CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)and reverse the loss of environmental resources 7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances7.4 Proportion of sh stocks within safe biological limits

Target 7.B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 7.5 Proportion of total water resources used2010, a signicant reduction in the rate of loss 7.6 Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected

7.7 Proportion of species threatened with extinction

Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people 7.8 Proportion of population using an improved drinkingwithout sustainable access to safe drinking water and water sourcebasic sanitation 7.9 Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility

Target 7.D: By 2020, to have achieved a signicant 7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slumsimprovement in the lives of at least 100 millionslum dwellers


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The World Summit on Sustainable Development

Additional environmental targets were subsequently adoptedin 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development(WSSD). These relate to: sheries; marine protection; biodiversityloss; access to renewable energy; and phasing out of organicpollutants (Table 2).

The Copenhagen Accord

In 2009, the Copenhagen Accord recognised the need foremission targets that will hold the increase in global temperaturebelow 2C equated by scientists to a concentration level of

450 ppm (parts per million) of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.The Accord today is supported by 114 countries.

Aichi Biodiversity Targets

At its tenth meeting in Nagoya, Japan in October 2010, theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Conference of

the Parties adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan forBiodiversity for the 2011-2020 period, including the set of AichiBiodiversity Targets comprising ve strategic goals and 20 targets.However, these targets have no clear numerical goals, exceptthe following ones:

Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats,

including forests, is at least halved and where feasiblebrought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentationis signicantly reduced.

Target 11: By 2020, at least 17% of terrestrial and inlandwaters, and 10% of coastal and marine areas, especiallyareas of particular importance for biodiversity andecosystem services, are conserved through effectively andequitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective

area-based conservation measures, and integrated intothe wider landscapes and seascapes.

To conclude, with specic quantitative goals being absent, theabove targets may read more like recommendations. However,when goals incorporate numerical levels or values, the requiredachievement is more clearly dened and potentially obtainable.In fact, empirical evidence shows that goal-setting can workwhen clear quantitative targets are set. Another lesson learnedfrom the history of environmental target-setting is that it worksbest for well-dened issues, such as the phasing out of OzoneDepleting Substances (ODS) or leaded gasoline, and for issuesrelated to industrial chemicals for which technologies exist orcan be developed to solve environmental problems associatedwith their production and use. Finally, it has become clearthat it is critical to have baseline information to allow progresstowards the targets to be tracked. For example, relatively little

measurable progress has been madeor can be demonstratedtowards the WSSD target to reverse the loss of biodiversity by2010, since there are insufcient, reliable and comprehensivebiodiversity baseline data upon which to base trends andassess progress.

Table 2: Environmental targets adopted at the WSSD, 2002

Targets Indicators

Maintain or restore depleted sh To be determinedstocks to levels that can producethe maximum sustainable yieldby 2015

Reverse the loss of biodiversity Identied by Convention

by 2010 on Biological Diversity (CBD)Establish a representative network To be determinedof marine protected areas by 2012

Increase the share of renewable To be determinedenergy in the total energy supply,and provide 35% of Africanhouseholds with modern energywithin 20 years

Phase out by 2020, production To be determinedand use of chemicals that harmhealth and environment


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Population &

Human Development

BrianGratwicke/Flickr.com


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...however, the population growthrateis declining

At the same time the population growth rate has been declining during the past several decades,dropping from around 1.65% per year in the early 1990s to 1.2% per year in the late 2000s. Thisrepresents a 27% decline in the growth rate between 1992 and 2010. There is a strong correlationbetween a countrys economic state and its growth rate: developing countries tend to have a 2-3times higher growth rate than developed countries.

This overall, global decrease in the increase means that the worlds population and its populationgrowth rate are increasing more slowly, and could eventually stabilise around 10 thousand millionpeople in 2100 (UN 2011).

3 000 2 000 1 000 0 1 000 2 050

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Thousand MillionPeople

2012

1992

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Developing

Developed

Global

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD

Population Growth RatePer Cent


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In 2011, over3 500 million peoplemore thanhalf the worlds populationare living in urban areas

In 1992, 2 400 million of us lived in urbanagglomerations. By 2009, the number had climbedto 3 500 million, a 45% increase. The additional1 000 million urban peoplenearly 200 000 new

city dwellers per dayare the equivalent of 32 timesthe population of Tokyo, or 110 times that of Paris(Brinkhoff 2011).

This unprecedented urban growth, projected tocontinue (although at a decreasing rate) in the comingdecades, will require special attention in order tomake life in cities more socially, economically andenvironmentally sustainable.

While over half of the world population now livesin urban areas, they also account for 75% of globalenergy consumption (UN-Habitat 2009) and 80%of global carbon emissions (The World Bank Group2010), at least when viewed from a consumptionperspective (Satterthwaite 2011). On the other hand,the top 25 cities in the world create more than half ofthe worlds wealth (UN-Habitat 2008).

This ongoing rapid urbanisation indicates thatlong-term investments addressing the associatedvulnerabilities are critically needed. [The] urgency isacute considering that 30-50% of the entire populationof cities in developing countries live in settlementsthat have been developed in environmentally fragileareas, vulnerable to ooding or other adverse climateconditions, and where the quality of housing is poor

and basic services are lacking (UN 2009b).

0

1

2

3

4

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Thousand MillionPeople

Urban Population - Total

Developing

Developed

Global

0

1

2

3

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Per CentUrban Population - Growth Rate

Developing

Developed

Global

30

40

50

60

70

80

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Per CentUrban Population - Per Cent of Total Population

Developing

Developed

Global

UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD




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The number of megacities has

more than doubled since 1990

According to UN-Habitat, megacitiesare high density metropolises withat least 10 million inhabitants. Thenumber of these megacities climbed

from 10 in 1992 to 21 in 2010, a110% increase, adding on average onemegacity every two years. Fifteen ofthe worlds 21 megacities are foundin developing countries. The largestmegacity today is Tokyo which countsnearly 37 million persons, more thanCanadas total population.

