JURISPRUDENCE COMPARATIVE LAW - GBV · JURISPRUDENCE & COMPARATIVE LAW Dr. N. Krishna Kumar B.Sc, ... Commentaries and Digests Asahaya Visvaroopa ... Nature of Constitutional Law

JURISPRUDENCE&

COMPARATIVE LAW

Dr. N. Krishna KumarB.Sc, LL.M., PGDCr. J.A., Ph.D.

(Lecturer, Government Law College, Thrissur, KeralaFormerly : Lecturer, Central Law College, Salem; Govt. Law College, Ernakulam;

Govt. Law College, Thiruvananthapuram; School of Indian Legal Thought. Kottayam;School of Legal Studies, Cochin University of Science and Technology

and Centre for Legal Studies of Kannur University)

CENTRAL LAW PUBLICATIONSLAW BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS

107, DARBHANGA CASTLE, ALLAHABAD—211002

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

PageNATURE AND SCOPE OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 1DEFINITION OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 1

Jurisprudence as a Science ... 1Austin's Definition ... 1Holland's Definition ... 1Salmond's Definition ... 2

Jurisprudence—Modern Concept ... 2Professor Julius Stone ... 2

CLASSIFICATION OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 2Criticism and Conclusion ... 3Criticism of Holland's View ... 3

SCOPE OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 3Jurisprudence in Historical Perspective ... 3

EMERGENCE OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 41. Greek Period ... 4

Law as an Instrument of Social Control ... 42. Roman Period ... 4

Higher Ideal Universal Law ... 4Jus Naturale, Jus Civile and Jus Gentium ... 5

3. Medieval Period ... 54. Modern Period ... 55. Nineteenth Century ... 6

Jurisprudence—Two Separate Branches ... 6(i) Historical Method in Germany ... 6(ii) Analytical Method in England ... 6

6. Twentieth Century ... 6Application of Natural Law ... 7Conclusion ... 7

NORM ... 7NORMS AND THE NORMATIVE SYSTEMS ... 8NORMATIVE APPROACH OF LAW ... 8

Utilitarianism ... 8Deontology ... 9

viii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

CHAPTER 2SCHOOLS OF JURISPRUDENCE

PageANALYTICAL SCHOOL (ANALYTICAL POSITIVISM) ... 10BENTHAM'S APPROACH ... 10

Bentham's Utilitarianism ... 11Illustration ... 11Bentham's Contribution ... 12Criticism of Bentham 12

AUSTIN'S ̂ APPROACH 13LAW AS THE COMMAND OF THE SOVEREIGN 13

1. Particular Command. 132. General Command. 1 > 5

THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY ... 13Definition 13Characteristics ... 14Theory of Sovereignty ••• 1 4

Criticism of Analytical School ... 14Neo-Austinian School ... 15

NATURAL LAW ... 16Natural Law and Social Contract ... 17

HISTORICAL SCHOOL ... 18Main Principles ... 18Savigny's Theory ... 18Criticism ... 19Sir Henry Maine's Historical Theory ... 19

Conclusion ... 20SOCIOLOGICAL SCHOOL ... 20

Definition and Explanation ... 20Exponents ... 20

Conclusion ... 23ECONOMIC INTERPRETATION OF LAW ... 23

Factors that led to the Growth of Economic School ... 23Karl Marx's Economic and Socialistic Theory ... 24Soviet Practice ... 24Development after 1981 in Soviet Russia ... 24Working System of Courts in Soviet Russia ... 25Conclusion ... 25

THE BHARATIYA JURISPRUDENCE ... 25DHARMA ... 26

Concept of Dharma ... 26Basic Aspect of Dharma ... 27Different Contextual Meanings of Dharma ... 27Different kinds of Dharma ... 28Vyavahara Dharma and Raja Dharma ... 29Dharma as Justice ... 30

CONTENTS

Sources of DharmaVedasVedangasUpanishadsSMRITHISDharmasutrasGautama DharamasutraBoudhayana DharmasutraApastamba DharmasutraVasistha Dharmasutra (Harita)Vishnu DharmasutraDharmasastrasManusmritiY;;j navalkya Sm rithiParusara SmrithiNarada SmrithiBrihaspathi SmirithiKatyayana SmrithiThe EpicsThe PuranasCommentaries and DigestsAsahayaVisvaroopaMedatithiVijnaneswaraJimutavahanaKautilya's ArthasasthraSukranitisaraRajatarangini

THE MODERN : PIL, SOCIAL JUSTICE, COMPENSATORYJURISPRUDENCEPublic Interest Litigation (Pinnacle of Judicial Populism)

Nature of PILRight to get medical treatmentLimits of PILSuggestionsConclusion

Social JusticeAdvantages of invoking social justiceThe principle of a social justice has two aspectsExceptions recognized to the principle of non-

discriminationSocial Justice and Indian Constitution

Compensation

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CHAPTER 3DIFFERENT THEORIES OF LAW

