JWG-B2/B4/C1.17 Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC Projects Task Force JWG-B2/B4/C1.17 Brochure 388 Jose Antonio Jardini João Felix Nolasco.
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JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC ProjectsTask Force
Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC ProjectsFrom José Antonio Jardini, João Felix Nolasco
on behalf of CIGRE JWG-B2.17/B4/C1.17
João Francisco Nolasco, JWG Convenor (Brazil); José Antonio Jardini, TF Convenor (Brazil); John Francis Graham, Secretary (Brazil)
Regular members:João F. Nolasco (Brazil); John F. Graham (Brazil); José A. Jardini (Brazil); Carlos A.O. Peixoto (Brazil); Carlos Gama (Brazil; Luis C. Bertola (Argentina); Mario Masuda (Brazil); Rogério P. Guimarães (Brazil); José I. Gomes (Brazil); P. Sarma Maruvada (Canada); Diarmid Loudon (Norway); Günter Bruske – (Germany); Hans-Peter Oswald (Germany); Alf Persson (Sweden); Walter Flassbeck (Germany)
Corresponding members:Kees Koreman (Netherlands); Tim Wu (USA); Dzevad Muftig (South Africa); Bernard Dalle (France); Pat Naidoo (Zaire); José Henrique M. Fernandes (Brazil); Jutta Hanson (Germany); Riaz Amod Vajeth (Germany); Angus Ketley (Australia)
Reviewers: Rob Stephen (South Africa); Elias Ghannoun (Canada); Samuel
NguefeuGabriel Olguin (Chile) (France)
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Content
• Overview and Configurations Studied
• Transmission Line Considerations
• Converter Station Cost Equation
• Electrodes, Electrode Lines and Metallic Return
• System Economics
• Conclusions
• REFERENCES
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Overview and Configurations Studied
Configurations
Table 3.1 Transmission line configuration capacities
21.3 As the shield wires should be close to the conductors a protection angle of 10 degrees can be assumed when using 2 shield wires.If one shield wire is used than the protection is almost good for tower with V strings. If I string are used than one shield wire may be used in location with low lightning activity.
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Table 4.14: Swing angles for ROW width definition
ConductorSwing Angle
(degree)ACSR Code Section (MCM)
Joree 2,515 34.1
Thrasher 2,312 35.1
Kiwi 2,167 36.4
2,034 2,034 37.2
Chukar 1,780 37.0
Lapwing 1,590 39.1
Bobolink 1,431 40.4
Dipper 1,351.5 41.1
Bittern 1,272 41.9
Bluejay 1,113 43.5
Rail 954 45.4
Tern 795 47.5
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Right Of Way ( I strings) Operating Voltage plus conductor swing due to high wind. Verification of corona effects and fields
Figure 4.24: Right of way width, ±500 kV lines (for RI)
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
RgoldgolngolkggolANAN 4.1140860 300
q +
g → average maximum bundle gradient, kV/cm n → number of sub-conductorsd → conductor diameter, cm R → radial distance from the positive conductor to the point of observation
The empirical constants k and AN0 are given as:
k = 25.6 for n 2k = 0 for n = 1,2
AN0 = -100.62 for n 2
AN0 = -93.4 for n = 1,2
Audible Noise CIGRE
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
10
10
10 109101524
110
nd LL
dn golL
day night probability
Acceptable Ldn = 55 dBA
subtract 5 dBA for 10% probability ( not exceeding)
Ld=Ln= 42 dBA 50% values
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 4.25: Right-of-way width, ±500 kV line (for AN)
summer high hum, fog 38.9 43.8 18.4 35.4 39.9 16.7
spring 33.9 38.2 16.0 30.3 34.1 14.2
w/o space charge 9.6 3.4 9.6 3.4
Pacific Intertie meas. 20.0 15.0 33.0 22.0