With large and dense metropolisescome the associated environmentalimpacts of urban life. Very densepopulation structures and people livingin close quarters bring sanitation, wastemanagement, air quality, pollutionand other concerns for residents andthe environment alike. Not only doanthropogenic factors play a major

role in megacities but the naturalenvironment also presents risks tohighly concentrated populationsincluding oods, mudslides, tsunamisand earthquakes (UN 2009b, UN-Habitat 2009).

Tokyo, Japan

Delhi, India

Sao Paulo, BrazilMumbai, India

Mexico City, Mexico

New York-Newark, USA

Shanghai, China

Kolkata, India

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Karachi, Pakistan

Million People

36.7

22.2

20.320.0

19.5

19.4

16.6

15.6

14.6

13.1

Rank 1990

1

11

45

3

2

18

7

23

21

1

2

34

5

6

7

8

9

10

Top 10 Megacities 2010

Source: UNPD

0

6

12

18

24

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Number of Megacities

Megacities>10 Million Inhabitants

+110%since 1990

Source: UNPD

10

13

16

19

21


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The population of Chinas Pearl River Delta has tripled

since 1992 and includes two of the worlds megacities

The Greater Pearl River Delta area in southeastern China is the worlds largest mega-region with a population ofapproximately 120 million people (UN 2010). Over the past two decades, the populations of the delta cities of Guangzhouand Shenzhen have each reached nearly 10 million people while Hong Kong, Foshan and Dongguan have grown to around5 million each (UN 2009). The individual cities are beginning to merge into one contiguous urban area. The core delta areashown in the above image had a little over 20 million people in the early 1990s but has since tripled to roughly 60 million

people (SEDAC 2010). This intense urbanization has led to the loss of productive farmland and natural areas among otherenvironmental problems (Yan and others 2009).

Source: USGS; Visualization UNEP-GRID Sioux Falls


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Since 1990, the share of the urban population living in slums in the developing world has declined signicantly, droppingfrom 46% in 1990 to 33% in 2010. This decrease shows that many efforts to give inhabitants of slums access to improvedwater or sanitation, and/or more durable housing have been successful. On the other hand, the absolute number of peopleliving in slums has increased by 26% over the same period, equaling 171 million additional people and raising theirnumber from 656 million in 1990 to 827 million in 2010. Redoubled efforts will be needed to improve the lives of thegrowing numbers of urban poor in cities and metropolises across the developing world (UN 2011b).

Note:

A slum household is dened as a group of individuals living under the same roof lacking one or more of these conditions: access to improved water;access to improved sanitation; sufcient-living area; durability of housing; security of tenure. However, since information on secure tenure is notavailable for most of the countries, only the rst four indicators are used to dene slum household, and then to estimate the proportion of urban

population living in slums (UNSD n.d.).

A smaller proportion of urban dwellers live in slums, but

their total number has risen to

827 000 000People Living in Slums

20

30

40

50

400

600

800

1 000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Proportion of UrbanPopulation in Slums [%]

Population in Slums[Million People]

46%

33%656

Million

827Million

Source: UN-Habitat

Percentage

TotalNum

ber


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9

The average global citizen consumes 43 kgof meat per year, up from 34 kg in 1992

100

120

140

1992 1997 2002 2007

Fish & Seafood

Meat

Global Population

+32%since 1992

+26%since 1992

+22%since 1992

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO

110

Index, 1992=100

130

Global dietary patterns have changed enormously over the last decades. Income growth, relative price changes,urbanization and shifts in consumer preferences have altered dietary patterns particularly in developing countries (FAO2008). Diets shifted away from basic foods towards livestock products, as well as oils, fruits and vegetables, increasing thedemand for meat by 26% and for sh and seafood by 32% between 1992 and 2007. During that time, for example, globalaverage meat consumption grew from 34 kg per person per year to 43 kg. Nearly all of these increases can be attributedto growing demand in Asia and to a lesser extent, Latin America. Based on different studies and considering the entirecommodity chain (including deforestation for grazing, forage production, etc), meat production accounts for 18-25% of the

worlds greenhouse gas emissions (UNEP 2009, Fiala 2008, FAO 2006).

Food Supply- Meat, Fish & Seafood -


20/110


21/110

11

Womens inuence, as measured by seats in

national parliaments, is steadily rising

In the realm of gender parity, one indicator is the number of women in national parliaments. This gure has risen steadilyover the last 20 years, from roughly 12% in 1997 to 19% in 2010, representing a 60% increase. This equals over 8 600seats in more than 170 countries, up from just over 4 000 in 1997 (IPU 2011). But this is far short of the target of 30% ofwomen in leadership positions that was to be met by 1995, and further still from the MDG target of gender parity (UN2010). Women play a key role in improving environmental-related legislation and seeing that these measures are adequatelyfunded and implemented.

10

12

14

16

18

20

1997 2002 2007

% of all Seats

2010

+60%since 1997

Source: World Bank

Proportion of Seats Held by Women

in National Parliaments


22/110

12

Economy

NicMcPh

ee/Flickr.com


23/110

13

GDP has continued to climb at a steady rate...

Since 1992, the worlds overallGross Domestic Product (GDP) hasincreased signicantly i.e., fromUS$ 36 to 63 million millions in2010, an increase of 75% or 3.2%

per year on average. GDP per capitarose by 40% in that same period.Due to strong economic growth inmany developing countries, theirlevel of GDP per capita increasedsubstantially, particularly in thelast decade (80% since 1992, 45%since 2002). However, differencesbetween developing and developed

countries on per capita basisare almost seven-fold, reectingthe wide economic discrepancybetween these two worlds.

GDP indicates the level ofeconomic activity, but is oftenmisinterpreted as a measure of acountrys living standard. However,

GDP as such does not adequatelyreect standards of living, humanwell-being or quality of life.One successful attempt to movemeasurements and indicatorsof development beyond GDP isthe Human Development Index,launched just before Rio 1992 andupdated every year since.