PageDEFINITION OF LAW ... 48

Difference between Ethics and Law ... 49Difference between Law and Positive Morality ... 49

THE IMPERATIVE THEORY OF LAW OR THE AUSTINIANTHEORY OF LAW ... 501. Sovereign ... 50

Austin's conception of Sovereignty ... 50Positive and negative marks of Sovereignty ... 50Austin conception analysed ... 50Criticism ... 51(a) Limitations in fact ... 51(b) Limitations in Law ... 51

2. Command ... 51Law as command ... 51Law and Morality ... 52Law and International Law ... 52Law—A general and not a particular command ... 52

3. Sanction ... 52Criticism of Austinian theory of law ... 52Criticism of Henry Maine ... 54Criticism of Bryce ... 54Salmond's Reply to Maine's Criticism ... 54

SALMOND'S DEFINITION OF LAW OR GRAY'S DEFINITIONOF LAW ... 64Explanation ... 54Merits of Salmond's/Gray's Definition ... 55Criticism ... 55

(i) Vinogradoff's Criticism ... 55(ii) Prof. Lewellyn's Criticism ... 55(iii) Paton's Criticism ... 55(iv) General Criticism ... 56(v) Salmond's answer to the Criticisms ... 56Conclusion ... 56

KELSEN'S PURE THEORY OF LAW ... 56PURE THEORY OF LAW OR GRUND NORM ... «7

Necessity of Grund Norm ... 57Comparative Analysis of Austin's and Kelsen's Views ... 58Delegated Legislation ... 58Advantages of Kelsen's Pure Law ••• 58Criticism ... 59Conclusion ••• 59

Nature of International Law ... 59Definition ... 59

CONTENTS

International law is a LawConclusion

Nature of Constitutional LawDefinition of Constitutional LawNature of Constitutional LawCriticismSalmond's View

Constitution—A Matter of Fact and Matter of LawKINDS OF LAW

1. Imperative LawEssential characteristics of Imperative Law

2. Physical or Scientific Laws3. Natural Law or Moral Law

The views of Dias and Hughes4. Conventional Law5. Customary Law6. Practical or Technical Law7. International law8. Civil Law

CIVIL LAWMeaning of Civil LawDistinction between 'law' and 'the law"Purpose and Function of LawDifferent viewsUses or Advantages of LawDisadvantages of LawLegal FictionsLegal PresumptionsPresumptions are of two kindsQuestions of Law and FactQuestions of Law

(i) First Sense(ii) Second Sense(iii) Third Sense

Questions of factMixed Questions of Law and FactTransformation of Questions of Fact into LawGeneral Law and Special LawKinds of special law

(a) Local Law(b) Foreign Law(c) Conventional Law(d) Autonomic Law or Bye-Law(<_•) Martial Law

Martial law distinguished from Military law

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xii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

PageGeneral Law of England ••• 74Common Law ••• 74Equity law ••• 75Constitutional Law ••• 76Administrative Law ••• 77Classification of Law into International law and

Municipal Law ••• 77Law and Morals ••• 78Distinction between Law and Morals • •• 78

1. Importance ••• 792. Immunity from Deliberate Change ... 793. Voluntary character of moral offences ... 794. Form of moral pressure ... 80

Relationship between Law and Morals ... 80(i) Morals as basis of law ••• 81(ii) Morals as test of law ••• 81(iii) Morals as end of law ... 81

Legal Enforcement of Morals ... 81Influence of Morals on Law ••• 81

CHAPTER4DIFFERENT THEORIES OF JUSTICE

DEFINITION OF JUSTICE ... 83View of Salmond ... 83English Position • •• 84Indian Position ••• 85U.S. Position ... 85

JUSTICE AS A BODY OF NORMS ... 85Justice, Legal & Natural ••• 87Advantages ... 87

1. Uniformity & Certainty ••• 872. Security against bias ••• 873. Impartiality ... 874. Freedom from errors ••• 87

Demerits ... 881. Formalism ••• 882. Rigidity ... 883. Facility for Evasion ••• 884. Undue and Needless Complexity ... 88

Conclusion ... ^Classification of justice ••• 88Delineation of Justice in Greek mythology ••• 88Hebrew's Contributions to Justice ••• 89

Lex Talionis ... 89Hebrew Doctrine of'Justice According to Law' ... 90

CONTENTS XIII

PageAncient Indian Context ... 90

Concept of Dharma ... 90THE EVOLUTION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE ... 91

Traditional Legal restraint and liberty of contract ... 91Property and Inheritance ... 91No Liability without Fault ... 92Role of Principle of Justice ... 92The Subject of Justice ... 92The Main Idea of the Theory of Justice ... 93

Justice as fairness consists of two parts : ... 93THEORIES OF JUSTICE ... 93

A. Classification of Universalist Theory ... 93B. Criteria of Justice ... 94

CHANGE IN MODERN THEORIES OF JUSTICE ... 94Characteristics of Justice ... 95

THE KANTIAL SCHOOL OF NATURAL LAW ... 95The Kantian Doctrine of Free-will and The Categorical