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Table 4.31: Ion Current Lateral Profile (nA/m²), 50% value
weather condition J+ (50 %) J- (50%)
worst(*) 7.9m(*) 22.9m worst 7.9m 22.9m
summer fair 52.5 47.5 5.5 32.8 36.4 4.2
summer high hum., fog 75.7 68.6 8.0 80.0 88.7 10.3
spring 41.8 37.8 4.4 31.0 34.4 4.0
Pacific Intertie meas. 2.0 2.0 20.0 5.0
Table 4.32: Ion Current Lateral Profile (nA/m²), 95% value
weather condition J+ (95%) J- (95%)
worst(*) 7.9m(*) 22.9m worst 7.9m 22.9m
summer fair 89.2 80.7 9.4 76.7 85.1 9.9
summer high hum., fog 98.0 88.7 10.3 113.1 125.4 14.6
spring 81.8 74.0 8.6 91.3 101.3 11.8
Pacific Intertie meas. 45.0 20.0 125.0 50.0
Calculation with BPA software resulted in 145.0 and 25.5 nA/m2 at 7.9 and 22.9 m (sic)
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17a) Electrical field
The electrical field should be bellow 40 kV/m, (correspondent to the level of annoyance “disturbing nuisance”)
In fact depend on kV plus nA/m2
b) Ion currentThe ion current, value with 95% probability of not being exceeded,
in any place, shall not result in a current higher than 3,5 mA “threshold of perception for woman, DC current”.
A person has an equivalent area o f 5 m2, so:
2/7,05
5,3mmAJ
GREEN BOOK OLD
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Considerations made
Person normally grounded with a current It = 4 mA current through him
Person highly insulated touching ground objects, It = 4 mA
Person grounded touching large vehicle (grounded through 1 MW).
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Condition I: Through a person with a resistance to ground Rp= 200 Mohm, pass I= 4 uA (they found no measurements with current above 3 uA). The voltage across him will be 800 V and the nuisance is classified as “ No Sensation”. The ion flow in this case is 4/5= 0.8 uA/m2
Condition II: A person with Rp= 500 Mohm and capacitance Cp= 100 pF, subjected to a current of I= 4 uA, touch a grounded object (R=100 ohm). The initial discharge current is than 20A but only 1mA after 0.1 us; the energy is 0.2 mJ (acceptable is 250 mJ “uncomfortable chock”). The ion flow is also 0.8 uA/m2
Condition III: A person Rp= 1500 ohm, Cp=0, touch a truck Ro= 1 Mohm, Co= 10 000 pF where 1000 uA is passing through it ( measurements by Moris in a car 14X2.4X4m placed under a 600 kV line, with a clearance of 2.5 from conductor to truck top was bellow 300 uA). In this case the voltage truck to ground would be 1kV ten initial current is 670 uA , 1mA after 100 us, and an energy of 5 mJ (1/50 of 250 mJ “uncomfortable chock”). The ion flow in this case is 1000/(14*2.4*4)=7.5 uA/m2
Analyzing these conditions it can be proposed the ion flows limits: 0.8 uA/m2 places with access to people 7.5 uA/m2 places with access to truck Note: The criteria above is conservative by at least a factor 10
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Perception of the field
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Reference
[46] Chinese 2006 30 kV/m in the ROW 25 kV/m close to building
[48] Italian manuscript standard
42 kV/m 1-8 Hz 14 kV/m general public (GP)
[49] Kosheev Russia GP=40 kV/m 100 nA/m2 Work =3600/(E+0.25 E)2
Health Council Netherland 340 kV/m (nothing on blood, reproduction, prenatal mortality
Intensity - mean of the sample (m/s) (10 min average wind) 18.4
Standard deviation (m/s) 3.68 (20% of mean)
Sample period (years) 30
Ground roughness B
[40} IEC/TR 60826
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Table 4.44: Region II Design Temperatures (°C).
Condition Temperatures (ºC)
EDS Every Day Stress (Installation condition)
0
Minimum -18
Ice load condition -5
Table 4.45: Wind data.