100

120

140

160

180

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Index, 1992=100Developing

Developed

World

+33%since 1992

+39%since 1992

+80%since 1992

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal,as compiled from World Bank, UNPD

GDP per Capita- Change -

0

10

20

30

40

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Thousand Constant2000 US$

GDP per Capita- Total -

Developing

Developed

World

5 300US$/person/yr

9 200US$/person/yr

33 800US$/person/yr

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, UNPD


24/110

14

Certainly not every country or citizen has beneted from overall higher levels of economic welfare. The gap between thelowest and highest income countries remains large, with many countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia still below theglobal average. In addition, many countries experience signicant domestic income inequalities between rich and poor.In new and rising economic powers such as China and India, millions have been lifted out of poverty, but often at a highenvironmental cost. The economic growth of recent decades has been accomplished mainly through drawing downnatural resources, without allowing stocks to regenerate, and through allowing widespread ecosystem degradation andloss (UNEP 2011).

...but huge differences in economic development persist

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, UNPD

*All data for year 2010; except year 2009 data used for the following countries: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen

GDP per Capita (2010*)

below global mean

above global mean

no data available


25/110

15

The absolute value of trade among countries,

a major aspect of globalisation, has tripled

0

20

40

60

80

0

10

20

30

40

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Million Million US$

Trade (US$)

Trade (% of GDP)

% of GDP

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank

Trade has been present throughout much of human history, but its importance in economic, social and political terms hasincreased steeply over the last decades, and is a main facet of what is generally understood by globalisation. The value ofinternationally traded products has tripled between 1992 and 2009, from over US$ 9 to 28 million millions. The share oftrade as of the global total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased in that period from 39% to 49%, reaching nearly 60%before the economic crisis in 2008. By far the largest sectors of international trade in 2010 concern mineral fuels and oils(15%), electrical and electronic equipment (13%), machinery (12%) and vehicles (7%) (ITC 2011).

Trade- Total and Percentage of GDP -


26/110


27/110

17

More energy and natural resources are being consumed,

but the amounts needed per product are declining

Although overall energy and material use continue to grow, there is a simultaneous general decline in emissions, energy andmaterial use per unit of output (UNEP 2011, Krausmann and others 2009), indicating that we are becoming more efcientat how we produce, use and dispose of materials. Resource extraction per capita has been stable or increasing onlyslightly. What economies worldwide need is absolute decoupling of the environmental pressure associated with resourceconsumption from economic growth. This will be easier to achieve to the extent that resource use itself becomes moreefcient (UNEP 2011). One policy option concerns eco-taxes, which put a price on the full costs of resource extraction andpollution, including emitting CO2, polluting the environment through the use of chemicals, deforestation, overpumping ofaquifers and overshing; such incentives can stimulate employment and help in the transition to absolute decoupling and

Green Economy (ILO 2009, UNEP 2011b).

80

100

120

140

160

180

1992 1997 2002 2007

Index, 1992=100

Population

Material Intensity

Resource Extraction

Economic Development(GDP)

Source: SERI

Resource Efficiency


28/110

18

Environmental Trends


29/110


30/110

20

Atmosphere

MorgueFile


31/110

21

Global CO2

emissions continue to rise, with

80% emitted by only 19 countries

Globally, CO2 emissions increased by 36%between 1992 and 2008, from around22 000 million to just over 30 000 milliontonnes. With general economic growth,plus developing countries such as Brazil,China and India investing signicantlyin large development, infrastructural andmanufacturing projects, the growth of CO2emissions in developing countries over thelast few years climbed even more (between1992 and 2008, a 64% increase of total CO2emissions and 29% on a per capita basis).

Latest estimates show that global CO2emissions accumulated to 30 600 milliontonnes in 2010 (IEA 2011). Large differencesexist between regions and countries, with80% of the global CO2 emissions beinggenerated by 19 countriesmainly thosewith high levels of economic developmentand/or large populations.

Total emissions of CO2 in developedcountries increased by nearly 8%, andalthough per capita emissions declinedsteadily by 18%, they are still 10 timeshigher than those of developing countries.In addition, many developed countriesproted from a signicant shift of productionto developing countries, thus leadingto declining domestic emissions, butnevertheless increasing consumption-based

emissions (Peters and others 2011).

* from fossil fuels, gas aring, cement production, asprovided through the original source

0

10

20

30

40

50

1992 1997 2002 2008

Tonnes

Emissions of CO2*

- per Capita -

Developing

+29%since 1992

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from CDIAC, UNPD

Developed

-18%since 1992

Global

+7%since 1992

0

10

20

30

1992 1997 2002 2008

Thousand MillionTonnes of CO

2

Emissions of CO2*

- Total - 2010

Developed

+8%since 1992

Developing

+64%since 1992

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from CDIAC

Global

+36%since 1992

l b l ff d h


32/110

22

Despite global efforts to reduce CO2

emissions, they

continue to rise due to the increasing use of fossil fuels...

The main uses of fossil fuelsare for generating electricity,enabling transport and producingheat. Their combustion leadsto a release of CO2 into theatmosphere which in turninuences the earths climate.The production of cement notonly demands very high levels ofenergy inputs, but also releasesCO2 directly through the heatingof calcium carbonate, whichproduces lime and carbondioxide. It has also become the

fastest growing source of CO2emissions (+230% since 1992).

Global efforts since 1992 to slowthe growth of, and ultimatelyreduce the total level of CO2emissions, have not yet fullysucceeded. Those efforts must bestrengthened; otherwise, it is very

unlikely that the target of limitingtemperature increase to 2C by2100 to reduce global warming,as agreed by global leaders inCancun in 2010, will be met(IEA 2011).

