Karoo Fracking Article

TALKING POINT

The Karoo, a place of vast open spaces separated from the coast by spectacular mountain ranges, is special. On crisp mornings, before the heat builds, the air is crystal clear. At this time of day it is often so still you can hear the grass rustling in the wind, while the last blush of sunrise fades from the sky. Scrubby bush covers endless plains interspersed with flat-topped koppies. After good rains, succulent plants bloom suddenly en masse and the veld is carpeted with vivid pink, orange and yellow. By afternoon, the land is breathless with heat, shimmering with mirages, and only the lone cry of the occasional Pied Crow or bird of prey breaks the stillness. The Karoo is a stronghold for raptors in particular and there are always many to be seen, perched on roadside fences and lines, or on the occasional small tree. Ground birds such as bustards, korhaans and Blue and Southern Grey Crowned Cranes are also found here. As the sun goes down and the heat dissipates, flocks of smaller birds congregate in trees in tranquil towns, their chatter echoing down the streets. The Nama Karoo is the largest biome in South Africa, covering over 20% of the country’s total land area. Its fossil record, internationally renowned, dates back some 3 billion years. These include fossils of unicellular and biogenic filamentous structures - the earliest forms of life -

together with dinosaur and mammal-like fossils. The Nama Karoo is home to some 2 147 plant species, of which 377 are endemic. The region also harbours certain out-of-range Succulent Karoo plants in the Gamsberg Mountains. Most animals have extended their ranges into the Karoo from adjacent biomes and the Nama Karoo does not have a large number of endemic species. However, there is one endemic and five near-endemics among small mammals including Visagie’s golden mole, Grant’s rock mouse and the Endangered riverine rabbit. The quagga, which once occurred here, was hunted to extinction in the 19th century. Among birds, the region boasts two endemics and five near-endemics. There are 10 near-endemic reptile species. Despite its tremendous diversity and size, a mere 1% of the Nama Karoo is formally protected. Most of the Nama Karoo comprises rangeland for livestock grazing and is still intact, although heavy grazing has left parts seriously degraded. Unfortunately, there are significant raptor mortalities occasioned by birds of prey feeding on poisoned carcasses or drowning in farm reservoirs. Large birds such as cranes and bustards, many of which are threatened species, also risk injury or death from power line collisions, although Eskom and other role-players are working to reduce such incidents. In addition

STORM over the KAROO

Hydraulic fracturing is a method used to extract shale gas - the world’s latest

energy resource. However, in the USA and elsewhere, the method has come

under fire for its many negative and severe environmental impacts. Now oil and

gas companies are targeting the Karoo. Should this controversial development

be allowed to take place in South Africa? Bronwyn Howard reports.

Both the Nama Karoo and Succulent Karoo have incredible biodiversity, particularly as far as plant life is concerned, with thousands of species, many of which are endemic to the Karoo.

to pastoralism, threats to this region’s biodiversity include mining, agriculture and the collection of succulents and reptiles. Clearing of natural vegetation for cultivation destroys the natural habitat of many plants and animals. Pesticides, principally those used to control brown locust outbreaks, also impact wildlife severely with high concentrations being found at the top of the food chain, especially among raptors. The introduction of alien invasive plants could alter the region’s ecology and hydrology. Climate change, increased stocking rates, cultivation of marginal lands and the salinisation of surface water are all likely to further the spread of alien plants. To the west lies the Succulent Karoo, a biodiversity hotspot. It is home to over 6 300 plant species, of which 2 440 are endemic, together with 225 bird, 76 mammal, over 90 reptile and just over 20 amphibian species (one frog and 15 reptile species are endemic). 26 species of freshwater fish are also found. This biome is only 2% protected and faces environmental threats including overgrazing and the mining industry, which abstracts large quantities of the area’s precious water. Now development has finally reached out to embrace this immense land with its scattered human communities, resilient wildlife and soaring birds. Good news - you would think. However, the nature of this development has communities across the Karoo and elsewhere up in arms and conservationists concerned. If the proposals go ahead, it is very likely that the Karoo’s wonderful wildlife, birds, and plants will be pushed to the brink of survival. And its people will probably not fare much better. It is an accident of geology that these unique, often panoramic landscapes were found to have gas deposits trapped in subterranean rock far below the surface as long ago as the 1960s when Soekor, the then state oil exploration company, first discovered them. With climate change a reality and many countries urged to cut their carbon footprints and emissions, gas is the new “clean” fuel of choice. It is, so the arguments go, far cleaner to burn gas than coal. Gas can be used to heat buildings, generate electricity and perhaps even power cars. So convincing is this argument that, in the United States, the scramble for

