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rcheo Nil
Hieroglyphic
Writing
uring
the
Fourth
Millennium
BC:
an Analysis of Systems
o hem ahl
Resume
Au c o u r s d e la d e r n i e r e d e c e n n i e , le n o m b r e d i n s c r i p t i o n s p u b l i e e s , a n t e r i e u r e s a la l e r e d y n a s t i e , a
presque t r i p l e . L a p r i n c i p a l e r a i s o n e n e s t l a d e c o u v e r t e d e s i n s c r i p t i o n s d e la t o m b e U - j e n v i r o n 3 3 2 0
av.J-C a U m m e l - Q a c a b / A b y d o s N a q a d a I I I a 2 / N a q a d a I I I A 1 ) . L e s 5 2 5 i n s c r i p t i o n s c o n n u e s a p r e s e n t
et d a t a n t d a v a n t la l e r e d y n a s t i e a u t o r i s e n t u n e « p l o n g e e » a u x o r i g i n e s d e l e c r i t u r e h i e r o g l y p h i q u e
relativement a u m a t e r i e l i n s c r i t e t e c r i t , t o u t a u s s i b i e n q u e n c e q u i c o n c e r n e l e s g r a p h i e s d e s m o t s
et l e s t o c k d e s s i g n e s .
La r e p a r t i t i o n d e s i n s c r i p t i o n s s e s t a c c r u e a u c o u r s d u t e m p s , a v a n t la l e r e d y n a s t i e . P o u r l e r e g n e d e
Nar-mer e l l e s s o n t d e j a a r r e s t e e s s u r 17 s i t e s . C e c i p r o u v e a l e v i d e n c e q u i l e x i s t a i t u n c o r p s c o n s t i -
tue d u n g r a n d n o m b r e d e s c r i b e s .
Le s m o t s e t a i e n t e c r i t s e n d i f f e r e n t e s s e q u e n c e s d e s i g n e s . U n e t e n d a n c e a la s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n n e s t p a s
encore c e r t a i n e . L e n o m d H o r u s d u r o i N a r - m e r , p a r e x e m p l e , e s t a t t e s t e s o u s 15 g r a p h i e s d i f f e r e n t e s .
Le
c h o i x
d u n e
g r a p h i e
c e p e n d a n t
n e s t
p a s
a p p a r u e
p a r
h a s a r d
e n
d e p i t
d e
la
m u l t i p l i c i t y
d e s
p o s s i b i -
lites. A i n s i la f o r m e l o n g u e d u n o m d e N a r - m e r s e t r o u v a i t p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t e x p r i m e e s u r d e s o b j e t s
representatifs m a i s la f o r m e c o u r t e „N a r o c c u p a i t d e s s u p p o r t s p l u s f o n c t i o n n e l s .
Un e x a m e n d e l e x i s t e n c e d e c e r t a i n e s f o n c t i o n s d e s s i g n e s h i e r o g l y p h i q u e s mo n t r e q u e , d u n e pa r t , le
systeme d e c r i t u r e e t a i t d e j a en u s a g e au t e m p s d e la t o m b e U- j , a v e c d e n om b r e u s e s c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e s
connues d e s p e r i o d e s p l u s t a r d i v e s ( l o g o g r amm e s , d e t e rm i n a t i f s , p h o n o g r a mm e s ) . D a u t r e p a r t ,
d autres c a r a c t e r i s t i q u e s m a n q u e n t e n c o r e ( c om p l em e n t s p h o n e t i q u e s e t q u e l q u e s p r i n c i p e s d e la c r e a -
tion d e l o g o g r amm e s ) . E n p a r t i c u l i e r , un s y l l a b a i r e e t a i t p r e s e n t , ma i s s e u l em e n t d a n s u n e f o r m e r u d i -
mentaire, a v a n t le mi l i e u d e la l e r e d y n a s t i e . A i n s i , l e c r i t u r e h i e r o g l y p h i q u e ex i s t a i t d a n s u n e f o r m e
„developpee d u r a n t le r e g n e d e D e n , ma i s d a n s sa f o r m e „ p l e i n em e n t d e v e l o p p e e , s e u l em e n t a p a r -
ti r
du
d e b u t
d e
la
3 em e
d y n a s t i e .
Avant l e p o q u e d e la t o m b e U - j , l e c r i t u r e p r o p r em e n t d i t n e s t p a s c o n n u e . D u n c o t e , l e s c om b i n a i -
sons d e s i g n e s m a n q u e n t , et d u n au t r e co t e , le p r i n c i p e d e s r e b u s n e s t p a s r e c o n n a i s s a b l e . N e a n m o i n s ,
il e s t p r o b a b l e q u a u m o i n s d u r a n t u n e c o u r t e p e r i o d e a v a n t l e t a b l i s s em e n t d e la t o m b e U- j , l u s a g e d e
l ecriture ex i s t a i t , ma i s a u c u n e e v i d e n c e n a s u r v e c u .
Westfal ische Wi l h e l m s - U n i v e r s i t a t Mi i n s t e r
Archeo Nil
n°
2 1 JO HEM KAHL
Originalveröffentlichung in: Archéo-Nil 11, 2001, S. 101-134
8/17/2019 (K) HieroglypHieroglyphic Writing during the Fourth Millenium BChic Writing During the Fourth Millenium BC
2/34
rcheo Nil
ieroglyphic
Writing
uring
the
Fourth
Millennium
BC
an nalysis of Systems
o hem ahl
Abstract
During t h e la s t t e n y e a r s t h e n u m b e r o f p u b l i s h e d i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e t i m e b e f o r e t h e
st D y n a s t y h a s
almost
t r i p l e d .
T h e
m a i n
r e a s o n
is
t h e
d i s c o v e r y
a n d
p u b l i c a t i o n
o f
t h e
e a r l y
i n s c r i p t i o n s
f r o m
T o m b
U j ca . 3 3 2 0 B C a t U m m e l - Q a c a b / A b y d o s N a q a d a I I I a 2 / N a q a d a I 1 IA1 . T h e 5 2 5 i n s c r i p t i o n s
known
a t
p r e s e n t
a n d
d a t i n g
b e f o r e
t h e
1st
D y n a s t y
a l l ow
an
i n s i g h t
i n to
t h e
o r i g i n s
o f
h i e r o g l y p h i c
writ ing — in r e s p e c t t o wr i t i n g ma t e r i a l s a n d l i t e r a cy a s we l l a s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s p e l l i n g o f w o r d s a n d
the s t o c k o f s i gn s .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n s c r i p t i o n s i n c r e a s e d in c o u r s e o f t i m e b e f o r e t h e
st Dyn a s t y . F o r t h e r e i gn o f N a r -
mer i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m 17 s i t e s a r e a l r e a d y a t t e s t e d . D u e t o c i r c um s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e , it c a n a l s o b e p ro -
ved t ha t t h e r e w a s a l a r g e o f f i c i a l g r o u p o f w o r k i n g s c r i b e s a s we l l .
Words w e r e wr i t t e n in d i f f e r e n t s ign s e q u e n c e s . A t e n d e n c y t o s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n w a s n o t y e t a s c e r t a i -
nable.
T h e Ho r u s n a m e o f k i n g Na r -m e r , f o r e x am p l e , w a s a t t e s t e d in 15 d i f f e r e n t s p e l l i n g s . T h e c h o i -
ce
o f
a
s p e l l i n g ,
h ow e v e r ,
d id
n o t
h a p p e n
h a p h a z a r d l y
in
s p i t e
o f
t h e
mu l t i p l i c i t y
o f
po s s i b i l i t i e s .
T h u s ,
th e l o n g e r f o r m o f N a r - m e r s n a m e w a s e s p e c i a l l y r e p r o d u c e d on r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o b j e c t s , b u t t h e s h o r -
te r
f o r m „ N a r o n m o r e f u n c t i o n a l s ub s t r a t e s .