Description Data Values
Reference height (m) 10
Intensity - mean of the sample (m/s) (10 min average wind) 20
Standard deviation (m/s) 3.60 (18% of mean)
Sample period (years) 30
Ground roughness C
Table 4.46: Ice data
•Description •Data Values
•Intensity - mean of the sample - gm
(N/m)•16.0
•Standard deviation (% of mean) •70
•Sample period (years) •12
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Table 4.47: Ice data- return period
Reliability levelReturn period T
(years)Probability of
exceeding the load
Low probability level of maximum value of
one variable
123
50150500
65%30%10%
High probability level of maximum value of
one variable
123
3 100%
Table 4.48: Ice/wind combination
Loading conditions Ice weight Wind velocity Effective drag coefficient Density
Condition 1 gL ViH CiH δ1
Condition 2 gH ViL CiH δ1
Condition 3* gH ViH CiL δ2
JWG-B2/B4/C1.174- Sag and tension calculations
initial state:- EDS Every Day Stress: 20% of rupture load for conductor, and 11% for shield wire extra high strength steel.- Temperature 20º C- Creep corresponding to 10 years- High wind simultaneous with temperature of 15 ºC. In this case the tension shall be lower than 50% of the cable rupture
load.
-At minimum temperature (equal to 0 ºC), with no wind , the tension shall be lower than 33 % of the cable rupture load
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
4.3- TensionsAn average span of 450 m is considered, and the conditions checked are:
- high wind transverse- high wind 45 o- temperature 10ºC, no wind- temperature 0 ºC, no wind- temperature 65 ºC, no wind- storm wind, transverse- storm wind, 45 o- EDS, 20ºC, no wind
The tower and foundation weights are calculated only for suspension tower.
Possible line angles are d=0 o, or d=2 o
Loading tree
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Code Description
V0 HW at 90º; d = 0; highest VS
VOR HW at 90º; d = 0; lowest VS
V1 HW 90º; d = 2; highest VS
V1R HW at 90º; d = 2; lowest VS
V4 HW at 450; d = 2; highest VS
V4R HW at 450; d = 2; lowest VS
W1 TW at 90º; d = 2; highest VS
W1R TW at 90º; d = 2; lowest VS
W3 TW at 45º; d = 2; highest VS
W3R TW at 45º; d = 2; lowest VS
W4 TW at 0º; d = 2; highest VS
W4R TW at 0º; d = 2; lowest VS
R1 No wind; shield wire 1 rupture; d = 2; highest VS
R1R No wind; shield wire 1 rupture; d = 2; lowest VS
R2 Same as R1 but for shield wire 2 rupture
R2R Same as R1R but for shield wire 2 rupture
R4 No wind; pole 1 conductor 1 rupture; d = 2; highest VS
R4R No wind; pole 1 conductor 1 rupture; d = 2; lowest VS
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
R5 Same as R4 but for pole 2 conductor rupture
R5R Same as R4R but for pole 2 conductor rupture
D1 No wind longitudinal unbalance; d = 2; highest VS
D1R No wind longitudinal unbalance; d = 2; lowest VS
M1 Shield wire 1 on shivers and maintenance; d = 2
M2 As before; shield wire 2
M4 As before; pole 1 conductors
M5 As before; pole 2 conductors
MVR Cables on shivers; wind = 0,6 HW
MS1 Shield wire 1 erection; no dynamic forces; d = 2
MS2 As before; shield wire 2
MS4 Same as before; pole 1 conductors
MS5 Same as before; pole 2 conductor
MS7 As MS5 but pole 1 is the last pole to be erected
MC1 Shield wire 1 erection; with dynamic forces; d = 2
MC2 Same before; shield wire 2
MC4 Same before; pole 1 conductors
MC5 Same before; pole 2 conductors
MC7 Same as MC5 but pole 1 is the last to be erected
514440 MS;D;R;W;V;V
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Tower weight = a + b V + S (c N + d) ton