* from fossil fuels, gas aring, cementproduction, as provided through the

original source

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1992 1997 2002 2007 2008


Emissions of CO2*

- Change, by Type -

Solid Fuels Consumption

Liquid Fuels Consumption

Gas Fuels Consumption

Cement Production

Gas Flaring

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

Index, 1992=100

1992 1997 2002 2007 2008


Thousand MillionTonnes of CO

2

Gas Flaring

Cement Production

Gas Fuels Consumption

Liquid Fuels Consumption(e.g. fuel oil)

Solid Fuels Consumption(e.g. coal)

Emissions of CO2*

- Total, by Type -

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, CDIAC


33/110


34/110

24

Over 60% of Greenhouse Gases are

emitted by three economic sectors

The energy supply sector, industry/manufacturing and forestry sectors together account for over 60% of all greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions. The forestry sectors contribution is mainly through worldwide deforestation, as trees cut down to clearspace for agriculture and other land uses can no longer absorb carbon dioxide, and if left to rot or burned, emit CO 2 stored

in trunks and leaves.

Which sectors emit the most Greenhouse Gases?

Per Cent contribution to global anthropogenic GHG emissions, 2004

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Source: IPCC 2007

26 19 17 14 13 8 3

Energy

supply

(e.g.,ele

ctricity

andheat

ing)

Indu

stry

Forestry

(e.g.,defo

restatio

n)

Agric

ulture

Tran

sport

Resid

entiala

nd

comm

ercial

build

ings

Wa

stea

nd

waste

water

Per Cent


35/110


36/110


37/110


38/110

Global mean temperature increased by


39/110

29

Global mean temperature increased by

0.4C between 1992 and 2010

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

CGlobal Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly

NASA Goddard Institutefor Space Studies *

NOAA National ClimaticData Center *

UK Meteorological Office,Hadley Centre and ClimateResearch Unit **

* relative to 1951-1980 mean global temperature** relative to 1961-1990 mean global temperature

Source: NASA, NOAA, UK-MetOffice

Temperature Deviation- 2000-2009 vs. Mean* -

Source: NASA*1951-1980 mean temperature

The average annual mean atmospherictemperature shows yearly variations,caused for example by tropicalEl Nio-La Nia cycles. Viewedover a longer time period, one cannevertheless observe a slow, but

steady increase with occasionalpeaks. The annual mean temperature,as displayed, is calculated by threeleading climate research centres,producing slightly different values the general upward trend howeveris the same for all of them, with anincrease of about 0.2C per decade

(Hansen and others 2006). Mostof the observed increase in globalaverage temperature since the mid-20th century is very likely due to theobserved increase in anthropogenicgreenhouse gas concentrations(IPCC 2007b).

This map shows how much warmertemperatures during the decade2000-2009 were compared to averagetemperatures recorded between1951 and 1980 (a common referenceperiod for climate studies). The mostextreme warming, shown in red,was in the Arctic. Very few areas sawcooler than average temperatures,shown in blue (Voiland 2010). The

last decade was the warmest on recordsince 1880; it was warmer than theprevious record decade 1990-1999.


40/110


41/110


42/110

Oceans are becoming more acidic with negative


43/110

33

Oceans are becoming more acidic, with negativeimplications for corals and other marine life

Increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations in the air alter the chemistry of the oceans surface, causing it to

become more acidic (measured by the logarithmic pH) (Caldeira and Wickelt 2003). The oceans pH declined from8.11 in 1992 to 8.06 in 2007 (Feely and others 2009). There is a growing concern that the process called oceanacidication could have signicant consequences on marine organisms which may alter species composition, disruptmarine food webs and ecosystems and potentially damage shing, tourism and other human activities connected to theseas (UNEP 2010b). Coral reefs are currently experiencing higher ocean temperatures and acidity than at any othertime in at least the last 400 000 years. If this trend continues, all coral reefs will likely be threatened by mid-century,with 75 Per Cent facing high to critical threat levels (WRI 2011).

The increase in oceanic CO2 concentrations (pCO2 in the graph), measured off the coast of Hawaii, is consistent with

the atmospheric increase measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, within the statistical limits of the measurements (Feely andothers 2009).

R = 0.27

R = 0.95521

R = 0.22214

8.0

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

275

300

325

350

375

400

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

pH ppm

pCO2

CO2

pH

Source: Feely and others 2009

Ocean Acidification

Most mountain glaciers around the


44/110

34

Most mountain glaciers around theworld are diminishing rapidly

Changes in glaciers are key indicators of climate change. Nearly all mountain glaciers around the world are retreating and

getting thinner, as measured by their annual mass balance, with severe impacts on the environment and human well-being, including vegetation patterns, economic livelihoods, natural hazards, and the water and energy supply (WGMS2010). Diminishing glacier and ice cap volumes not only inuence current sea-level rise but also threaten the well-being ofapproximately one-sixth of the worlds population who depend on glacier ice and seasonal snow for their water resourcesduring dry seasons (WGMS 2008).

Moreover, as most glaciers are rapidly diminishing, the speed with which this happens has been increasing in recentdecades as well. For 30 glaciers observed (Zemp and others 2009), the average annual melting rate has increased fromaround 0.4 metres per year in the early 1990s to 0.7 metres of water equivalent per year over the last decade, thus almost

doubling from one decade to the next, with record losses in 2004 and 2006 (WGMS 2010). The ongoing trend of worldwideand rapid glacier shrinkage may lead to the deglaciation of large parts of many mountain ranges by the end of the 21stcentury (WGMS/UNEP 2008).

-15

-13

-11

-9

-7

-5

-3

1992 1997 2002 2007

Metres ofWater Equivalent

since 1980

2009

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from WGMS

equalsanannuallossof~0.4mperyear

equalsanannualloss

of~0.7mperyear

Glacier Mass Balance

The annual minimum extent of Arctic sea ice


45/110

35

f

continues its steady decline

Arctic sea ice extent has been declining since well beforesatellite measurements began in 1979 (NSIDC 2011).This decline has been most pronounced in September atthe end of the summer melt season (Stroeve and others2008). Several of the most extreme years have been since2002, with the smallest sea ice extent ever recorded

(4.17 million km2) occurring in 12 September 2007(NSIDC 2011). Preliminary data for 2011 indicates thatice extent had reached its second smallest extent ever(4.33 million km2 on 9 September) (NSIDC 2011). Thetrend is believed to be the result of natural variability inair temperature and ocean and atmospheric circulationpatterns, combined with climate change (Wang andOverland 2009). While the short data record precludescondent predictions, there is concern that multiplefeedback processes such as reduced albedo could leadto rapid transition to virtually ice-free Septembers inthe futureas soon as 2040 by one analysis (Wang andOverland 2009).