An e x am i n a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e h i e r o g l y p h i c s i g n s s h ow s , on o n e h a n d ,
that
t h e
h i e r o g l y p h i c
wr i t i n g
s y s t em
w a s
a l r e a d y
in
u s e
d u r i n g
t h e
t im e
o f
T o m b
U- j ,
w i t h
m a n y
c h a -
racteristics t h a t a r e k n o w n f r om l a t e r p e r i o d s ( l o g o g r am s , d e t e r m i n a t i v e s a n d p h o n o g r a m s ) . O n t h e
other
h a n d , s o m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e sti l l m i s s i n g ( p h o n e t i c c om p l e m e n t s a n d s o m e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e
creation o f l o g o g r am s ) . In pa r t i c u l a r , a s y l l a b a r y w a s p r e s e n t o n l y in a r u d im e n t a r y w a y b e f o r e t h e
middle o f t h e 1st Dyn a s t y . T h u s h i e r o g l y p h i c wr i t i n g e x i s t e d in a „ f u l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r m d u r i n g t h e
reign
o f
D e n ,
b u t
in
a
„ f u l l y
d e v e l o p e d f o r m
o n l y
at
t h e
b e g i n n i n g
o f
t h e
3 rd
Dyn a s t y .
From
t h e t im e b e f o r e T o m b U- j , h i e r o g l y p h i c wr i t i n g in i ts p r o p e r s e n s e is n o t ye t k n o w n . O n t h e o n e
hand s i g n s in c om b i n a t i o n a r e m i s s i n g , a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e b u s p r i n c i p l e is n o t y e t r e c o g n i -
zable. Nev e r t h e l e s s , it is p r o b a b l e t h a t a t l e a s t a s ho r t t i m e b e f o r e T o m b U - j w a s e q u i p p e d , t h e u s e o f
writ ing a l r e a d y e x i s t e d h o w e v e r n o e v i d e n c e o f it h a s s u r v i v e d .
Westfa l i sche
Wilhe lms-Univers i ta t
Muns te r
2
ieroglyphic
Writing
During
the
Fourth
Millennium
BC
n nalysis of Systems
8/17/2019 (K) HieroglypHieroglyphic Writing during the Fourth Millenium BChic Writing During the Fourth Millenium BC
3/34
rcheo Nil
Hieroglyphic
Writing
uring
the Fourth Millennium BC:
an
Analysis of Systems
o hem
ahl
istory
of
Research
and
the
Quest ion
at
ssue
In the course of the last century, and especia l ly ju s t in the last decade, our understanding of th e origins
and deve lopmen t of Egyptian hieroglyphic writ ing has changed dramatically. As new evidence has
emerged th e date at which hieroglyphic writ ing can be said to have begun is being pushed back as far
as th e second half of th e fourth mil lenn ium. Even as recently as one hundred years ago, inscribed
objects f rom periods antedat ing the 4 th Dynas ty ca. 2600-2465 BC were not yet known or not yet
recognised as such MEYER 1887: 100 , al though th e great antiquity of th e hieroglyphs and their
invention by the legendary founder of th e Egyptian state, Mena , was known f rom the tradition of th e
ancient
authors Plinius th e Elder VII, 56 [192] . But, beginning in 1895, a s ignif icant series of disco -
veries
h a s
t r a n s f o r m e d
th e
field
o f
e v i d e n c e
o n
w h i c h
q u e s t i o n s
a b o u t
th e
h isto ry ,
n a t u r e
an d
m e a n i n g
of
h i e r o g l y p h i c
w r i t i n g
a re
b a s e d .
T h e
e x c a v a t i o n s
at
U m m
e l - Q a c a b / A b y d o s
A M E L I N E A U
1899;
AMELINEAU 1902; A M E L I N E A U 1904; A M E L I N E A U 1 9 0 5 ; P E T R I E 1 9 0 0 ; P E T R I E 1 9 0 1 ),
Naqada D E M O R G A N 1 8 9 7 ) an d H i e r a k o n p o l i s Q U I B E L L 1 9 0 0 ; Q U I B E L L - G R E E N 1 9 0 2 ) y iel-
ded n u m e r o u s in scrib ed finds w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y p u s h e d b a c k th e a g e o f th e s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e o f w r i -
ting by sev eral h u n d r e d y e a r s . W h a t a re o b v i o u s l y th e o ld est written h i e r o g l y p h i c c h a r a c t e r s w e r e n o w
dated f r o m th e r e i g n s o f K i n g I r y - H o r ca. 3 0 6 0 B C ) an d K i n g S e k h e n / K a c a. 3 0 5 0 B C ) . In f a c t , th e
volume
o f
th is
early
sto ck
o f
h i e r o g l y p h i c
sig n s
c o n t i n u e d
to
g r o w
u p
until
th e
b e g i n n i n g
o f
th e
1 9 9 0 s,
although n o f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s in d a t i n g o c c u r e d . U p until 1992, 18 5 attestatio n s o f w r i t i n g
from th e p erio d p r e d a t i n g th e 1st D y n a s t y w e r e p u b l i s h e d , as w e l l a s 4 6 in scrip tio n s w h i c h c o u l d b e set
in
D y n a s t y 0 o r at th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e 1st D y n a s t y .
Starting
in 1988, th e r e n e w e d e x c a v a t i o n s o f th e G e r m a n In stitu te o f A r c h a e o l o g y at U m m el-
Qacab Abydos
b r o u g h t a b o u t a d r a m a t i c c h a n g e . C e m e t e r y U th ere, w h i c h ha d b e g u n to b e u s e d a b o u t
3600
B C
an d
w a s
f o l l o w e d
s e a m l e s s l y
b y
th e
u se
o f
C e m e t e r y
B
with
th e
t o m b s
o f
Iry -Ho r,
S e k h e n / K a ,
Nar mer
an d
A h a ,
y i e l d e d
m o r e
in scrib ed
m a t e r i a l
f r o m
so
early
a
t i m e
th an
h ad
b een
k n o w n
b e f o r e ,
from
al l
o f
E g y p t :
17 5
n e w
lab els
an d
a b o u t
14 5
n ew
p o ttery
v e s s e l s
D R E Y E R
1 9 9 8 a).
N o t
o n l y
a re
the finds n e w , b u t th eir in scrip tio n s are a l s o o l d e r th an t h o s e f o u n d in earlier d i s c o v e r i e s : T o m b U - j ,
which y i e l d e d th e larg est n u m b e r o f in scrip tio n s, h as b een d a t e d b y r a d i o c a r b o n a n a l y s e s to a b o u t 3 3 2 0
BC
N a q a d a
IIIa2
a c c o r d i n g
to
K a i s e r s
c h r o n o l o g y
[ D R E Y E R
1 9 9 8 a:
18;
K A I S E R
1957:
6 9 - 7 7 ;
K A I -
SER 1 9 9 0 : 2 8 7 - 2 9 9 ] ; th is c o r r e s p o n d s to N a q a d a IIIA1 a c c o r d i n g to H e n d r i c k x c h r o n o l o g y [ H E N -
DRICKX 1999: 3 1 , 7 6 ]). T h u s , in th e last d e c a d e alo n e, th e n u m b e r o f p u b l i s h e d in scrip tio n s f r o m th e
time b e f o r e th e 1 st D y n a s t y h a s a l m o s t trip led , largely d u e to finds f r o m T o m b U -j a l o n e f i g . 1).
1
I
w o u l d
l i k e
t o
t h a n k
B a r b a r a
E m m e l
f o r
h e r
a d v i c e
r e g a r d i n g
E n g l i s h .
Archeo Nil n° 2 1 JO HEM KAHL 3
8/17/2019 (K) HieroglypHieroglyphic Writing during the Fourth Millenium BChic Writing During the Fourth Millenium BC
4/34
ig :
Numbe r
of
publ ished
inscriptions
predat ing
th e
st
Dynas ty
whose
nature
as
writ ing
would
seem
to
be
proven
Dynasty and o lde r
385
Iry Hor
2
24
Sekhen Ka
3
53
Nar mer
4
63
total
525
Although
these
newly
discovered
inscr ip t ions
are
very
diff icul t
to
read
—
as
is
al l
ev idence
of
wri t ing
predating
the
1
st
Dynas ty
—
their
exis tence
never the less
demands
a
re invest igat ion
of
the
origin
of
h ie -
roglyphic
writ ing.