gas deposits is being compared to the gold rushes of the 1800s. Following the recent political upheavals across North Africa and the Middle East, most are agreed that the world has to find a new source of energy other than oil. Now large oil and gas companies, some based in South Africa and others abroad, are eyeing the Karoo as southern Africa’s new powerhouse. Shell Oil has applied for permits to explore no less than almost 95 000 km2 of the Karoo Basin, in an effort to establish conclusively whether natural gas could be economically and viably exploited in the Karoo - although it says this process could take as long as nine years. In spite of this, however, Shell has already registered and is one of two short-listed companies hoping to supply Petro SA’s Mossel Bay gas-to-fuel plant, should sufficient gas be found. Petro SA’s natural gas resources in the region are expected to be exhausted by 2014 and Shell hopes to supply gas-driven power stations with this gas. Shell is joined by entities including Falcon Oil & Gas (a US-based company) and Bundu Gas & Oil Exploration. Between the various groups, the area under application for prospecting licenses covers a staggering 200 000 km2 - almost the entire Karoo!

Not only is the vast area under consideration (which includes environmentally sensitive areas, biodiversity hotspots, private farms and small towns) an issue, the technology these companies plan to use to release the gas from its ancient bed in impermeable rock is one which appears to have a number of detrimental environmental impacts. The process used to liberate the gas is called hydraulic fracturing, known colloquially as “fracking”. Hydraulic fractures exist in nature, where they are known as volcanic dykes, sills or

Shale gas, the world’s newest energy resource, is known to lie beneath the Karoo scrub and some 200 000 km2 of the region is now under application for its exploration and subsequent extraction - should the gas be found in viable quantities.

weathering caused by ice. Industrial fracking creates fissures in rock, the aim being to release natural gas stored in pockets. The technique increases the rate at which fluids such as oil, gas or water can be produced from a reservoir, including unconventional reservoirs such as shale rock or coal beds. Fracking enables the production of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep beneath the earth’s surface (generally 1 500 - 6 100 m down). At such depths, there may not be sufficient porosity and permeability to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the rock into the wellbore at economic rates. Creating conductive fractures in the rock is essential to produce gas from these reservoirs because of the extremely low natural permeability of shale. A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid (comprising water, sand and a cocktail of chemicals) into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase the pressure downhole to a value in excess of the fracture gradient of the rock formation. The pressure causes the formation to crack, allowing fracking fluid to enter and extend the crack further into the formation. To keep the fracture open after the injection stops, a solid proppant (commonly sand but also manmade ceramics depending on the type of permeability or grain strength needed) is added to the fracture fluid. The propped hydraulic fracture then becomes a high permeability conduit through which fluids can flow to the well. Hydraulic fracture stimulation is commonly applied to wells drilled in low permeability reservoirs.

However, the serious negative consequences of fracking on the environment, water supply, people and wildlife are now becoming apparent in almost every country where fracking has become the preferred method of leaching gas from low permeability reservoirs. Derek Light, a Graaff-Reinet based lawyer working on behalf of landowners and other Interested & Affected Parties, listed some of the possible impacts facing the Karoo if the exploration goes ahead: “The Karoo is very dependent on groundwater and we’re naturally extremely concerned that the fracking process could contaminate the aquifers we all rely on. However, there are a lot of other impacts associated with this including air pollution, the degredation of the environment and biodiversity and, of course, the increase

in the region’s carbon footprint. Certain birds and plants, for instance, are only found in specific parts of the Karoo and they could be affected by fracking.” More than 60% of South Africa’s endemic and range-restricted birds occur in or are confined to the Karoo. These include several larks, chats, tits and warblers, as well as the Karoo Korhaan, Namaqua Sandgrouse, Karoo Robin and Karoo Eremomela. These birds are found in areas with low human populations and most are consequently not classified as threatened, despite there being few protected areas in the Karoo. Ernst Retief of BirdLife South Africa compiled a report with regards to birds found in the region that would be affected by the Shell and Falcon applications. The affected areas are home to some 361 bird species. Of these, Denham’s, Kori and Ludwig’s Bustard, Blue and Southern Grey Crowned Crane, Martial Eagle, Southern Ground Hornbill and Lesser Kestrel are all recorded as Vulnerable in South Africa. Near-threatened species include African Crowned Eagle, Lanner and Peregrine Falcon, Greater Flamingo, Black Harrier, Half-collared Kingfisher, Blue Korhaan, and Melodious and Sclater’s Lark. Rare vagrants include the Vulnerable Bateleur and Near-threatened African Openbill.

