KAY 492 Turkish Administrative History Week 6 Konu: Ottoman Territorial System Ortaylı, 2007, pp. 113-166
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KAY 492 Turkish Administrative History
Week 6
Konu: Ottoman Territorial System
Ortaylı, 2007, pp. 113-166
The Anatolian Seljuk Empire
Ottoman Empire: An Overview
Replaced the Seljukids
Seljuks became the vassal of Iranian Ilkhanid Mongol Empire after the Kösedağ War (1243)
Benefited from freedom of the border areas
First extended its terrritories in the Balkans
A social, economic and cultural unity reminiscent of Romans, East Romans and Abbasids
Ottoman Empire at Its Height
Ottoman Empire: An Overview
Strongest/brightest period
Between the 15th and 17th Centuries
Pax Ottomana (Ottoman Peace)
Its power began to decline starting from the 18th Century
It left its place to many (how many?)nation states
Why the Ottoman Principality?
Sprit of Gaza
Holy war, military campaign in the name of Islam
Mission to advance to the West
Environment of the border regions
Warrior and entrepreneurial lifestyle
Continuation of the state tradition by Seljuk Empire bureaucrats
Why the Ottoman Principality?
Demographic factors
Continuous flow of Turkic people
Partial assimilation of native people
East Romans occasionally resorting to Ottoman military aid
Alleviation of taxes and aggravations on the conquered lands
Freedom of religion for non-Muslims through the zımmet system
Ottoman Conquests-1 1354 Gallipoli
1361 Edirne
1387 Thessaloniki
1396
The Battle of Niğbolu and the conquest of Bulgaria
Beyazid I (Yıldırım) Period (1389-1402)
Western Anatolian principalities, Karaman & Kadi Burhaneddin principalities were conquered
1402- 1413 Fetret (Stagnation) Period
Timurian invasion
Other states (i.e. Iran & Mamluks) were also weakened
Expansion of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Conquests-2 1444- Varna, 1448 II. Kosovo victories
Absolute dominance in the Balkans
1453 Conquest of Istanbul
1460 Mora
1468 Annexation of the Karaman Emirate
1473 Otlukbeli War - Akkoyunlular
1475 The Crimean Khanate was taken under Ottoman ptotection
1514 Çaldıran Victory
1516 Merc-i Dabık, 1517 Ridaniye againts Mamluks
1526 Mohaç Victory – Domination of Hungary
Religion in the Ottoman Empire-1
After the conquest of Istanbul, Gennadios, who opposed the unification of Western and Eastern churches, was declared patriarch
A patriarchate was given to Armenians as well
Bogomolism in Bosnia
Jesus Christ was believed to be only a prophet
Resisting church hierarchy, resistance to monastic feudalism
Catholic Persecution
After the Ottoman conquest (1463), people began to convert to Islam
Similar situation in Albania
Religion in the Ottoman Empire-2
Ottoman Empire adopted a Sunni mission duringSelim I and Suleyman I periods
Interest in the Renaissance during the Mehmet the Conqueror period
His son Beyazid II restored Ottoman institutions according to Sharia
Shari'a order gained strength within the state
The power of religious bureaucrats has increased
In 1517, the Governor of Mecca delivered the signs of caliphate to Selim I
Ottomans used the competition between Habsburgs and France + Protestants
Timar System-1
Similar to the system in Sasanid, Eastern Roman, ArabEmpire and Seljukid periods
Two main social groups The distinction between administrators (controllers) and the administered
(producers, obeyers, reaya)
All or some of the tax revenues of one location are given in return for service
A system with financial, administrative and military purposes
Not only land income, but other taxable items are used for timar
Exceptional regimes have been applied in some parts of the country
Timar System-2
Why use the Timar System?
Inadequacy of the bureaucracy in size & function Tax collection was difficult
Failure to switch to a monetary economy
Difficulties in transportation, communication & record keeping
As the empire grew, all the conquered lands were not distributed to combatants but retained for the state
Miri land
Timar System-3
Immediately after the conquest, tahrir process was applied
The estimated income of the land, and the decision to whom the timar/yield will be given
Becomes valid with the the sultan’s approval
Timar was given to Christian soldiers as well
Land Types in the Ottoman Empire
1. Miri Land
Has
For the Sultan and the high officials
As a rule, it was not inherited to the administrators’ sons, but in practice it was
Zeamet (20,000 akce and more)
Sipahi dirlik, which could be inherited
Timar (3,000-20,000 akce)
2. Foundation Lands
3. Private ownership, emlak (real estate) lands
Taxes in the Ottoman Empire-1
1. Şer'i Taxes
Zekat
Öşür
Land tax from Muslims
Between ½ & 1/10
Collected by the sipahi of that timar
Haraç
Land tax from Christians
Cizye
Head tax
It depends on the financial situation
It is taken to the treasure
Its collection was left to non-Muslim community leaders after the Tanzimat
Taxes in the Ottoman Empire-2
2. Traditional Taxes With Sultan’s Ordinance (Ferman)
Qualities and quantities vary by region
Regulated by every sancak's own laws
Dirlik owners collect it as money or service Ex: the head tax from Christians: İspençe
3. Other taxes that evolved over time Ex: Land register duty (tapu resmi)
Increased over time, causing corruption and irregularities
4. Emergency (Avarız) Taxes It has become continuous over time
Constantly increased when the timar system deteriorated, removed with Tanzimat
Some exemptions for strategic service and substance producers
Social Classes in the Ottoman Empire
Administrators and the administered
Administrators, exempt from tax Military Class
Palace officials
Divan
Central government officials
Beylerbeyi, sancakbeyi and their households
Ulema (Religious bureaucrats)
Administered City tradesman
Agricultural producers in rural areas They are forbidden from carrying weapons and participating in administration
Rural Life in the Ottoman Empire
Conflicts between East Romans & Iranians & Arabs, Mongol Ilkhani occupation It ruined the village life and the villages
Anarchy has increased, people have withdrawn from public & commercial life
Roads became unsafe
Colonization of Anatolia Settling of nomadic people
Sipahi corruption Rebellions of Turkmen nomads and peasants
Ex: Jalali rebellions
Foundations and zaviye villagers Spiritual feudalism
Villages left to monasteries’ administration
17th Century and Beyond
Development of firearms
Shift of trade routes
Silver money inflation End of the 15th century
Expansion of the iltizam system From the 16th century onwards, villagers were forced to pay tax in cash
Formation of local influential groups
A strong bourgeois group did not emerge because the agricultural wealth did not increase
Absentee landlords
The effects of the Atlantic economy Trade-prohibited raw materials started to leave the country
The country started to buy cheap produce
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