The
present
paper
will
a t tempt
to
fu l f i l
this
task ,
f rom
the
perspect ive
of
graphet ic
and
graphemat ic
aspects ,
and
with
an
especia l
emphas is
on
the
fo l lowing
tw o
quest ions:
How
early
did
a
h ie rog lyph ic
writ ing
system
deve lop?
And
what
s tages
of
deve lopmen t
are
discernible
in
it s
early
his-
tory?
The
prob lem
of
def in ing
the
term
«
wri t ing
»
is
inseparable
f rom
this
fo rmula t ion
of
the
quest ion.
General def in i t ions are nume rou s and prov ide a f i rs t clue as to wha t is necessa ry in orde r to award th e
predicate
wri t ing .
For
example ,
accord ing
to
Gelb ,
writ ing
can
be
unders tood
as
«
a
system
of
human
intercommunic tion by means of conventional visible marks » GELB 1952: 12). Hans Jensen def ined
writing as ,
v
schriftliche Fixierung eines gegliederten sprachlichen Ausdrucks, wobei sprachlichen
inheiten schriftliche Einheiten entsprechen JENSEN 1969 : 33). Pascal Vernus argued in Archeo-
Nil 3: « / / y a ecriture au sens propre lorsque le message fixe graphiquement peut etre decode hors de
son contexte de production, pour pe u qu on possede les clefs du code.
L
ecriture a en effet la vertu de
conferer aux enonces linguistiques qu elle vehicule une autonomic pa r rapport aux conditions de leur
originelle proferation. » VERNUS 1993: 76).
2
12 5 pot te ry vesse l s bear s igns wri t t en in ink DREYER 1998a: 47-84 ) an d 175 labels f r om Tomb U-j in Urara el -
Qacab/Abydos
are
incised
with
di f ferent
h i e rog l yphs
DREYER
1998a:
113-136) ;
addi t iona l ly
there
ar e
11
labels
f r om
ear -
lier
excava t i ons
which
may
also
or ig ina te
f rom
ceme t e ry
U
DREYER
1998a:
134-136;
these
labels
cor respond
to
KAHL
1994: Qu. 189-197, 205 , 274) and more than 20 f ragmentar i ly preserved vesse l s with inscr ip t ions f r om other t ombs f r om
cemetery U DREYER 1998a: 80-82) .
KAHL
1994:
Qu.
218
dates
also
to
Dynas t y
0.
In
addi t ion ,
there
is
s ome
new
ev i dence :
rock dr aw ing with inscr ip t ion , Gebe l Sheikh Su l e iman , MU RN A N E 1987: 285 , fig. l .A -B
pottery vesse l , Tell Ibrahim Awad , VAN DEN BRINK 1992: 52, fig. 8.1
pottery
vesse l ,
Buto ,
VON
DER
WAY
1993:
100,
fig.
22 .6
ja r
s tand,
Abydo s ,
Osiris
Templ e ,
HARVEY
1996:
364
pottery
vesse l ,
Ezbe t
el-Tel l ,
VAN
DEN
BRINK
1996:
146,
fig.
3.18
pottery vesse l , Pa lmah in Quarry , BRAUN - VAN DEN BR INK 1998: 88, fig. 3 .A1-A2
pottery vesse l , Horva t cl l l in Tahti t , BRAUN - VAN DEN BRINK 1998: 88, f ig . 3 .B1-B2
cylinder
seal ,
Helwan ,
KOHLER
1999:
50 .
3
In addi t ion to KAHL 1994: 171-172 Qu. 5-24) :
pottery vesse l , Umm e l -Qacab /Abydos , Bere ich B 1/2, DREYER 1993: 56, fig. 12
seal
impress ion,
Umm
e l -Qacab /Abydos ,
B
0,
DREYER
1996:
pi.
9c
pottery
vesse l ,
Umm
e l -Qacab /Abydos
?),
G I LROY
2001 :
72 ,
fig.
3-4.
4
In addit ion to KAHL 1994: 173-176:
pottery
vesse l ,
Tell
Ibrahim
Awad ,
VAN
DEN
BRINK
1992:
52,
fig.
8.2
pottery
vesse l ,
Umm
e l -Qacab /Abydos ,
Tomb
U-j,
DREYER
1998a:
166,
fig.
98 .247
pottery vesse l , Umm e l -Qacab /Abydos ?) , G ILROY 2001 : 71, fig. 2.
5
In
addi t ion
to
KAHL
1994:
176-180
Qu .
79-131) :
pottery vesse l , Tell Ibrahim Awad , VA N DEN BRINK 1992: 52 , fig. 8.3
calcite alabaster
bas in ,
Umm
e l -Qacab /Abydos ,
cemetery
U,
DREYER
1993:
38
label Umm e l -Qacab /Abydos , near B 0/1/2 , DREYER 1998a: 139, fig. 83 b
year
label ,
Umm
e l -Qacab /Abydos ,
B
16-2
Halde ,
DREYER
1998b:
139,
pi.
5
c
pottery
vesse l ,
Umm
e l -Qacab /Abydos ,
near
B
1/2,
DREYER
1998b:
140,
fig.
30
statuette unknown provenance , GRIMM 1998: 227 poss ib ly to be read as shn/ks)
pottery
vesse l ,
Tel
Hal i f
Terrace ,
VAN
DEN
BR INK
1998:
219 ,
fig.
la
pottery vesse l , Te l Hal i f Terrace , VA N DEN BRINK 1998: 219 , fig. l b
pottery
vesse l ,
nor theas tern
del ta
?) ,
DREYER
1999:
2,
fig.
1
pottery
vesse l ,
Umm
e l -Qacab /Abydos
?) ,
GR IMM
-
SCHOSKE
2000 :
71 .
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ieroglyphic
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n
the specif ic case of th e earliest Egypt ian hieroglyphs , it is necessary to cons ider certain pecul iar i t ies
of
th e wri t ing system whose pr inciples are well known f rom th e later per iods . The ques t ion at issue is
whether these pr inciples were already in exis tence dur ing th e four th mil lenn ium, and, if so , when their
existence can first be discerned. These pr inciples of th e ancient Egypt ian wri t ing system are discussed
in detail below in section 6, but it may be stated prel iminar i ly that th e mos t impor tant are: 1 the r ebus
principle of wri t ing, whereby a depict ion of one object is used to represent a word that sounds th e s ame
as or
s imilar
to ,
the
object
depicted;
2 the
alphabet ic
pr inciple,
whereby
a
se t
of
unili teral
s igns
is
used to represent the individual ly dis t inct ive sounds phonemes of th e l anguage ; and 3 the comple -
ment
p r i n c i p l e ,
w h e r e b y
a
unili ter al
o r
bili ter al
sign
is
u s e d
to
s p e c i f y
a
par t
o f
th e
p h o n e m i c
c o n t e n t
of
a sign w h i c h h a s m o r e c o n s o n a n t s than it itself h a s .
Consequently, it h a s to b e d e t e r m i n e d w h e n th e s tock o f h i e r o g l y p h i c s i g n s first b e g a n to b e f r e e d f r o m
their s p e c i f i c a l l y iconic or s y m b o l i c u s a g e an d t h e r e b y b e c a m e abs tr acted f r o m t h e i r o r i g i n a l a s s o c i a -
tions
s o that t h e y c o u l d b e us ed in d i f f e r e n t s e m a n t i c c o n t e x t s . It is at this p o i n t that th e m a n i p u l a t i o n
of
h i e r o g l y p h s c o u l d r es ult in th e w r i t i n g o f al l t h i n k a b l e w o r d s a n d n o l o n g e r j u s t th e w o r d s t h e y r e p r e -
sented pictor ially.