Martial Eagle, one of the Karoo’s threatened bird species, which could be affected if fracking goes ahead.

While no Important Bird Areas (IBAs) fall within the proposed exploration zones for either the Shell or Falcon projects, a number border on or are close to the proposed development area and could accordingly be threatened by fall-out from the exploration including groundwater pollution, air pollution, increased road traffic leading to disturbance, as well as the inevitable habitat destruction which often follows development of this nature. They include the Alexandria Coastal Belt, Karoo Nature Reserve, the Katberg/Readsdale Forest Complex, Amatole Forest Complex, the Cedarberg/Koue Bokkeveld Complex, the Swartberg Mountains, the Kouga/Baviaanskloof Complex, the Platberg Karoo Conservancy area, Anysberg Nature Reserve and the Gariep/Oviston/Tussen-die-Riviere region. Formal protected areas abutting or near the proposed sites include Karoo National Park (also an IBA) as well as Mountain Zebra National Park. The main concern with regards to fracking is the effect this is likely to have on water - and groundwater in particular. This is of great concern in the Karoo, where communities and farmers, not to mention birds and wildlife, are exceedingly reliant on groundwater. Fracking uses vast quantities of water - anything from 10 million to over 25 million litres per well. In addition, several wells may be drilled from one spot. One hydraulic “frack” uses the equivalent amount of water that would sustain the Karoo town of Graaff-Reinet for three days. Shell has proposed using seawater brought in by train but this is probably not feasible as the water is too salty and would react badly with chemicals used in the fracturing process. Wastewater generated could also increase the salinity of Karoo groundwater. As it is, the Little Karoo is semi-arid to arid and fresh water is regarded as a critical constraint to development. Rainfall is generally very low and variable with much of the Little Karoo’s low-lying central valley receiving only 100 - 300 mm/year. Further west, this decreases with some areas receiving as little as 50 - 100 mm/ year. The Little Karoo’s rainfall regime is also characterized by high rainfall events, which can result in floods. The western part of the Little

Karoo receives winter rain, while the eastern areas receive summer rain; the former is generally more reliable. The entire Little Karoo receives more than 80% of the potential solar radiation annually, resulting in high evaporation rates. Potential evaporation exceeds 2 250 mm/year in the dry central region - more than ten times the rainfall. Run-off water volumes are very low and variable, resulting in low reservoir yields.

In a 2005 study into the region’s water resources conducted by the CSIR, the water situation in the Little Karoo was described as an impending crisis, as demand had already surpassed sustainable use and the balancing of human and ecological requirements as envisaged in the National Water Act was no longer possible. Extensive land degredation has modified the hydrology and geohydrology of the Little Karoo and its aquatic and groundwater dependent ecosystems. Vegetation loss and trampling by livestock has altered key processes such as water infiltration, which has increased soil erosion and transformed river flow regimes. Most groundwater in the Little Karoo is saline because the geological structures which form most aquifers give rise to naturally saline groundwater, which is exacerbated by high evaporation rates. Natural salinity affects river systems draining the Great Karoo and this is increased by run-off from agricultural lands situated in the Touws, Buffels and Grootrivier catchments. Most water in the Little Karoo is used for irrigation with the balance being for urban use. Migration from rural to urban areas is increasing; the population of Kannaland (Ladismith) increased by 14% between 1996 and 2001 while Oudtshoorn’s population increased by 7%. Many of the Great Karoo sub-catchments and some sub-catchments near Oudtshoorn are stressed, with more than 50% of the recharge being abstracted. Flow rates in all catchments are further reduced by the effects of alien invasive plants. Climate change is expected to reduce winter rainfall while increasing summer rainfall and intensity to the east, as

Groundwater is an extremely important resource in the water-scarce Karoo - and fracking purports to use millions of litres of water, which the region can ill afford.