Source: NSIDC

0

2

8

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Million km2

September Arctic Sea Ice Extent

-35%since 1992

Source: NSIDC

4

6

F t


46/110

36

Forests

FrankVassen/Flickr.com


47/110

Large portions of the Amazon rainforest were


48/110

38

cleared for cattle pastures and farm elds

Satellite images show that enormous areas of Amazon rainforest were cleared,mostly along an arc of deforestation on the southern boundary of theAmazon Basin. The Brazilian states of Rondnia, Para and Mato Grosso sawthe largest losses (INPE 2010). Major roads such as the BR-163 running fromnorth to south across the 1985 image of Mato Grosso (above), provided accessto the forest (Fearnside 2007). Twenty years later much of the forest is gone,replaced by soy elds and cattle pastures. Severe droughts in 2005 and 2010increased the frequency of re, and have reinforced concerns that the Amazonis reaching a tipping point where large areas of forest could be replaced bya more savanna-like ecosystem (Lewis and others 2011, Nepstad and others2008, Malhi and others 2009).


SimonChirgwin/BBCWorldService/Flickr.com


49/110


50/110


51/110

Drinking water coverage increased to 87%, but the


52/110

42

world is far from meeting the sanitation target of 75%

Globally, improved sanitation coverage was just above the 60% mark in 2008, up from 54% in 1990, with over 2 500million people still without access. Half of the people living in developing regions have no access to improved sanitation.In all regions, coverage in rural areas lags behind that of cities and towns. At the current rate of progress, the world willmiss the MDG target of halving the proportion of people without access to improved sanitation by 2015. In fact, at thecurrent rate of progress, it will take until 2049 to provide 75% of the global population with ush toilets and other forms ofimproved sanitation (UN 2011b).

However, the good news is that the world will meet or even exceed the MDG drinking water target by 2015 if the currenttrend continues. By that time, nearly 90% of the population in developing regions, up from 77% in 1990, will have gainedaccess to improved sources of drinking water.

% of Population

Drinking Water Coverage

Improved Sanitation Coverage

+13%since 1990

+

13%since 1990

54

77

61

87

75

89

MDGTargets

2015

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from WHO/UNICEF

100

50

60

70

80

90

1990 1995 2000 2005 2008

Improved Sanitation & Drinking Water Coverage

The Mesopotamian Marshlands, nearly destroyed in the


53/110

43

1990s, have been partially restored but remain at risk

The Mesopotamian Marshlands are the largest wetland ecosystem in the Middle East (Partow 2001). Construction ofnumerous dams, water diversions and hydropower facilities on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers over the past century and thedeliberate draining of the marshes by the Iraqi regime in the early 1990s had almost destroyed the wetlands by 2000 (Aokiand Kugaprasatham 2009). Reooding beginning in 2003 helped restore many ecosystem functions for a large portion ofthe marshes (Richardson and Hussain 2006). In 2008, the eastern Hawizeh marshes were designated as Iraqs rst RamsarWetland Convention site and preparations are underway to inscribe the entire marshes as a joint cultural and naturalsite under the World Heritage Convention (Garsteck and Amr 2011). Ecosystem recovery, however, has been seriouslyundermined by a severe drought (2008-2010) and uncoordinated water-related developments in the Tigris-Euphrates basin(Garsteck and Amr 2011). The lack of a water sharing agreement between riparian countries and potential declines inEuphrates ows are a major threat to the wetlands survival.


Biodiversity


54/110

44

Biodiversity

BrianGratwick

e/Flickr.com


55/110

Each year 52 vertebrate species move oneR d Li l i i


56/110

46

Red List category closer to extinction

The Red List Index (RLI) measures the risk of extinction,divided into seven categories of extinction risk, ascalculated from the IUCN Red List of ThreatenedSpecies. An RLI value of 1.0 equates to species notbeing expected to become extinct in the near future;a RLI value of zero indicates that all species have

become Extinct (Hoffman and others 2010). Thegraph shows that for those vertebrate groups wheresufcient data are available, the trend is generallynegative; i.e., that birds, mammals and amphibians arebecoming increasingly threatened. The ve principalpressures driving biodiversity loss are habitat change,overexploitation, pollution, invasive alien species andclimate change (CBD 2010).

Almost one-fth of extant vertebrate species areclassied as threatened, ranging from 13% of birds to41% of amphibians (Hoffman and others 2010). Onaverage, 52 species per year moved one category closerto extinction from 1980 to 2008. Amphibians are morethreatened than birds and mammals, and are decliningat a faster rate. The status of other groups is likely to besimilar if not worse; nearly a quarter of plant speciesare estimated to be threatened with extinction (CBD

2010), and in some plant groups over 60% of speciesare considered threatened (Hoffman and others 2010).As renowned ecologist Edward O. Wilson puts it:One small step up the Red List is one giant leaptowards extinction.

The highest numbers of threatened vertebrates canbe observed in the tropical regions, with guresdisproportionally higher than in other regions (Hoffman

and others 2010).0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

Red List Index

of Species Survival

Birds

Amphibians

Mammals

worse

better

Source: Hoffman and others 2010

Red List Index

13%of the worlds land surface, 7% of its coastald 1 4% f i d


57/110

47

waters and 1.4% of its oceans are protected

By 2010, there were over 148 000protected areas in the world (IUCN2011), covering almost 13% ofthe land area or 17 million squarekilometres an area as large as theRussian Federation. Marine protected

areas, however, cover only around7% of coastal waters (extending outto 12 nautical miles) and just above1.4% of the oceans (IUCN/UNEP2011, Toropova and others 2010).Likely due to time lags in reporting,the overall rate of increase in settingaside protected areas is levelling off inrecent years, yet saw a total increase

of 42% between 1992 and 2010.