Chronology
Before u n d e r t a k i n g to e x a m i n e th e ear lies t e v i d e n c e o f E g y p t i a n w r i t i n g a s s u c h , it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e
that
th e ins cr ibed finds f r o m T o m b U -j at U m m e l - Q a c a b / A b y d o s no t o n l y h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d n e w u p p e r
chronological
b o u n d a r i e s
f o r
th e
d e t e c t a b l e
u s e
o f
E g y p t i a n
h i e r o g l y p h s ,
b u t
als o
h a v e
s u g g e s t e d
a
revised c h r o n o l o g y f o r th e s e q u e n c e o f ear ly E g y p t i a n k i n g s . S i m p l y on th e b a s i s o f label a n d v e s s e l
inscriptions f r o m this t o m b , Giinter D r e y e r e s t i m a t e s n i n e r uler s w h o r e i g n e d b e f o r e th e p r e v i o u s l y
known
k i n g s o f D y n a s t y 0. B ut t h e n , t h r o u g h a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h th e colos s al M in s tatues f r o m C o p t o s ,
the
C i t i e s - P a l e t t e s a nd s o m e o t h e r s m a l l finds, D r e y e r u l t i m a t e l y r e c o n s t r u c t s a s e q u e n c e o f 15 r uler s
before I r y - H o r a n d t h e r e f o r e a total o f 19 r uler s b e f o r e th e 1s t D y n a s t y f i g . 2 ; D R E Y E R 1998a : 178-
180 .
Fig
2
:
The
sequence
of
rulers
before
the
st
Dynasty
as
reconstructed
by
Giinter
Dreyer
Oryx?standard
Pteroceras
Fish ?)
Elephant
Bull = B u l l s h e a d s t a n d a r d ? )
Stork
Canid
Bull s h e a d s t a n d a r d
Scorpion
I a b o u t 3 3 2 0 B C )
Falcon I)
Min-standard + b r a n c h e d p o l e
7
?
F a l c o n II )
Lion
Double F a l c o n
Iry-Hor
Sekhen/Ka
Scorpion
II
Nar-mer until a b o u t 3 0 0 0 B C )
Archeo Nil n 2001
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However it is n o t y e t c l e a r w h e t h e r D r e y e r s in terp retatio n o f s e v e r a l sig n g r o u p s as k i n g s n a m e s is
correct
c f.
K E M P
2 0 0 0 ) .
T h e
p r e s e n t
a u t h o r
c o n s i d e r s
t h e m
r a t h e r
to
b e
n a m e s
o f
p l a c e s
a n d
g o d s
KAHL f o r t h c o m i n g ) . If th is h y p o t h e s i s p r o v e s c o r r e c t , th en th e s e q u e n c e o f r u l e r s p r e d a t i n g th e 1st
Dynasty c o u l d still b e traced b a c k a s f a r as T o m b U - j , b u t w i t h o u t o u r k n o w i n g th e n a m e s o f t h o s e
rulers
f i g .
3 ).
Fig An alternative chronology of th e period with written ev idence before
st
Dynasty
anonymous
ru ler,
b u r i e d
in
T o m b
U - j
a b o u t
3 3 2 0
B C )
other a n o n y m o u s ru lers f r o m A b y d o s
Ny-Hor H a t - H o r , „Trio ,
„Double Fa lcon ? )
Iry-Hor
Pe-Hor,
Ny-Nei t ? )
Sekhen/Ka
Crocodile , Bird and vertical s ign ,
Scorpion
Nar-mer until about 3000 BC)
That would leave th e wel l -known kings Iry-Hor, Sekhen /Ka and Nar-mer , known f rom Abydos , as well
as
the
other
kings,
seen
as
local
or
oppos ing
rulers:
Ny-Ho r
and
Hat-Hor
cf.
to
both
KAISER-
DREYER 1982: 260-268 and VON DER WAY 1993: 101), Tr io FISCHER 1963: 44-47) , Pe-Hor
WILLIAMS 1986: 163, pi. 76; possibly to be read as Iry-Hor) , Crocod i l e DREYER 1992: 259-
263),
Bird
and
vertical
s i gn DREYER
1992:
260 ;
PETRIE
-
WAINWRIGHT
-
GARD INER
1913:
pi. 31.71) , Sco rp ion QUIBELL 1900: pi. 25 [below], 26 .C) , and perhaps Double Fa l con ENGEL,
2001) as wel l as Ny-N ei t ? ) KOHLER - VAN DEN BRINK , 2002 : 65-66, 76, f ig . 1.2) and an obscu-
re n ame VON DER WAY 1993: 99, f ig . 22.6) .
3 Wr i t i n g
ma t e r i a l
The oldest detectable materia ls used as a background substance substra te ; cf. MOUNTFORD 1969:
630 X.); KAHL 1994: 35-36) are pottery vessels and small bone or ivory labels which were found in
large
numbe r s
in
Tomb
U-j
at
Umm
el-
Qacab /Abydos
DREYER
1998a:
47-136) .
Stone
was
also
ins-
cribed as early as Naqada I I Ia2 /Naqada IIIA1 DREYER 1998a: 135-136) . Still earlier, at th e t ime of
Naqada I ld /Naqada IID, pottery vessels with s igns s imilar to writ ing have been found , al though their
meaning
has
not
yet
been
clearly
proved
cf.
the
defin i t ion
of
writ ing
in
1.
and
the
discussion
in
7.).
Whether other more perishable materia ls were inscr ibed, such as linen cf. th e painted f inds at Gebele in
from Naqada II : SCAMUZZ I 1964: pi. 1-5; DAM I CON E 1994: 20-23) , papyrus cf. KAHL 1994: 36)
or
leaves
HELCK
1985:
396;
cf.
WELVAERT
1996:
101-107),
is
also
not
yet
clear.
Ink, carving and relief were used as materia ls and /o r techniques by which hieroglyphic s igns could be
made vis ib le constra te ; cf. MOUNTFORD 1969: 630 X.); KAHL 1994: 35-36) . Two colours of ink ,
red and black, migh t be used on th e same object PETRIE 1901b: pi. 12.4; cf . KAHL 1997: 44-56) .
Incisions
could
be
filled
with
coloured
paste
e.g.
DREYER
1998a:
137
[black
or
bluish-black
paste];
QUIBELL 1900: pi. 30.7 [red ochre]) . Relief was l imited to prest ig ious objects : highly decorat ive
palettes and maceheads , s ta tues of gods , s tone vessels , as well as gaming balls and a weigh t s tone
whose exact utilisation is unknown . Fig. 4 presents a summary of al l attested materia ls with examples
for al l combina t ions of substra te and constra te .
6
ieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC
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ink
incision
relief
pottery vessel PETRIE 1902: pi. 1.1-13
KAISER - DREYER
1982: 234 , fig. lOc-d
PETRIE
- WAIN-
WRIGHT
- GARDINER
1913:
pi. 31 .69
PETRIE
1902: pi. 3.36-38
GARSTANG 1907: pi. 3.1
DREYER 1999: 2, fig. 1
label bone
labels ebony
labels ivory
label l imes tone
label quar tzi te
PETRIE 1901b: pi. 12.4
DREYER
1998a:
115,
fig.
74
PETRIE 1901b: pi. 2 .4
DREYER 1998a: 117, fig.
75.39
DREYER 1998a: 135, fig.
82.191
DREYER 1998a: 135, fig.
82.192 incised?
cylinder
seal
ivory
cylinder
seal steatite
PETRIE
1901a:
pi.
10.34
BAINES 1989: 475 , fig. 5
KOHLER
1999: 50
seal impres s ions indi-
cations fo r cyl inder
seals
DREYER 1996: pi. 9c
SPENCER 1980: 53 360
sculpture
l imes tone
sculpture
calcite-alabaster
sculpture
veined
sed imentary
rock
SCHOTT
1969:
81,
fig.
5
GRIMM 1998: 226-227
PETRIE 1896: pi. 3-4,
5.4
ceremonial palet tes
slate
QUIBELL
1900: pi.