well as increasing air temperatures by 2 - 3°C. The decrease in winter rainfall is projected to affect the western Little Karoo, the southern mountains and the Swartberg. The reduction in the strength and number of cold fronts could also reduce the probability of substantial amounts of rain falling on inland mountains, which is important for the Little Karoo’s surface water resources. The increase in air temperatures will increase evaporation. Recharge to groundwater, as well as surface run-off are likely to decrease significantly, although mountainous areas may be less affected. According to projections, water deficits are likely to increase significantly. The Karoo can therefore ill afford a thirsty activity such as fracking. Birds will also be affected if the amount of available fresh water reduces. Bradley Gibbons, who manages the Karoo Crane Conservation Project of the Endangered Wildlife Trust’s African Crane Conservation Programme, says there are concerns about both Blue and Southern Grey Crowned Cranes, which are found in the areas affected by the two projects. “The cranes roost in the Karoo’s wetlands. Fresh water is very important for the maintenance of those wetlands. Cranes also drink the water from farm dams, windmills and troughs put out for livestock.” He adds, “The project areas include several large farms where there are important breeding and roosting sites for cranes. Cranes in the Karoo are afraid of people; they are also very sensitive to disruption and won’t breed if they are disturbed. We also believe that they could leave their territories if fracking takes place in or near them.” Derek Light voices another concern: “Fracking requires the use of dangerous chemicals, which are combined in a highly poisonous mix.” In the United States, oil and gas companies have declined to provide lists of chemicals used in fracking on the basis that this would infringe on their

Cranes in the Karoo are very sensitive to disturbance and could abandon their territories if fracking takes place near them.

proprietary rights. However, Shell Oil recently stated that it would disclose all chemical substances to be used at each borehole to extract shale gas. Energy in Depth, an organization representing the oil and gas industry in the United States, claims on its web site that 99.5% of fracking fluid is in fact water with the balance made up of acids, glutaraldehyde (used as a disinfectant/sterilizer for medical equipment), table salt, N n-Dimethylformaminide (used in pharmaceuticals, acrylic fibres and plastics), petroleum distillates, clear gum, citric acid, potassium chloride, ammonium biosulphate, proppant (sand), ethylene glycol (found in automotive antifreeze, household cleansers and chalk) and

isopropanol (used in glass cleaner, antiperspirant and hair colour). According to numerous reports, other chemicals used - which could be a fraction of the total chemical content - may include kerosene, benzene, toluene, xylene and formaldehyde, all of which are extremely toxic to humans and animals. Even at low levels, many of these chemicals can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, tumours, confusion and unconsciousness, while in high concentrations they may cause leukemia and death. Barium may be found in underground ore deposits and can cause high blood pressure, breathing difficulties, muscle weakness, swelling of the brain and kidney damage. Naturally occurring radioactive substances and strontium may be released from the earth during the fracking process; both are carcinogenic and strontium may also disrupt bone development.

Health concerns aside, even the level of 0.5% claimed on the Energy in Depth web site still translates into anything from 38 000 - 95 000 litres of often toxic chemicals being dumped into the ground - per well. Energy in Depth insists that the process is safe as boreholes are lined with a steel and concrete casing. Often the steel and concrete casing is not strong enough to withstand the pressures of fracking, however, so that fracturing fluid and gas leak through into groundwater aquifers. There may be natural faults, joints and rock fractures in the same area, which apparently cannot be verified beforehand and may not show up when the exploration is done. These could become migration pathways for saline water, chemicals or methane gas. There is also the issue of how to deal with wastewater pumped out of wells. This water is contaminated with toxic chemicals and needs to be purified before re-entering the environment. In the United States, the preferred method for disposing of toxic waste from fracking appears to be to truck it to the nearest sewage water treatment plant. Many lack the capacity to deal with the poisons and toxins present in such water and often discharge impartially or improperly treated water into major rivers, hoping that the fresh water will dilute it. Normally the sludge that remains could be trucked to a landfill site and dumped. But there is now so much wastewater that these solutions are not really feasible. The alarming fact is that toxic water now affects the drinking supply of millions of people, including those living in large cities such as Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, Baltimore and Philadelphia. Gas has also seeped into underground drinking water in at least five US states; residents blame natural gas drilling.

As it is a known fact that there is a great deal of uranium naturally present beneath the Karoo scrub, there is a very real possibility that fracking could lead to radioactive elements contaminating water, soil and other resources. This is in fact the newest water threat to emerge from fracking in the US. According to a New York Times report, at least 116 of 179 wells producing wastewater with high radiation levels reported levels of radioactive materials 100 times higher than those set for safe drinking water standards, and at least 15 wells produced water with over 1 000 times the amount of acceptable radioactive elements. The problem with radioactive wastewater is its potential to contaminate drinking water and enter the food chain through fish or farming activities. Once radium enters the human body - through eating, drinking or breathing - it can cause cancer and other health problems.