a, b, c, d are parameters to be obtained by curve fitting of the tower weight dataV is the pole to ground voltage (kV)S = N S1 is the total conductor aluminum cross section (MCM); S1 being one conductor aluminum cross sectionN is the number of conductor per pole
• Man laborROW and access Tower erectionTower foundation erectionTower foundation excavationGuy wire foundation erectionGuy wire foundation excavationConductor installationShield wire installationGuy wire installationGrounding installation • Administration & Supervisionmaterial transportation to siteinspection at manufacturer siteconstruction administration. Contingencies. Taxes were considered separately
6 Region with ice, + 500 kV, 3xFalcon 244,600 127.8
7 Monopolar line, Base Case 155,500 81.3
8 Metallic return by the shield wire 217,050 113.4
9 For the Base Case period return wind 500 years 215,660 112.7
10 For the Base Case cross-rope tower 194,600 101.7
BASE CASE 191,328 100
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
km/MWV
Pr
2
1JL
2
P is the rated bipole power MWV is the Voltage to ground kVr is the bundle resistance ohms/kmr = ro L / Sro conductor resistivity 58 ohms MCM/ kmL, S are the length and cross section in km and MCM
Joule losses
JL*ClJLlfFc8760CpCJL
typical value 230 U$/kW
alternative 15% lower
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
000000 10203050
SH
SHgol
n
ngol
d
dgol
g
ggolPPfair
000000 10152040
SH
SHgol
n
ngol
d
dgol
g
ggolPPfoul
dB
dB
10/)(10)/( dBPmWP bipole losses in watt per meter
corona loss
go=25 kV/cm; do= 3.05 cm; no= 3
Ho=15 m; So=15 m; Po= 2.9 dB fair weather and 11 dB foul weather
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
B
CSec
CBACty 2min
CBACline min
Optimal Conductor (aluminum pole cross section)
Cline = (0.02+ k)* (A + B S)
S is the pole Aluminum area, k is the factor to convert Present Worth into yearly cost; 0.02 is a factor to consider operation and maintenance cost,
Closses= C/S is the yearly cost of the losses.
total yearly cost (Cty=Cline+Closses), Cty= A + B S + C/S
minimum =>
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Most Economical line for 6000 MW
Table 4.64 Economic line for 6,000 MW
kV +600 +800
cond/pole 6 5
MCM (1) 2,515 2,515
tot U$/yr/km 101,473 83,290
A) Most favorable solution – losses cost base case
kV +600 +800
cond/pole 6 4
MCM (1) 2,515 2515
tot U$/yr/km 94,321 78,154
B) Losses cost reduced by 15%
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Impact of corona losses (800 kV line)
•solution desconsidering corona losses
** solution considering corona losses
MW 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000
kV +800 +800 +800 +800 +800
cond/pole 4 4 4 4 4
MCM 1,680* 1,800** 1,900 2,000 2,200
tot U$/yr 54,789 54,700 54,730 54,839 55,251
line U$/yr 36,442 37,438 38,268 39,097 40,756
Joule U$/yr 13,970 13,039 12,352 11,735 10,668
Corona loss U$/yr 4,377 4,224 4,110 4,007 3,826
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Table 5.1: Converter Station Costs
voltage
Bipolar Rating MW
Cost U$/k
W
Total cost
Million U$
Source
500 1,000 170 170[44] CIGRE Brochure
186
500 2,000 145 290[44] CIGRE Brochure
186
600 3,000 150 450[44] CIGRE Brochure
186
500 3,000 420[45] IEEE Power and
Energy 500 4,000 680 [45]
600 3,000 450-460 [45]
800 3,000 510 [45]
CONVETER STATION
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Table 5.2: Costs of Converter Stations (Rectifier plus Inverter) obtained by JWG-B2.B4.C1.17 from manufacturers FOB prices without tax and duties.