29
FISCHER 1958: 73,
fig. 2a
ASSELBERGHS
1961:
pi. 92
ceremonial macehead
slate
QUIBELL
1900: pi.
25
bot tom , 26 .B ,
26.C
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stone
vessels
calc i te-
l b ster
stone
vessel
slate
stone
vessel
basal t
stone vessel black por -
phyry
PETRIE
1901b:
pi.
2.6
QUIBELL - GREEN
1902:
pi. 30.7
KAPLONY
1963:
III,
fig.
826
KAPLONY
1973:
pi.
7.24
LACAU - LAUER 1959:
pi.
1.1
PETRIE
1901b:
pi.
52.359
KAPLONY
1968: 18.5
DREYER
1993:
38
palette
KAPLONY
1965: pi. 20.3
stone
weight
quartzi te
KAPLONY 1964:
pi.
11.1053
gaming
balls
white
stone
KAPLONY
1973: pi. 6.5-6
rock-inscription
WINKLER
1938:
pi.
11.1
MURNANE
1987:
285,
fig. l .A-B
faience
objec t
inlay?
SAAD
1947:
165,
fig.
13
box ivory
PETRIE 1901b: pi. 4.17
unidentified
objec t
ivory
PETRIE 1901b: pi. 2.5
4
iter cy
The
distribution
of
th e
t ransmit ted
inscript ions
indicates
a
concentrat ion
in
th e
cent re,
in
Abydos .
Starting
with th e ruler buried in Tomb U-j , th e distribution of th e inscript ions outside of Abydo s
increases
f rom
I ry-Hor
f ig.
5 to
Sekhen/Ka
f ig.
6 and
Nar -mer
f ig.
7 .
For
Dynasty
0,
inscript ions
are attested f rom 30 di f fe ren t si tes f ig. 8 . During th e reign of Nar-mer , th e eleven inscriptions f rom
Tarkhan
give th e first serious hint of th e role played by th e Memph i t e region during th e fo l lowing 1st
Dynasty.
Legend
to
fig.
5-8:
o
less than 10 inscript ions
•
more
than
10
inscript ions
List
of
sites
ment ioned
in
fig.
5-8.
1
Umm
e l -Qacab/Abydos
13 Minshat
Abu
Omar
25
el-Beida
2
Zawiyet el -Aryan
14 northeastern delta
26 Sinai
3
Tarkhan 15
Arad
27
Raphia
4 Helwan
16 Tel Halif Terrace
28
Tel
Macahaz
5
Tell
Ibrahim Awad
17
Tel
Erani
29
Horvat clllin Tahtit
6
Hierakonpolis
18
Gebel
Sheikh
Suleiman
30
Palmahim
Quarry
7
Wadi
e l -Qash
19
Qustul
8 Naqada
20
Abadiyeh
9 Qift
21
Mahasna
10
Saqqara
22
Abusir
el -Meleq
11
Tura
23
Buto
1 8
ieroglyphic
Writing
During
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ig 5:
Distr ibut ion
of
inscriptions
from the reign of Iry Hor
ig 6: Distr ibut ion of inscr ipt ions
from
the reign of Sekhen Ka
rcheo Nil
n°11 2 1
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Fig
7: Distr ibut ion of inscr ipt ions
from
the
reign
of
Nar mer
Fig 8: Distr ibut ion of inscr ipt ions
before
the
1st
Dynasty
09
30
2 t
23
25 2
SI
22
20
:3
ieroglyphic
Writing
During
the
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Even so , th e pa laeograph ica l compar i son of th e in k inscr ip t ions on cylindrical vessels f r om U m m el-
Qacab Tomb B 7, points to a larger numbe r of scr ibes who worked on the equ ipmen t fo r the t omb of
Sekhen/Ka f ig . 10 . The d i f fe ren t execution of th e fo l lowing s igns is especia l ly striking: the sign fo r
Upper
Egyp t
Gard ine r
s ign -number
M
26 ,
the
hieroglyph
fo r
Q
3 ,
the
serekh
O
33 and
th e
fa l-
con G 5 ) p e r c h i n g on th e s e r e k h . In e a c h in scrip tio n , t h e s e h i e r o g l y p h s o c c u r ag ain an d a g a i n in a n e w
combin tion
o f
f o r m s .
A
c o m p a r a b l e
m u l t i p l i c i t y
o f
s c r i b e s h a n d s
is
attested
f r o m
th e
reig n
o f
A h a :
distinctions in th e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f s i g n s cf. S A A D 1 9 3 9 : 7 6 ) s u g g e s t th at in k i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m T o m b
3 3 5 7
at
S a q q a r a
E M E R Y
1 9 3 9 :
p i.
14 ,
2 0 - 2 3 )
w e r e
d r a w n
b y
a
larg er
n u m b e r
o f
scrib es.
Fig 10: Ink inscriptions from the reign of Sekhen /Ka
PETRIE 1902: pi. 1 2 .
O
i r
f
M
—•— —
f
£ P
e gS
mc
•J
ft
fitS
^J
m
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ieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC
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5
Word spell ings
h spelling of words could vary t h roughout the entirety of the Pre and Early Dynast ic Per iod dif fe -
rent g r aphemes were at t imes used fo r the notat ion of one and th e same word KAHL 1994: 56-61) . For
example
the word nh b „a kind of gif t or r evenue for th e reading cf. KAHL 1994: 101-104; KAHL
995:
168-176) is wri t ten in a di f f e ren t way on cyl inder vessels dur ing Dynas ty 0 than on a year label
from
th e reign of Den cf. KAHL 1994: 102; DREYER 2000: 115, pi. lO.h).
Graphemes
were
also
changed
in
their
or ientat ion,
as
occur red ,
fo r
example ,
in
th e
hieroglyphic
group
referring to th e sandal-bearer on the Nar-mer-palet te or on th e Nar -mer -macehead f ig . 11). Or they
could
be changed in thei r sequence as, fo r example , in th e note of del ivery ipw.t in which p was wri t -
ten in f ront of / f ig . 12).
Fig
11: Sandal-bearer on the macehead and th e palette of Nar-mer
after KAISER 1983: 264 fig. 1; QUIBELL 1898 : pi. 13 12 .
Fig 12 :
E x a m p l e s
o f
i
w t
w i t h
n o r m a l
a n d
r e v e r s e d
s p e l l i n g
after
P E T R I E
1902 :
p i .
2 . 23 1 . 10 2 . 16 1 . 6 .
rcheo Nil
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h r re sever l possible re sons fo r such irregul rities the s tock of hieroglyphic s igns w s still rel -
tively i n c o m p l e t e cf . 6 . 3 ) an d it a p p e a r s th at th e s c r i b e s to o k a certain p l e a s u r e in e x p e r i m e n t i n g . T h e
reproductions
o f
k i n g
N a r - m e r s
n a m e
s h o w
th at
th e
r u l e s
o f
d e c o r u m
c f.
B A I N E S
1 9 8 5 :
2 7 7 - 2 7 8 )
even th en i n f l u e n c e d w o r d s p e l l i n g s . H is n a m e c o u l d b e e n w r i t t e n in 15 d i f f e r e n t w a y s a c c o r d i n g to th e
attestations w h i c h a re k n o w n at p r e s e n t f i g . 13). O n e c a t e g o r i z i n g m a r k is a r e s p e c t i v e i n c l u s i o n o r
omission o f th e ch isel U 2 3 ) : w h e r e a s th e c a t f i s h K 8 = K a h l s i g n - n u m b e r k 4 ) w a s a l w a y s w r i t t e n ,
the
ch isel
c o u l d
b e
l e f t
o u t .