The drilling industry in the US appears unconcerned, stating that they are producing less wastewater as they are recycling much of it rather than disposing of it after each job. The trouble, again, is the sheer amount being produced. The unfortunate truth is that it’s cheaper to dump wastewater than to treat it; some companies pay around US$ 2 million annually for hauling and treating wastewater. Hydraulic fracturing also pollutes the air. The natural gas released is mixed with water and must be separated from wastewater. This is done on the surface. Evaporators and condensate tanks steam off volatile organic compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzine and xylene) 24/7. As these compounds react with diesel exhaust from trucks and generators at the well site, ground-level ozone is produced. Ozone plumes can travel up to 250 miles. Wyoming, a largely rural US state, now experiences air pollution levels similar to those found in industrialized areas. This is ascribed to drilling operations. Derek Light speaks for many living in the Karoo when he says, “We are concerned that the current legislation is inadequate to address fracking and the issues surrounding

it. The process is not being done responsibly; it is not properly regulated and has not been properly investigated. Regulations need to be put in place. We need to set up a committee to look into and deal with all the issues before fracking gets the go-ahead.” He goes on to tell me that current Environmental Management Plans submitted are generic desktop analyses and are not site-specific. In its executive summary, Falcon Oil & Gas lists several potential impacts, all of which are written off as being of very low to medium significance, particularly once mitigation measures have been applied. The problem, as always, is getting such entities to be specific as to exactly how they will apply mitigation measures and also to guarantee that they will be implemented at all - both during and after the activity has ceased.

The other bit of bad news is that oil and gas companies have also identified areas in the Free State and KZN, although the rights to prospect have not yet been applied for. At least five provinces are potentially affected. Says Derek: “Millions of litres of water will be poisoned. Water migrates and contaminated water could poison other systems. This might only show up after several years.” But all is not lost. Treasure The Karoo Action Group (TKAG) was launched by writer Jonathan Deal, who also created a Facebook page entitled Keep SHELL OIL out of the Karoo, which rapidly signed up over 3 000 members. Shell Oil, together with their environmental consultants, Golder Associates, held a number of public meetings in the Karoo and Cape Town as part of the public participation requirements needed for their Environmental Management Plan. By doing so, Shell opened the proverbial Pandora’s Box and there was an immediate, tremendous and unprecedented outcry. On 1 February 2011, following a public meeting in Cape Town, the Democratic Alliance waded in and stated that the proposal was “wholly premature”, calling for a moratorium on any exploration or mining activity involving fracking, as the deep geology of the Karoo is unknown and it is unclear as to how the arid and water-scarce Karoo would be able to provide sufficient water for what is known to be a very water-intensive activity. (More recently, as the likelihood of certain applications being approved has increased, the DA has reiterated its position and is to take the matter up with the relevant Ministers.)International business leader, Johann Rupert, attending a public meeting in Graaff-Reinet, told farmers: “It would be criminally negligent of Shell to push ahead with their exploration application without gathering comprehensive research and data on the Karoo’s highly sensitive water systems, geology and natural environment.” Princess Irene of the Dutch royal family owns a nature reserve in the

Karoo town of Nieu Bethesda and has pledged her support and active participation in the fight against Shell’s application. Support has also come from organizations such as WWF-South Africa and the Wilderness Foundation, as well as smaller, grassroots entities such as the Southern Cape Land Committee. Such is the groundswell of public opinion against fracking developments that mining company Advasol withdrew their application for a gas mining license in the Stillbaai area. At public meetings throughout the Karoo, Shell Oil’s representatives appeared unable to answer direct questions regarding whether the groundwater and aquifers on which the Karoo depends would remain uncontaminated. During a recent drought, farmers relied exclusively on groundwater to keep their farms going. In addition, Karoo towns are becoming seriously short of water. Shell has since said in a media briefing that it “would not compete with the people of the Karoo for their scarce water resources”. In a press release, Jonathan Deal of the TKAG stated: “There have been no conclusive studies of the underground water aquifers of the Karoo on the scale that Shell intends mining. Shell is thus in no position to claim incontrovertible scientific knowledge of this. Shell’s plan to use seawater in the Karoo borders on a lunatic notion and displays wholesale disregard for the environment, the nation’s roads and all of the towns and communities between the sea and the Karoo.” Notwithstanding, it appears that the South African government is set on allowing the exploration for natural gas to continue, claiming that using gas for a variety of energy requirements will reduce the country’s carbon footprint, currently one of the highest in the world due largely to our reliance on coal-burning power stations to generate electricity. However, it appears that, if fracking is used to access the gas resources beneath the Karoo and elsewhere, emissions caused by the process will be greater than those saved by switching from coal-powered energy to gas. Climate Change Programme Manager at WWF-SA was quoted in a TKAG press release as saying that using