Bipolar Rating MW
kV 12 pulse Conv./poleSuggested
Costs M U$
CostsM €
1 750 +300Voltage Source
Converter165 115
2 750 +300 1 (6 pulse)* 155 108
3 750 +300 1 165 115
4 750 +500 1 185 129
5 1,500 +300 1 265 184
6 1,500 +500 1 305 212
7 3,000 +500 1 425 295
8 3,000 +600 1 460 320
9 3,000 +800 1 505 351
10 6,000 +600 2 parallel 875 608
11 6,000 +800 2 series 965 671
12 6,000 +800 2 parallel 965 671
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Ct= A (VB) ( PC) Ct Millions U$P bipole power in MWV pole voltage kV
Table 5.3: Converter Station costs: Results and accuracy
case kV MWObtained Cost
without * 6,000 MW
DIF (%)with *
6,000 MW
DIF (%)
1 300 750 165 170 2,8 135 -18,0
2 500 750 185 199 7,8 153 -17,2
3 300 1,500 265 250 -5,8 238 -10,3
4 500 1,500 305 293 -3,8 269 -11,7
5 500 3,000 420 432 2,7 473 12,7
6 600 3,000 450 457 1,6 495 10,0
7 800 3,000 510 501 -1,8 531 4,1
8 600 6,000 875 673 -23,1 870 -0,6
9 800 6,000 965 737 -23,7 933 -3,3
A= 0,698 A= 0,154
B= 0,317 B= 0,244
C= 0,557 C= 0,814
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Table 5.4: Cost Division
Standard thyristor bipole with two terminals
Standard Bipole [%]
Valve Group 22
Converter Transformer 22
DC Switchyard and filter 6
AC Switchyard and filter 9
Control, protection, communication 8
Civil, mechanics, works 13,5
Auxiliary Power 2,5
Project engineering, administration 17
Total 100
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 5.4: General single line diagram
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Table 5.6: Typical Losses of one Converter Station
Auxiliary Power ConsumptionCooling System, Converter ValvesCooling System, Converter TransformerAir-Conditioning SystemOthers
4 %4 %
15 %10 %
3 %1 %4 %1 %
Referred to rated power of one 2000 MW Bipole-Station
2,2 MW 14 MW
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 5.8: Thyristor development
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
line current Line Voltage Rated Power Diameter of wafer
2 kA ±500 kV 2,000 MW 4’’ / 10.0 cm3 kA ±500 kV 3,000 MW 5’’ / 12.5 cm3,125 kA ±800 kV 5,000 MW 5’’ / 12.5 cm3,75 kA ±800 kV 6,000 MW 6’’ / 15.0 cm
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 5.11: Example of a ± 500 kV 12-Pulses Valve Tower Configuration
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 5.12 VSC converters and cables
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 5.13 Tapping using VSC
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 5.14 VSC with multi level converter
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Current Return
• Electrode Line
• Metalic Return
• Eletrode
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Electrode line and electrode
converter
capacitor and breaker
Return by shield wires
Current Return
eletrodo de terra retorno metálico
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 1: Metallic Return through pole conductor
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 2: Bipole paralleling
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Electrode Line
• in the same tower of the bipole
• separated line
• cables
More than one bipole
• 1 electrode and different electrode lines
• different lines e different electrodes (Itaipu)
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
design criteria for electrode line:
• The line shall have more than one conductor as a failure of it cause bipole outage
• Choice of the number and type of insulators in a string, this depends on the voltage drop in the electrode line due to DC current flow during monopolar operation, the electrode length and the conductor selected dictate the choice.
• The pollution level in the electrode area has also an influence.
• A gap shall be provided to get arc extinction after fault in the electrode line to ground.
• The relative position of the electrode line as related to bipole is an important aspect as related to the electrode line insulation design.
• The electrode line tower grounding is an important aspect in order to limit the flashovers to ground (structure).
• An adequate clearance to ground has to be provided to comply with the current passing through and eventual loss of one of the conductor
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17Linha do Eletrodo
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
1.Electrode Line costs parcels in percent (100% are table ITEM 6 values)
Return cond. losses (%) for 3000 km NA NA 8.6 7.2 10.4 7.5 5.6 9.6 6.5
Electrode and metallic return lines design
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Electrode Design
•Full current 2.5% of the time;•2.5% of unbalance current permanently.