T h e
e x p l a n a t i o n
f o r
th is
p h e n o m e n o n
m i g h t
b e
f o u n d
in
th e
h i e r a r c h i c a l
importance o f th e s o u r c e s : m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o u r c e s , s u c h as th e N a r - m e r - p a l e t t e , th e N a r - m e r -
macehead
o r
s t o n e
v e s s e l s ,
s h o w
th e
f u l l
s p e l l i n g
o f
th e
n a m e ,
c o m p l e t e
w i t h
c a t f i s h
an d
ch isel,
w h e -
reas
m o r e
f u n c t i o n a l
s o u r c e s ,
s u c h
as
p r o d u c t
lab els
o r
p o t t e r y
v e s s e l s ,
attest
th e
s h o r t e r
s p e l l i n g s
without th e c h i s e l fig . 14).
Fig 13: Spel l ings of king Nar mer s name .
i
2
m
c
\
3
3
m
«
5
Sfe
01
6
j zcns j
m
7
[m^m 1
8
1
i
|
f
1
J
n
o
v
o
11
VoTo
—1
„ ?
13
14
i
15
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ieroglyphic
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1
cyl inder seal BAINES 1989: 475 , fig. 5
2 s tone vessel PETRIE 1901b: pi. 52.359 ; cf. highly decorat ive macehead QUIBELL 1900: pi.
26 B ;
year label PETRIE 1901b: pi. 10.1; DREYER 1998b: 139, fig. 29 ; s tone vessels DE M O R -
GAN 1897: 241 , f ig . 811; PETRIE 1900: pi. 4.2; PETRIE 1901b: pi. 2.3; PETRIE 1914: pi. 9.2;
LACAU
- LAUER 1959: pi. 1.1; KAPLONY 1966a: fig. 1138; KAPLONY 1968: pi. 18.5; KAPLO -
NY 1973: pi. 7.24 ; gaming balls KAPLONY 1973: pi. 6.5-6 ; weight s tone KAPLONY 1964: f ig .
1053 ;
statue of baboon SCHOTT 1969: 81, f ig . 5 ; seal impress ion KAPLONY 1963: III, f ig . 77 ;
ivory objec t PETRIE 1901b: pi. 2.5
3
seal
impress ion
KAPLONY
1963:
III,
fig.
26A ;
cf.
seal
impress ion
KAPLONY
1963:
III,
fig.
26B
4
pot tery
vessel
PETRIE
-
WAINWRIGHT
-
GARDINER
1913:
pi.
31.68 ;
cf.
pot tery
vessels
PETRIE - WAINWR IGHT - GARDINER 1913: pi. 31.69; KAPLONY 1964: f ig . 1061-1062; WIL-
DUNG 1981: 37, fig. 33 [left]
5
seal impress ion KAPLONY 1963: III, fig. 25
6 pot tery vessel D U N H A M 1978: 26, pi. 16a ; cf. rock inscription WINKLER 1938: pi. 11.1 ; pot-
tery
vessels KAISER - DREYER 1982: 263 , fig. 14.36; BAKR 1988: 55, pi. l a
7 pot tery vessel DREYER 1998b: 140, fig. 30
8
highly decorat ive palet te QUIBELL 1898: pi. 13
9 highly decorat ive palet te QUIBELL 1898: pi. 12 ; cf. palet te KAPLONY 1965: pi. 20.3 ; f a i ence
object
inlay?;
SAAD
1947:
165,
fig.
13
10 seal impress ion KAPLONY 1963: III, fig. 34
11
seal impress ion KAPLONY 1963: III, fig. 35A ; cf. seal impress ion KAPLONY 1963: III, fig.
35B
12
highly
decorat ive
palet te
QUIBELL
1898:
pi.
12
13 pottery vessel BAKR 1988: 55, pi. lb
14
ivory
object
SPENCER
1980:
pi.
52.454 ;
cf.
label
DREYER
1998a:
139,
fig.
83b ;
pot tery
ves-
sels GARSTANG 1907: pi. 3.1; JUNKER 1912: 47 , fig. 57.3-4 [= Ny-Hor?] ; PETRIE 1914: pi.
20.1-2;
YELVIN
1960:
195,
fig.
2;
KAISER
-
DREYER
1982:
263 ,
fig.
14.40;
VAN
DEN
BR INK
1992: 52, fig. 8.3; VAN DEN BRINK 1998: 219 , fig. l a -b ; GR IMM - SCHOSKE 2000: 71
15 pot tery vessel DREYER 1999: 2, fig. 1
Fig
14:
Overv i ew
of
the
kinds
of
objects
on
which
king
Nar-mer s
n ame
is
written
in
comple te
Nar-mer)
or
shortened
Nar)
spel l ing.
kind
of object
Nar-mer
Nar
highly decorat ive palet te
4
highly decorat ive macehead
sculpture
+
stone
vessels
feast
seal
other seals
year labels
1
palette
weight
s tone
gaming ball
ivory objec t
faience object
rock
inscription
•
+
box ?
label
pottery
vessels
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6 Stock of s igns
n
invest igat ion
of
the
stock
of
s igns
and
their
use
befo re
the st
Dynas ty
helps
us
to
gain
a
clearer
idea
of
th e
s tage
of
deve lopmen t
that
early
hieroglyphic
writ ing
had
at ta ined
by
that
t ime If
one
asks
how
w e
can
recogn ize
deve loped
h ie rog lyph ic
wri t ing
as
such then
it
is
necessary
to
consider
th e
f u n c -
tions
o f
th e
h i e r o g l y p h i c
s i g n s
c f.
f i g .
15).
T h e
s i g n s
c an
b e
u s e d
as
l o g o g r a m s
a n d / o r
d e t e r m i n a t i v e s
and or
p h o n o g r a m s
a n d / o r
p h o n e t i c
c o m p l e m e n t s .
Fig 5: Poss ib le funct ions of hieroglyphs after SCHENKEL 997: 42
Semograms
phonograms
as n o t a t i o n logograms o r i d e o g r a m s phonograms
as m a r k e r s determinatives
phonetic c o m p l e m e n t s
A
l o g o g r a m
s e r v e s
f o r
w r i t i n g
a
s o u n d
o r
series
o f
s o u n d s
th at
r e p r e s e n t
e i t h e r
an
en tire
w o r d
o r
a
w o r d
root T h e r e f o r e , th e u s e o f a n y l o g o g r a m is limited to th e w r i t i n g o f w o r d s th at a r e e t y m o l o g i c a l l y o r
semantically r e l a t e d to th e s i g n s o w n m e a n i n g . In d i s t i n c t i o n f r o m l o g o g r a m s , p h o n o g r a m s are u s e d
in a n y w o r d f o r n o t a t i n g m o n o - o r b i c o n s o n a n t a l p h o n e m e s . G e n e r a l l y , p h o n o g r a m s a re e s t a b l i s h e d
according to th e r e b u s p r i n c i p l e .
Determinatives a re s e m o g r a m s w h i c h c l a s s i f y a w o r d a c c o r d i n g to it s s e m a n t i c a l s p h e r e . C o m p l e m e n t s
are p h o n o g r a m s w h i c h s p e c i f y a p a r t o f th e p h o n e m e s e q u e n c e o f a p r e c e d i n g o r f o l l o w i n g sig n w h i c h
has m o r e c o n s o n a n t s t h a n itself, t h u s c l a r i f y i n g th e w o r d s m e a n i n g .
6 Logograms
Logograms a re a l r e a d y attested in t h e s e e a r l y i n s c r i p t i o n s an d th eir u s e is th e r u l e — a s f a r as w e
understand t h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s to d ate. L o g o g r a m s w h i c h b e l o n g to th e larg e g r o u p o f s e m o g r a m s c f.
fig 15 ) can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d in d i f f e r e n t w a y s c f. f i g . 16):
ieroglyphic
Writing
During
the
Fourth
Millennium
BC
n
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of
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t r
minative
Logo
gramme
•
A
Phono
gramme
Komple
mente
Ka
Hi
gramme
spcv iclic
un d
allgcmeine
SeaMgnmnw
S e m o g r a m i w
Semogramme
Rebus
ildliche
Darstellungen
Fhonogramme
Symbole
Reale
u n d
i d eo l og i sche
Wel t
d e r
gyp t e r
ig 16:
Methods
of
creat ing
hierog lyphic
signs
K A H L
1994:
52 .