shale gas for electricity generation could in fact increase South Africa’s carbon footprint due to fugitive emissions

from methane during fracking, as well as the fossil fuel burning infrastructure required. Not only that, Canada’s National Energy Board recently confirmed that only 20% of the natural gas present in the rock formation is released through hydraulic fracturing, whereas conventional gas extraction methods release around 95% of the gas present. In a preview to a report to be released by Cornell University’s Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, the authors state that, while it is true that less carbon dioxide is emitted from burning natural gas than by burning coal per unit of energy consumed, the combustion emissions are only part of the story and the comparison is misleading. “We urge caution in viewing natural gas as a good fuel choice for the future. Using the best available science, we conclude that natural gas is no better than coal and may be worse than coal in terms of its greenhouse gas footprint when evaluated over the time course of the next several decades. Note that both the National Academy of Sciences and the Council of Scientific Society Presidents have urged great caution before proceeding with the development of diffuse natural gas from shale formations using unconventional technology.” Notwithstanding, in a series of media briefings in March 2011, Shell Oil stated that the company had been conducting fracking safely for some 60 years. What they failed to mention, according to a TKAG press release, is that this refers to vertical fracturing. Jonathan Deal explains: “Horizontal slickwater fracturing, which is what they plan to do in the Karoo, involves far greater volumes of water and toxic chemicals, and has only been done on a commercial scale since the 1990s. It is this technology that is causing the massive problems in the US. It has also never been tried at the depths (4 - 5 km) that are being envisaged for the Karoo.” Shell further claimed that it would “leave the Karoo in a better position” than when the company arrived. Considering the unique plants, birds and animals that are found in Karoo biomes, together with the region’s fragile arid ecosystems and the limited surface and groundwater supplies on which both people and

wildlife depend, this seems a dubious claim. Deal adds, “The Karoo is too delicate and arid an ecosystem to be rehabilitated successfully.” Job creation is always an issue in South Africa and many Environmental Management Plans and scoping reports promise to create jobs. In a press release addressing these and other issues, Jonathan Deal comments: “Fracking has the potential to cost far more jobs than it creates.” Derek Light concurs, “This could affect existing sustainable livelihoods in the Karoo such as farming and tourism.” Concern has also been expressed in other quarters as to whether small Karoo towns could support a sudden influx of migrants and job-seekers should gas exploration companies set up shop in the region - which will be an added drain on the Karoo’s stretched water resources, not to mention the social issues which tend to crop up as a result of such influxes. The Karoo Development Foundation also expressed the view that mining is unsustainable as the resource eventually runs out and economic damage results. The TKAG notes that tourism in the Karoo has grown exponentially in the last few years and the industry, a much more long-term and sustainable resource than mining, should be protected. The Karoo in fact has the lowest unemployment rate in South Africa. At a meeting held in Cape Town in March 2011, a systems ecologist and policy analyst representing Golder Associates stated in response to a direct question that the Karoo’s economy would not survive gas mining (according to a press release by Jonathan Deal). The TKAG has further stated that the sheer scale of the applications by mining companies to frack for shale gas in the Karoo significantly undermines at least three important government processes that are still not completed. These include the spacial planning framework being established by the National Planning Commission, the updating of the National Water Resources Strategy (currently under way), and the Green Paper on Rural Development (scheduled to be tabled in Parliament in the second half of this year). The TKAG strongly believes that no decision about onshore

The Owl House is an interesting tourist attraction in the town of Nieu-Bethesda. Tourism and farming are important sustainable livelihoods for people living in the Karoo - and could be threatened by fracking.

exploration can be made until these and other similar important processes are completed. In the United States, which has seen a gas exploration boom since 2008, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently launched a study into the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing, including that on groundwater. They will investigate the full lifespan of water in hydraulic fracturing, from acquisition through to the treatment and disposal of used and wastewater. Initial research results and findings are due to be made public at the end of 2012, with a final report in 2014. Several US states have placed a moratorium on shale gas exploration due to environmental concerns, particularly regarding water pollution, and in the light of the many negative experiences reported by residents living near gas wells. France also placed a moratorium on shale gas exploration at the end of February 2011.