New targets for the extent ofprotected areas globally were setby governments in the NagoyaProtocol, negotiated in October2010. Under a 20-point plan, theymade commitments to protect 17% ofterrestrial and inland waters, and 10%of coastal and marine areas, especiallyareas of particular importance forbiodiversity and ecosystem services,until 2020 (CBD 2010b).

0

5

10

15

20

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Million km2

Protected Areas- Total Area -

Marine &Coastal

Terrestrial & Coastal

Terrestrial

Coastal

+42%since 1992

+120%since 1992

+38%since 1992

+210%since 1992

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IUCN, UNEP-WCMC

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Per cent

Protected Areas- Per cent -

Terrestrial

Coastal

17%target

terrestrial

2020

10%

targetcoastal & marine

Marine &Coastal

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IUCN, UNEP-WCMC

Chemicals & Waste


58/110

48

DArcyNorm

an/Flickr.com


59/110


60/110

Natural Hazards


61/110

51

WarrenAnt

iola/Flickr.com

Both human losses and economic damage from

natural disasters show an upward trend


62/110

52

natural disasters show an upward trend

Although there is no clear indication that hazard occurrences (such asoods, droughts and hurricanes) have changed much in recent times(UN 2011c), the number of reported disasters has been increasingsignicantly. Indeed, over the past two decades the number of

reported natural disasters has doubled from around 200 to over 400per year. In 2010, over 90 Per Cent of disaster displacement withincountries was attributed to climate-related hazards (NRC 2011).

The risks are changing, mainly due to population increase, climatechange and ecosystem degradation. The risks to humans andeconomic losses are increasing in absolute terms for all principalhazards, except for landslides, where the tendency appears to bestable. Relative risk, however, when measured as a proportion of

population or GDP, is stable, and in the case of mortality, may even bedeclining (UN 2011c).

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Number

Source: EM-DAT

0

100 000

200 000

300 000

400 000

500 000

0

50

100

150

200

250

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Damage

Deaths

Damage Thousand MillionUS$, Inflation-adjustedNumber of Deaths

Source: EM-DAT

Impacts of Natural Disasters

Reported Natural Disasters

Increased exposure to natural disasters has resulted

from more people living in hazard-prone areas


63/110

53

from more people living in hazard prone areas

50

100

150

200

Index, 1980=100

1990 2000 2010

Exposure

Vulnerability

Risk

Source: UNISDR

Source: UNISDR50

100

125

150

Index, 1980=100

1990 2000 2010

Exposure

Vulnerability

Risk

To quantify trends in disaster risk, one hasto consider all three components of risk:hazard, exposure and vulnerability.* Inall regions, human exposure is increasingmainly due to demographical factors: anincreasing population with more people

moving to hazard-prone areas. In mostregions, vulnerability is decreasing, thanksto factors such as improved governanceand better urban and land planning. At aglobal level, this decline in vulnerabilitycompensates for the increase in exposure,thus stabilising or even decreasing the risk.However, this global trend is mostly relatedto a signicant decline in vulnerability in

China. If China were removed from theanalysis, the risk would still be increasingdue to a signicant rise in exposure. Theglobal trend hides large regional differences(UN 2011c).

Note:

*Risk is the probability of losses (mortality andeconomic losses) from a specic hazard, according toits intensity, location and time period. Risk has threecomponents: the hazard (probability of a hazardousevent occurring at a specic intensity); exposure(number of people or assets) located in hazard-proneareas; and vulnerability (percentage of losses, shoulda hazardous event occur). A disaster can occur whena vulnerable population is hit by a hazardous event.

Floods- Mortality Risk, Exposure and Vulnerability -

Tropical Cyclones- Mortality Risk, Exposure and Vulnerability -

Governance


64/110

54

ohn&MelKots/Flickr.com

Numerous international agreements were negotiated in

the two decades following the Rio Conference in 1992


65/110

55

f g f

The steady increase of countries signingMultilateral Environmental Agreements(MEAs) such as the Convention onBiological Diversity, the Ramsar Conventionor the Kyoto Protocol signies risingpolitical recognition of environmental

issues. The graph includes 14 MEAs* andshows the total number of signatories forthose 14 taken together (thus, if all 14MEAs were signed by all 196 countries,the number would be 14 x 196 = 2744).Altogether, the number of newlyestablished global and regional MEAsis steadily decreasing, demonstratingthat legal frameworks are in place to

address many important issues. Neitherestablishing or signing an agreement orconvention, however, means that the relatedenvironmental problems have been solved.

Most countries have signed at least nine outof the 14 major MEAs; 60 countries havesigned all of them. Only a few countries orterritories or countries in conict have not

signed the majority of these MEAs.

4 - 9

10 - 14

no data

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from various MEA secretariats

*Basel Convention, Cartagena Convention, Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna

and Flora, Convention on Migratory Species, World Heritage Convention, Kyoto Protocol, Secretariat for the Vienna Convention and for the MontrealProtocol, Ramsar Convention, Rotterdam Convention, Stockholm Convention, Convention to Combat Desertication, Convention on the Law of the Sea,Framework Convention on Climate Change

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Accumulated Number ofSignatories to 14 Global MEAs

Number ofnew MEAs

+330%since 1992

Number of Signatories

New MEAs

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from various MEA secretariats, IEA Database Project

Multilateral Environmental Agreements- Number and Signatories -

Number of MEAs Signed


66/110


67/110


68/110

Environmental governance and energy initiatives

receive the largest share of environmental aid


69/110

59

When one examines the amounts of aid received from bilateral and multilateral donors by different environmental sectors,it becomes clear that large differences exist. A major share of environmental aid funds is dedicated to energy conservationand to the development and implementation of environmental policies (Governance). This graph shows that from 1992-1997, aid to energy conservation was distinctly larger than any other sector; however, by 2008 it was being surpassedby the Governance sector. Other areas such as biodiversity protection, land management, water resources and marineprotection receive far smaller amounts.