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iconical ly : by rep roduc ing th e ob jec t itself; e.g. the h ie rog lyph O 19 pr.w-wr Pe r -we r DREYER
998a:
122,
f ig .
77 .61-69)
symbolical ly :
one
has
to
dis t inguish
three
possibi l i t ies
in
later
periods
to
create
symbol ica l
logograms
by associa t ion of though t cf . KAHL 1994: 53):
The g rapheme represents a part of th e deno ted word pars pro toto ; there is no ev idence fo r this pro -
cedure befo re the 1 st Dynasty .
-
The
g rapheme
points
to
a
semantical
aspect
of
th e
deno ted
word ;
e.g.
during
th e
re ign
of
Nar -me r
hj.t
F
4),
the
fo repa r t
of
a
lion
fo r
„the
be s t PETRIE
1901b:
pi.
12.4).
Signs
are
also
at tes ted
f r om
Tomb
U-j wh ich were created in that way , e.g. trees that migh t deno te planta t ions DREYER 1998a: 140), or
an e lephan t that deno tes Elephantine , th e island associa ted with elephants GARD INER 1947: II , 2* -
4 ;
see
f ig .
17 ,
specif ica l ly
fo r
that
reading
cf.
6.2).
- The g rapheme is also created freely f rom d i f fe ren t geomet r ica l f o rms d iag ram) ; e.g. the vert ica l stro-
ke Z 1) fo r numera ls in Tomb U-j DREYER 1998a: 117, f ig . 75.22-31)
- through the rebus principle : the g rapheme portrays an entity whose name displays a s imilar phono lo -
gical s tructure . The g rapheme here is used for notat ing a few dis t inct phonetic sequences . For example ,
the
word
nhb
„a
kind
of
g i f t
or
revenue is
writ ten
with
the
lotus
M
9v)
whose
consonan ta l
sequence
nh t sounds s imilar KAHL 1994: 102).
6 2 Determinat ives
Determinatives are evident already during this early epoch: e.g. the names of subdued reg ions chn.w,
sti
and
ssm.t are
class if ied
by
the
sign
N
18
strip
of
sand)
on
a
cylinder
seal
of
Nar -me r
BA INES
1989:
475 ,
f ig .
5) .
And
even
in
the
inscr ip t ions
f rom
Tomb
U-j,
de te rmina t ives
seem
to
have
been
used.
Some labels f ig . 17; DREYER 1998a: 119, f ig . 76 .53-56 , 76.59-60) display an elephant E 26) s tan-
ding on a mounta in range N 25). Perhaps :bw Elephantine could be read KAHL , fo r thcoming ; fo r
a
d i f fe ren t
reading:
DREYER
1998a:
140-141) .
In
th is
case ,
the
sign
fo r
mounta in
range
wou ld
f unc -
tion
as
a
de te rmina t ive .
Fig
17 :
Labels
from
T o m b
U j
D R E Y E R 1998a: 119 fig. 76 .59
2
D R E Y E R
1998a:
119 fig.
76 .60
o
a
ti
Q
cm
05
£3
8
ieroglyphic Writing During the Fourth Millennium BC
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6
onoconson nt l
phonogr ms
That early hieroglyphic wri t ing passed through a long deve lopmenta l phase can be bes t ev idenced or
illustrated
by means of phonograms : During th e reign of Den, the stock of monoconsonanta l s igns was
almost
but not yet fully, comple te . At that t ime monoconsonanta l s igns were lacking only fo r y and s,
eventually also fo r h and k K A H L 1994: 71, 161 . However , mos t of th e monoconsonan t a l s igns were
not created before th e 1 st Dynas ty dur ing th e reigns of Djer to Den . Accord ing to present day i n for-
mation,
dur ing the reign of Nar-mer , unili teral s igns were used only fo r 10 of 25 consonant s of th e
Egyptian
l anguage :
fo r
i,p,f,
n,
r,
h,
s,
t,
c
and
c.
Biconsonanta l
s igns
are
still
more
rarely
attested
fo r
that t ime (cf. 6.4). Most of th e words were wri t ten by l ogograms (cf. 6.1).
List of attestation fo r monoconsonanta l signs:
i
(M 17) ipw.t, Sekhen/Ka (e.g. PETRIE 1902: pi. 1.1-4, 1.6-8)
p (Q 3) ipw.t, Sekhen/Ka (e.g. PETRIE 1902: pi. 1.1-4, 1.6-8)
/ (I 9) cfi, I ry -Hor (KAISER - DREYER 1982: 231 , f ig . 9); Nar -mer ( PETRIE -
WAINWRIGHT - GARDINER 1913: pi. 31.69)
n (N 35) nhb, Sekhen/Ka (e.g. PETRIE - WAINWR IGHT - GARDINER 1913: pi.
31.67; KAPLONY 1963: III, fig. 848; PETRIE 1902: pi. 3.27-28) ; nhb,
Dynasty
0,
(e.g.
PETRIE
-
WAINWR IGHT
-
GARDINER
1913:
pi.
31.66;
PETR IE
1914:
pi. 9.3); mn, Nar -mer ( KAPLONY 1963: III, fig. 77)
r (D 21) Ir.i hr.w I ry-Hor (e.g. PETRIE 1900: pi. 44 .2 ; KAPLONY 1963: III, fig.
13; KAISER - DREYER 1982: 234 , fig. lO.a-d)
h
(V 28) chs, Nar -mer ( KAPLONY 1964: fig. 1061)
s (S 29) —(?) , Dynas ty 0 (HARVEY 1996: 364, fig. 3); —(?) , Nar -mer ( PETRIE
1901b: pi. 10.1)
t ( X I ) iw.t mh.w 7 , Nar -mer ( KAPLONY 1964: fig. 1062); &. (?) , Nar -mer
QUIBELL
1900: pi. 29)
c (V 13 ) &. (?) , Nar -mer (QUIBELL 1900: pi. 26 .B , 29)
c ( 110 ) cfi, I ry-Hor (KAISER - DREYER 1982: 231 , fig. 9), Nar -mer ( PETRIE -
WAINWRIGHT - GARDINER 1913: pi. 31.69) ; chs, Nar -mer ( KAPLONY 1964:
fig. 1061)
eventually also:
h (A a 1) —(?) , Dynas ty 0 ( PETRIE 1901a: pi. 10.34)
The use of monoconsonanta l phonog r ams is cer tainly attested s ince I ry-Hor: r (D 21; wri t ten in this
king s
name) as well a s / ( I 9) and c (I 10 ) on seal impress ions bear ing th e note cf i mh.w.
Tomb U-j at Umm e l -Qacab /Abydos has given ev idence of s ome of the earliest wri t ing. Therefore a
question
arises as to whe the r unili teral s igns were already in use at such an early s tage. Two of th e
labels
( f ig .
18.2-3;
DREYER
1998a:
pi.
33 .142-143)
bear
an
inscription
cons is t ing
of
a
sign
or iginal ly
representing a sickle and a l ightning bolt , which has been interpreted as the night sky, and a sign group
which has been ident i f ied as a cobra in repose (I 10 ) and a sand-covered mounta in at th e edge of green
cultivation (N 26) . Another label ( f ig . 18.1; DREYER 1998a: pi. 33 .135) bears an inscription which
once again s hows th e cobra and th e mounta in , but now in connec t ion with a cres ted ibis (G 25) . One
suggested reading fo r th e cobra and th e mounta in is cw mountain (wri t ten with a bili teral sign and a
uniliteral phonet ic complement ) .
Both
kinds of inscription would r e fe r to place names , which al lude to sunset and sunr ise: cw in com-
bination with th e ibis would read mounta in of br i l l iance or eastern mounta in , cw in combina t ion
with th e night sk y would read mountain of darkness or western moun t a i n (DREYER 1998a: 139).