Judging by the American experience, what can ordinary South Africans expect if hydraulic fracturing becomes the preferred method of gas extraction in the Karoo and elsewhere? A request for information from American friends elicited a heated response. Christine Wenner of Halifax, Pennsylvania wrote furiously, “Pennsylvania is being fracked to hell and back and our new Republican governor is going to pave their way by not encouraging the promised severance tax we Pennsylvanians deserve and need to protect our drinking water, to say the least.” (The new governor’s campaign was largely funded by gas exploration companies and he has promised to open public land for drilling, which could result in an additional 10 000 new gas wells in Pennsylvania.) Nina Wormuth, who lives in the same state, said, “Pennsylvania is going to be raped. There will be no beauty left.” Internet searches reveal numerous tragic stories. In the US, unlike South Africa, the government does not own the rights to minerals; the right vests in the landowner. Oil and gas exploration companies visit landowners in a region where suitable shale gas deposits have been identified and offer the landowners money in exchange for the right to sink wells on their property. Once the lease has been negotiated, the gas companies move in - and the trouble starts within weeks. In one oft-quoted scenario in a Pennsylvanian rural enclave, one family suddenly found themselves faced with stained crockery and laundry. When they complained, the gas company said they would change the chemical mix they were using. Soon, residents were horrified to find that they could set their tap water alight! (By then, most of them had switched to bottled water.) Water wells exploded and people reported dizzy spells and having to lie down after bathing and showering. Toxic wastewater was found seeping into streams and rivers, and domestic livestock began showing up with

growths and cancers. Worse still, the value of the beleaguered homeowners’ properties plummeted, so they could not sell up and go elsewhere. In Texas, 7% of children living in homes near wells are reported to have asthma. In a small Wyoming town with intensive gas development, the federal government urged residents not to drink their water and to use fans and ventilation when showering or washing clothes to avoid the risk of explosion. This was after researchers found benzene, metals, phenols and methane in wells and groundwater, together with other compounds that were tentatively linked to drilling activities. Nina’s comment: “The TV ads for the drilling companies are vile. I particularly abhor the one that shows an elderly parent, and the adult children state how grateful they are for the revenue from the company because they can now keep mom at home and care for her. It’s disgusting!” Despite all this, the industry continues to boom in the USA. The New York Times reports that there were more than 493 000 active natural gas wells in the US in 2009 and nearly 90% were using hydro fracking to get more gas flowing. Pennsylvania is one of the states hardest hit by the shale gas industry with all its attendant ills. It has the misfortune to be situated on top of an enormous reserve known as the Marcellus Shale. The rock formation, almost the size of Greece, extends from Virginia to the southern half of New York State and is believed to hold sufficient gas to supply the entire United States’ heat and electricity needs for the next 15 years. Some 3 300 Marcellus gas well permits were issued in Pennsylvania in 2010, compared to just 117 three years previously. While this has created thousands of jobs, five-figure windfalls for residents who lease their land to drillers and revenue for a state that has struggled with budget deficits, it has also transformed the landscape. Derricks tower over barns, drilling sites bustle 24/7 and 18-wheelers continuously haul equipment, water and waste along back roads never intended for the purpose. Many drilling sites are extremely close to homes and households are subject to booming underground explosions and noxious smells from huge waste pits. Is this the Karoo’s future?

The once-peaceful, largely rural state of Wyoming looks quite different since the gas drilling companies came to town. (Picture: Pro Publica)