Potential gradient and step voltage at electrode site;Current density to avoid electro-osmosis in the anode operation;Touch voltages to fences, metallic structures and buried pipes nearby;Corrosion of buried pipes or foundations;Stray current in power lines, especially via transformer neutrals;Stray current in telephone circuits.
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Figure 6.5: Ground surface potential as a function of distance from electrode center
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
h
carvão
condutor
ferro 9000 kg/ano com corrente de 1000A (15 a 25 A/m2); grafite 60%do ferro
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Table 6.4: One electrode cost
item %
Materials
buried wire 8.0
coke 13.8
connections house 1.6
sub total materials 23.5
Man labor 73.6
Engineering - contingencies- land
2.9
Materials taxes 9.4
Man labor taxes 7.4
Total cost (100%) U$483,000
U$
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Cline = a + b V + S (c N + d)
a, b, c, d are parameters obtained by curve fitting of the data
P is the rated bipole power MWV is the Voltage to ground kVr is the bundle resistance ohms/kmr = ro L / Sro conductor resistivity 58 ohms MCM/ kmL, S are the length and cross section in km and MCM
Joule losses
JL*ClJLlfFc8760CpCJL
typical value 230 U$/kW
alternative 15% lower
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
000000 10203050
SH
SHgol
n
ngol
d
dgol
g
ggolPP (9)
000000 10152040
SH
SHgol
n
ngol
d
dgol
g
ggolPP (10)
where P is the corona loss in dB above 1W/m, d is conductor diameter in cm and the line parameters g, n, H and S have the same significance as described above. The reference values assumed are g0 = 25 kV/cm, d0 = 3.05 cm, n0 = 3, H0 = 15 m and S0 = 15 m. The corresponding reference values of P0 were obtained by regression analysis to minimize the arithmetic average of the differences between the calculated and measured losses. The values obtained are P0 = 2.9 dB for fair weather and P0 = 11 dB for foul weather.
10/10)/( PmWP losses in watt per meter
In the economic evaluation it will be considered 80% of time weather fair and 20% foul.
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
B
CSec
CBACty 2min
CBACline min
optimal Conductor (aluminum pole cross section)
Cline = (0.02+ k)* (A + B S)
S is the pole Aluminum area, k is the factor to convert Present Worth into yearly cost; 0.02 is a factor to consider operation and maintenance cost,
Closses= C/S is the yearly cost of the losses.
total yearly cost (Cty=Cline+Closses), Cty= A + B S + C/S
minimum =>
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Three conditions may occur
• Sec conductor is to large for N subconductor configuration
adopt Nx2515
• Sec conductor is too small
adopt configuration to get 28 kV/cm surface grad
• Sec conductor is Ok
adopt the Sec configuration
NO alternative is descarded
JWG-B2/B4/C1.17
Ccs = a* Vb * P c U$
P bipole power (MW)
V voltage (kV)
Station Cost
• For power rating up to 4000MW, one converter per pole:a = 106*0.698*1.5 (1.5 is a factor to include taxes in Brazil, for every country a specific value should be used); b = 0.317; c = 0.557;
•For power rating above 4000 MW (2 series converters per pole)a = 106*0.154*1.5 (1.5 is a factor to include taxes in Brazil); b = 0.244; c = 0.814
•CIGRE Brochure 178 “Probabilistic Design of Overhead Transmission Lines”, •CIGRE Brochure 48 “Tower Top Geometry”, •CIGRE Brochure 109 “Review of IEC 826: Loading and Strength of Overhead Lines” •CIGRE Brochure 256 “Report on Current Practices Regarding Frequencies and Magnitude of High Intensity Winds”, •IEC/TR 60 826 Loading and Strength of Overhead Transmission Lines•CIGRE “Brochure 207 Thermal Behavior of Overhead Conductors”•Gilman D W; Whitehead E R “The mechanism of Lightning Flashover on HV and EHV Transmission Lines”, Electra no 27, 1975