0

2

4

6

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Thousand MillionConstant 2000 US$

Energy Conservation and Renewables

Sustainable Land Management

Marine Protection

Environmental Governance

Water Resources Protection

Natural Resources Management andBiodiversity Protection

WasteManagement

Source: AidData.org

*Note: see Annex

Aid Allocated to Environmental Activities*

Agriculture


70/110

60

Irish_

Eyes/M

orgueFile


71/110

Higher agricultural yields depend

heavily on the use of fertilizers


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62

The increasing amounts of cereal crops being produced are only marginally linked to the total area under cultivation. Theirincrease is almost exclusively dependent on intensication, where the use of fertilizers plays a major role (UNEP 2011). Theheavy dependence on machines and materials increases energy usage and leads to the fact that it takes an average of sevento ten calories of input energy (i.e., mostly fossil fuels) to produce one calorie of food (Heller and Keoleian 2000, Pimenteland Pimentel 1996).

Nitrogenous fertilizers, the use of which grew by around 1 500 thousand tonnes per year, supply plant nutrients and enrichsoil fertility, but can lead to eutrophication of inland and marine waters, and increase the release of very potent greenhousegases, such as N2O.

90

100

110

120

130

140

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Index, 1992=100

Nitrogenous FertilizerConsumption

Cereals - Production

Cereals - Area Harvested


Cereal Production, Area Harvested and

Fertilizer Consumption

While increasing irrigation infrastructure can raise crop

yields, it puts further pressure on freshwater availability


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2.5

3.0

3.5

Million km2Total Area Equipped for Irrigation

2.0

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Areas equipped for irrigation haveexpanded steadily (21% since 1992),providing improved food security andproductivity in many water-constrainedenvironments. However, irrigationaccounts for approximately 70% oftotal freshwater withdrawals worldwide(UNESCO 2001) and is seen as one ofthe principal factors in an increasingstate of water scarcity. Globally, thereis adequate potential for expandingirrigation to help meet productionneeds for a growing population.However, many of the regions whereirrigation is likely to expand are subject

to freshwater and/or land scarcity.Irrigation expansion into sensitiveecosystems may lead to signicantlosses of natural habitat. Conversely,intensication of agriculture throughirrigation can reduce the footprint ofagriculture, sparing valuable naturalareas. There is a strong need in generalto increase water use efciency under

irrigated agriculture regimes.


Area equippedfor irrigation (2000)

s

Source: Siebert and others 2007

+21%since 1992

Enormous irrigation projects using fossil water

turned Saudi Arabia into an exporter of food


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Rich in oil but lacking abundant renewable water resources, Saudi Arabia used oil revenues to develop domestic agriculturebased on groundwater from non-renewable aquifers (Elhadj 2006). Subsidies, direct and indirect, led to astonishing growthin agricultural output (Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia n.d.). Large center-pivot irrigation projects such as the one above at

Wadi As-Sirhan appeared in the vast Saudi desert. However, by one calculation the cost of wheat produced reached aroundUS$ 500 per tonne, several times the cost of imported wheat (Elhadj 2006). In 2008, the Saudi government announcedplans to phase out wheat production by 2016 (Gulfnews 23 Apr. 2009).


Land area used for organic farming is growing at an

annual rate of nearly 13%


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Organic farming is a form of agriculture that excludes or strictly limits the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, andbuilds on integrating crops and livestock, diversifying species and recycling nutrients on the farm, among other practicesthat favour natural processes (UN 2010b). It has expanded signicantly from a very low baseline of around 110 000 km 2in 1999, to covering an area of over 370 000 km2 in 2009 (an increase of nearly 240%), an area that equals the size of acountry such as Japan or Germany. Nevertheless, the percentage of agricultural land managed under certied ecologicalpractices is still less than 1% globally.

0

100

200

300

400

1999 2004 2009

Thousand km2

Source: Organic World

Organic Farming

+240%since 1999

Three crops have expanded dramatically in the

tropics, often replacing primary forests


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Sugar cane, soybeans, and palm oilare cultivated on a massive scalein the tropics; their area grew from

just above 8 million km2 in 1992to nearly 14 million km2 in 2009,a nearly 75% increase. Oil palmplantations showed the largestincrease of 120% between 1992 and2009, followed by soybeans (75%)and sugar cane (30%). However,soybean plantations occupy thelargest area and also show thehighest absolute growth, expandingfrom 6 250 thousand km2 in 1992 tonearly 10 000 thousand km2 in 2009.

These crops are largely being raisedfor the production of ethanol (sugarcane), export for livestock fodder(soybeans) and ingredients for foodand drug products or other biofuelproduction (palm oil). In manyor most cases they are grown onindustrial-scale farms established

by the clear-cutting or burning ofvast areas of tropical forest (ITTO2011, UCSUSA 2011, FAO 2006).Soybeans and sugarcane have beenpowerful drivers of forest loss inSouth America, while palm oil iswidely grown in Indonesia. The rapidlosses of these forests are among themost dramatic land-use changes in

human history.

+30%since 1992

+75%since 1992

+120%since 1992

50

100

150

200

250

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Index, 1992=100

Palm oil

Sugar Cane

Soybeans


Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO0

5

10

15

1992 1997 2002 2007

Million km2

2009

Sugar Cane

Soybeans

Palm oilSource: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO

Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries- Change in Area -

Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries- Area -

Ever-increasing numbers of grazing animals

degrade already impoverished grasslands


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The numbers of grazing animals (other than sheep) have surged over the last 20 years. The number of cattle and buffaloeshas increased by 6% and 23% respectively, and goats by an even greater rate of 45%. These increases in grazing animalherds are signicant, due to the impacts they have on the landscape, particularly fragile grasslands. Their hooves pulverizethe soil, breaking up the thin crust formed by rainfall and allowing valuable topsoil to be more easily eroded by wind(Brown 2011). Degraded grassland turns into shrubland, which is unable to sustain cattle and sheep, but on which goatpopulations continue to thrive. The goat population is very unevenly distributed globally: in 2009, 60% were in Asia and34% in Africa.