Shell has offered to compensate any farmer who can prove financial loss as a result of the company’s activities. In response, Deal states: “There are many cases where individual landowners in the US who have claimed compensation for real damage from oil giants have been forced to fend for themselves - a very expensive burden that is opposed in high court until private persons run out of money. There is no reason to believe it will be any different here.” He adds, “Does Shell have any suggestions for a farmer, whose land value plummets or whose water is poisoned as a result of gas mining, in terms of how he will be able to support his family and workforce? And will farm workers be compensated for livelihoods and homes lost?” Several South African scientists have recommended using the precautionary principle when considering fracking the countryside for shale gas. A far greater understanding of the groundwater resources of the Karoo is required, as well as how fracking would affect these. Investigations need to be done on the potential effects on soil and water salinity. Massive drilling operations with convoys of trucks crossing the Karoo is likely have a negative effect on veld and grazing, which does not readily regenerate due to the lack of rain. In some quarters, it is believed that shale gas in South Africa is a marginal resource at best with costs likely to exceed the benefits if one takes potential environmental damage into account. It is therefore unlikely that there would be enough funds to pay for environmental remediation if things go wrong. Derek Light confirms, “This is a very new technology in South Africa and a multitude of things can go wrong; we are very concerned about the impact of things going wrong. “ As a matter of interest, Shell has not got a squeaky-clean environmental track record, as is evidenced by several claims in the USA covering violations including air pollution, contamination of groundwater from leaking fuel and other storage tanks, violation of emission standards, the unauthorized venting and flaring of gas, illegal dumping, oil spills and toxic river pollution. Pesticide contamination of groundwater occurred in Brazil. The alleged “dismal pollution record which has claimed the lives of many residents” of the Shell/BP refinery in Durban triggered angry protests, although Shell stated its intention was to be good neighbours with locals. In Quebec, a scientific study conducted by a geological engineering professor specializing in rock mechanics and hydrology has established that hydraulic fracturing is likely to cause irreversible harm lasting thousands of years. According to a report published in the Montreal Gazette in early March 2011, the average life of a gas well is between 10 - 30 years. However, rock formations shattered by fracking become thousands of times more permeable, allowing the remaining 80% of shale gas left, together with underground water ten times saltier than seawater, to continue circulating and rising to the surface through disused gas wells. Over time, methane could leak into groundwater and gas leaks could gush into the air. Although abandoned wells may be capped with concrete, these could collapse. The professor concludes that hydraulic fracturing to release shale gas is not sustainable and not as safe as conventional gas production. More recently, Petroleum Agency of South Africa (PASA)

geology manager came out strongly in support of fracking, saying that was “unlikely” to contaminate groundwater. In response, Deal stated: “One wonders why, at a time when first world countries are imposing bans and moratoriums on hydraulic fracturing, the South African government is even considering this technology.” Cash-strapped PASA also stands to gain a 10% stake in gas exploration with a further 10% being awarded to empowerment partners of companies given the right to exploit the gas. A revised draft Environmental Management Plan has been submitted but the documentation is voluminous and the time for comment (20 days) is felt to be insufficient. All things considered, we cannot allow this to happen in South Africa - in the Karoo or anywhere else. Our unspoilt landscapes are precious; they are the places where we go to rejuvenate ourselves from the cares of everyday life. They are home to the wild animals, birds and plants that share the land with us. They provide revenue from tourism and farming. As acid mine water threatens Johannesburg, one realizes that it is imperative that we do not allow another invasive form of mining to threaten our environment and our precious water supply. As a species, we may be cleverer than all other life-forms on earth but we, too, cannot live without clean water, fresh air and fertile soil. It brings to mind the ancient North American Indian prophecy: Only after the last tree has been cut down, only after the last river has been poisoned, only after the last fish has been eaten – only then will you find that you cannot eat money. Ever more these days, this seems like an idea whose time may have come. Sources: Wikkipedia: Hydraulic Fracturing Executive Summary: Exploration Right Environmental Management Programme Report - Falcon Oil & Gas Ltd Energy in Depth: www.energyindepth.org Karoo Birds and Climate Change: Percy Fitzpatrick Institute of Ornithology, UCT Conservation International: Biodiversity Hotspots World Wildlife Fund - Wild World Report: Nama Karoo Water Resources in the Klein Karoo - The challenge of sustainable development in a water-scarce area: D le Maitre, C Colvin and A Maherry, CSIR Feds warn residents near Wyoming gas drilling sites not to drink their water: ProPublica, 1/09/2010 DA wants moratorium on Karoo gas exploration: Mail & Guardian Online, 1/2/2011 EPA News Release: EPA submits draft hydraulic fracturing study plan to independent scientists for review: 8/2/2011 Karoo unites against Shell: Farmers Weekly, 11/2/2011 Government to look at fracking environmental impact: SAPA, 24/2/2011 Regulation Lax as Gas Wells Tainted Water Hits Rivers: New York Times, 26/2/2011 Press Releases: Treasure the Karoo Action Group (various) Shell will pay up for Karoo damage: News 24, 3/3/2011 Fracking will cause “irreversible harm”: Montreal Gazette, 4/3/2011 Karoo fracking likely to be “water friendly”: Business Report, 17/3/11

This article appeared in the April 2011 issue of The Birder, an online magazine available on subscription. Web site: www.thebirderonline.com