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Fig
18:
Inscr ibed
labels
from
T o m b
U j
D R E Y E R
1998a:
130 fig.
80.135
2
D R E Y E R
1998a:
130 fig.
80.142
3
D R E Y E R
1998a:
130 fig.
80.143
o
o
Even
if th e proposed mean ing of th e reading seems appropria te fo r a label-inscription and therefore
plausible
some
doubts
remain
about
its
correctness:
1. The sign fo r
cw
is only once writ ten with th e mountain (N 26), but twice with th e mountain range
N 25).
2. The stroke in DREYER 1998a: 130, fig. 80.135 is inexplicable in this posi t ion . Moreover it seems
to exist in DREYER 1998a: 130, fig. 80.143, as can be seen on the pho to DREYER 1998a: pi. 33.143.
3. There exists another word cni w which is derived f rom th e verb cn i lift up or dis t inguish . It has
three mean ings : mounta ins , settled higher land at the desert edge and boundary (EDEL 1956: 72).
This word is usual ly writ ten with a serpent being raised by a bent stick (f ig . 19). Somet imes there is a
feather in the serpent s body. And in most cases th e determinat ive is a boundary-s tone, even if the wor-
d s mean ing is not boundary , but mountains cf . Pyr. § 279 a).
So fa r this word is attested f rom th e Old Kingdom on with the mean ing of mountains . And in al l pro-
bability, it was also writ ten in the First Dynasty , HELCK 1987: 232), but withou t th e determinat ive
cf.
fig. 19.1).
2
ieroglyphic
Writing
During
the
Fourth
Millennium
BC:
n
Analysis
of
Systems
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Fig
19 :
Examp le s
for
cni.w
Kah l
s i gn -number
r
15 .
1 - 1st Dynasty EM ERY 1958: pi. 39
2
-
5th
Dynasty
JUNKER
1938:
169,
fig.
30
3
-
6th
Dynasty
JUNKER
1953:
71,
fig.
40
4
-
6t h
Dynasty
after
VON
BISSING
1911:
pi.
5
5 - 6th Dynasty JAM ES 1953: pi . 14
6
-
19th
Dynasty
KITCHEN
1975:
202 .10;
handcopy
VI
It
is poss ible that th e word cni.w with th e mean ing of mounta ins or settled higher land at th e deser t
edge was wri t ten on th e labels in Tomb U-j. And th e mounta in or the mounta in r ange were chosen as
determinatives Thus it would be a sign group cons is t ing of th e raised serpent and th e mounta in or
mountain range l ike th e sign group of raised serpent and boundary- s tone dur ing th e Old Kingdom
The
impl icat ions of that proposed new reading are fa r r each ing because it would imply that comp l e-
ments were not included in these early inscriptions. Aside f rom these labels, there is no hint fo r the use
of unili teral s igns in Tomb U-j . A label of s tone DREYER 1998a: 135, f ig . 82 .191) with unreadable
signs was found on th e sur face near Tomb U-j DREYER 1998a: 138, note 185). Whi le this label could
bear s ome unili teral signs, their sense r emains unintel l igible.
All
in
al l
there
is
no
def ini te
proof
fo r
th e
exis tence
of
unili teral
s igns
dur ing
Naqada
I I I a2 /Naqada
niAi
6 4
Biconsonantal phonograms
The biconsonanta l phonog r ams bj G 29) and st Q 1) accord ing to DREYER 1998a: 139) are used to
write the place n ame Bubast is , as it appear s to be recorded on tw o labels f rom Tomb U-j DREYER
1998a: 125, fig. 78 .103-104) . These are th e earliest biconsonantal phonog r ams known at present . Othe r
representatives of this group of s igns are not attested until th e reign of Nar-mer .
List
o f
a t t e s t a t i on
f o r
b i c o n s o n a n t a l
s i gn s :
iw
E 9) iw.t mh.wO Nar -mer KAPLONY 1964: f ig . 1062)
bJ
G 29) bJlt Naqada I I I a2 /Naqada IIIA1 DREYER 1998a: 125, fig. 78 .103-104)
nm Y 5) mn Nar -mer KAPLONY 1963: f ig . 77)
mr U 23 ) mr Nar -mer e.g. QUIBELL 1900: pi. 26 .B ; KAPLONY 1963: III, f ig . 26 .A-
B;
BAINES 1989: 475 , fig. 5; DREYER 1998b: 139, fig. 29)
nw
W 24) chn.w Nar -mer KAPLONY 1963: fig. 5; DREYER 1998b: 139, pi. 5c)
st
Q 1) bJs.t Naqada I I I a2 /Naqada IIIA1 DREYER 1998a: 125, fig. 78 .103-104)
eventually also:
hr
m 10) hr.w Sco rp i on QUIBELL 1900: pi. 26.C); Nar -mer QUIBELL 1900: pi.
26 B 29) [cf. th e discuss ion KAHL 1994: 55-56 and SCHNE IDER 1997: 241-267] .
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6 5 Phonet ic comp lemen t s
h e r l i e s t d e f i n i t i v e t t e s t t i o n s f o r p h o n o g r p h i l m r k i n g s w i t h om p l e m e n t s d t e f r o m t h e t i m e
of
„ C r o c o d i l e /
S e k h e n / K a :
t h e
r i p p l e
o f
w a t e r
N
3 5
« )
s u p p l e m e n t s
t h e
s i g n
M
9
V
l o t u s )
in
t h e
n o t e
of
d e l i v e r y
nh b
P E T R I E
-
W A I N W R I G H T
-
G A R D I N E R
1 9 1 3 :
p i .
3 1 . 6 6 ;
D R E Y E R
1 9 9 2 :
2 5 9 - 2 6 3 ;
for
t h e
r e a d i n g
c f .
K A H L
1 9 9 4 :
1 0 1 - 1 0 4 ) .
T h e
c o n s o n a n t
n
is
a l s o
m a r k e d
d u r i n g
t h e
r e i g n
o f
N a r - m e r
by
N
3 5
in
inn:
K A P L O N Y
1 9 6 3 :
I I I ,
f i g .
7 7 ;
b y
W
2 5
in
chn w:
B A I N E S
1 9 8 9 :
4 7 5 ,
f i g .
5 ) .
There
a r e
n o
a t t e s t a t i o n s
f o r
t h e
u s e
o f
c om p l e m e n t s
in
e a r l i e r
p e r i o d s ,
a p a r t
f r o m
t h e
a b o v e
m e n t i o -
ned
q u e s t i o n a b l e
c a s e
f r o m
T o m b
U - j ,
w h e r e
cni w
o r
cw
a r e
p r o p o s e d
a s
p o s s i b l e
r e a d i n g s
c f .
6 . 3 ) .
But
e v e n
i f
t h e
r e a d i n g
cw
i s
f a v o u r e d ,
it
s t i l l
r e m a i n s
a n
o p e n
q u e s t i o n
w h e t h e r
t h e
c o b r a
I
10)
f u n c -
tions a s a c o m p l e m e n t f o r t h e l o g o g r a m cw o r a s p h o n o g r a m w i t h a d e f e c t i v e wr i t i n g o f t h e f o l l o -
wing
w
a n d
a
d e t e rm i n a t i v e ) .
7 The t ime before Tomb U j: precursors of hieroglyphic wri t ing
Objects
w h i c h
b e a r
s i g n s
s im i l a r
t o
h i e r o g l y p h s
a r e
k n o w n
e v e n
f r o m
t h a t
p e r i o d
a n t e d a t i n g
T o m b
U -
j
i . e .
b e f o r e
N a q a d a
I I I a 2 / N a q a d a
I I I A 1
c f .
V E R N U S
1 9 9 3 :
7 9 - 8 5 ) .
N o n e
o f
t h e s e
s i g n s
h i n t s
a t
t h e
existence
o f
p h o n o g r a m s ,
p h o n e t i c
c om p l e m e n t s
o r
d e t e r m i n a t i v e s .
A t
b e s t
t h e s e
s i g n s
c a n
b e
i d e n t i -
fie