80

100

120

140

160

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Index, 1992=100

Buffaloes

Cattle

Goats

Sheep

+45%since 1992

+23%since 1992

+6%since 1992

-7%since 1992

Source: FAO

Grazing Animal Herds

Fisheries


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68

Ezioman/Flickr.com


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Marine sh catch has declined slightly,

although tuna catches have risen steeply


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70

0

20

40

60

80

100

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Million TonnesTotal Fish Catch

Marine

Inland

Marine Trendline


Marine sh catch data show annualvariations, with an overall trendsuggesting a slight decrease over thelast 10 years. But with catches ofaround 80 million tonnes for marinesh and 10 million tonnes (with asteady growth) for inland water sh,

the pressure on water ecosystemsremains high (UNEP 2011c).

Tuna is an economicallyimportant, globally-traded shthat is increasingly in demand byconsumers. Catches increaseddramatically, from 600 thousandtonnes in the 1950s, to over 3 100

thousand tonnes in 1992, to 4 200thousand tonnes in 2008, leavingsome tuna species on the edge ofextinction (IUCN 2011b, Colletteand others 2011).

3 000

3 500

4 000

4 500

1992 1997 2002 2007

Thousand TonnesTuna Catches

+35%since 1992

2008

Source: FAO

90% of global aquaculture is practised in Asia,the vast proportion of which occurs in China


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71

Aquaculture increased by 260% between 1992 and 2009 with most growth occurring in Asia, and in particular China.The global production has grown from 14 million tonnes in 1992 to nearly 51 million tonnes in 2009, which now equalsmore than half of the total wild sh catch. This has created jobs and important economic benets, but the environment hassuffered from a loss of mangroves, poor sh-waste management, an inux of antibiotics, impacts of producing or catchinglarge quantities of small sh for feed, and competition between escaped farm sh and neighbouring wild sh (FAO 2011b).

0

20

40

60

80

100

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Million TonnesFish Catch and Aquaculture Production

Fish Catch

Aquaculture, World

Aquaculture, China

+260%since 1992

+315%since 1992


Shrimp and prawn aquaculture are thriving along

tropical coastlines of Asia and Latin America


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Shrimp and prawn aquaculture expanded roughly 400%globally between 1992 and 2009, primarily in coastal Asia

and Latin America (FAO 2011c). The Gulf of Fonseca, sharedby Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador, experienceddramatic expansion of large-scale shrimp production mostlyduring the 1990s (Benessaiah 2008). While the area directlyaffected by the shrimp ponds was generally salt and mudats, some areas of adjoining mangrove were convertedas well (Benessaiah 2008). Highly productive, biodiversehabitats within tidal zones, mangroves are often cleared forshrimp aquaculture (Giri and others 2008).


G

reenpeace/MarioUrrutia

Energy


83/110

73ZebraPares/Flickr.com

Energy consumption in developed countries is nearly

12times higher than that of developing countries


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As a growing world populationaspires to higher material livingstandards, there is an ever-greaterneed for goods and services, andthe energy required to provide these(e.g. housing, consumer products,transport and travel). The amount

of energy consumption per capitawas slightly increasing until 2008(+5 % since 1992). In 2009 itdecreased for the rst time in 30years (globally -2.2%) as a result ofthe nancial and economic crisis(Enerdata 2011), with the decreasebeing most noticeable for developed

countries. Developing regions showa particularly strong increase in percapita energy consumption in thelast ve years, although recently thisseems to be levelling off.

The three major economic sectors interms of energy consumption are:

Manufacturing: 33%

Households: 29%

Transport: 26%

*Total nal consumption (TFC) is the sum ofconsumption by the different end-use sectors

(industry, transport, other sectors, non-energy use). Electricity is allocated to thesector where it is consumed and thereforethe energy used to generate the electricity isnot counted explicitly. Generation losses arenot included.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Kilo-Tonnes of Oil Equivalentper Capita

Energy Consumption per Capita*- Total -

Developing

Developed

World

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA

80

90

100

110

120

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Index, 1992=100 - Change -

Developing

Developed

World


Energy Consumption per Capita*

A steady rise in electricity production still leaves

1 440 000 000people in the dark


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Electricity and heat generationaccount for more than 40% of allCO2 emissions (IEA 2010). Thestrong annual rise of over 3% anda total rise of 66% between 1992and 2008a much larger increasethan that of global population (1.3%annually and 24% in total)isprimarily the result of a growth inindustrial production, as well asimproving living standards in manydeveloping countries.

Nevertheless, on a per capita basis,the largest part of the growth inabsolute numbers occurred in the

developed countries, increasing from8.3 MWh in 1992 to nearly 10 MWhin 2008a difference of 1.7 MWhper person. The global average of percapita electricity production grew by33%, from 2.2 MWh in 1992 to 3.0MWh in 2008; developing countriesby 68%, from 1 MWh to 1.7 MWh.

In 2010, 1 440 million peoplegloballythat is 20% of the worldpopulationwere still sufferingfrom energy poverty, not havingaccess to reliable electricity or thepower grid, and depended entirelyon biomass for cooking and lighting(UNEP 2011b).

+22%since 1992

+68%since 1992

+33%since 1992

1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

Electricity Production per Capita

0

3

6

9

12

MWh

Developing

Developed

World

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA, UNPD

100

120

140

160

180

1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

Index, 1992=100Electricity Production

Electricity Production

Population

+66%since 1992

+24%since 1992


The pattern of lights visible from space demonstrates the

electric (and digital) divide between North and South


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76

In the context of information and communications technology, one speaks about the digital divide between the North andthe South. Even more than 100 years after

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