Imperative ... 95National Law and 'a Priori Concepts' ... 95

IHERING'S SOCIAL UTILITARIANISM ... 96The Law of purpose ... 96Individual purrxjses and Social purposes ... 96Social Purpose ... 97Social Mechanics ... 97Law as a means to secure conditions of social life ... 97

SOCIAL SOLIDIARISM ... 97THEORY OF JUSTICE BY RUDOLF STAMMLER ... 98

Recht, Gerecht and Richtig ... 98Grace ... 98Principles for Just Law ... 98Community of free-willing men ... 98Stammler's Special Community ... 99Neighbour ... 99Criticism ... 99

NEO-KANTIAN SCIENCE OF ETHICS—LEONARD NELSON ... 100Justice is approached in three steps : ... 100

NEO-HEGELIAN CIVILIZATION THEORY ... 101Joseph Kohler's Approach ... 101

The Idea ... 101Specific functions of law are : ... 101Jural Postulates—Postulates of Law ... 101Kohler's notion of Jural Postulates ... 102

ROSCOE POUND'S THEORY OF JUSTICE ... 102The Scheme of Interests ... 102Procedural Justice ... 103

xiv JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARAT'VE LAW

PageAllocative Justice ... 103Classical Utilitarianism ... 103

JOHN RAWLS THEORY OF JUSTICE ... 104'Justice as fairness' ... 104Why Justice as Fairness? ... 104The Primary Subject of Justice ... 104The Problem of Establishing Standards of Justice ... 105

The Nature of Human beings ... 105Rawls and well-ordered Society ... 105Utilitarianism v. Choice ... 106

Establishing principles of justice ... 106The original position and the veil of ignorance ... 106Rawls'two Principles of Justice ... 107The First Principle ... 108

The principle of greatest equal liberty ... 108The Second Principle ... 108

POWER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA TO DOCOMPLETE JUSTICE IN A CASE : (ART. 142) ... 109

FEMINIST JURISPRUDENCE ... 110Feminist Methodology ... I l l

CHAPTER 5ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE

CLASSIFICATION ... 113Difference between Civil and Criminal Administration

of Justice ... 113ADMINISTRATION OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE ... 113

Theories of Punishment ... 1131. Deterrent Theory ... 1142. Retributive Theory ... 1143. Preventive Theory ... 1144. Reformative Theory ... 115

Death sentence and Reformative Theory ... 116Analysis of Deterrent and Reformative Theories ... 117Forms of Punishment ... 117Flogging ... 117Mutilation ... 118Branding ... 118Stoning ... 118Pillory ... 118Banishment .. 118Capital Punishment (Death Penalty) ... 119

Section 354 (3) ... 119Rarest of Rare Cases ... 120

(i) Manner of commission of Murder ... 120(ii) Motives for commission of Murder ... 120

CONTENTS xv

(iii) Anti-Social Abhorrent Nature of the Crime(iv) Magnitude of the Crime(v) Personality of Victim of Murder

ADMINISTRATION OF CIVIL JUSTICETypes of Civil Justice

1. Specific Enforcement2. Sanctional Enforcement

(i) Compensation(ii) Penalty(iii) Secondary functions of Civil Court

Legal SanctionDefinition and Meaning

Types of SanctionsLegal sanctions are divided into :1. Civil and Criminal Sanctions2. Ultimate and Intermediate Sanctions

Capital Punishment Retention and AbolitionCHAPTER 6

THEORY OF STATEDefinition

ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF THE STATE1. The Divine Theory2. The Natural Theory3. Social Contract Theory

Hobbes (1586-1679)John Locke (1632-1704)Rousseau (1712-1778)

4. Patriarchal Theory5. Matriarchal Theory

ELEMENTS OF STATE1. A Government2. A Stable Organization3. A Territory4. A Large Population

State and SocietyState and GovernmentState and Nation

CLASSIFICATION OF STATESIndependent and Dependent States

Independent StateDependent States

Unitary and Composite StatesFederationFederation and Confederation

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xvi JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

Page

Federal and Unitary Constitutions ... 131Conditions necessary for Federation ... 131Leading Characteristics of a Federal State ... 1311. Federal Compact ••• 131

Advantages of a Federal Constitution ... 132Disadvantages ••• 132

2. Division of Sovereign Power ••• 1333. Federal Judiciary ••• 1334. Rigidity of Constitution ••• 133

CHAPTER 7SOURCES OF LAW

LEGISLATION AS A SOURCE OF LAW ... 134Definition ••• 134Classification ••• 134

1. Direct and Indirect Legislation ••• 1342. Supreme Legislation and Subordinate Legislation ... 134

(i) Colonial ••• 135iii) Executive (Delegated Legislation) ••• 135'iii; Judicial ••• 135(iv) Municipal ••• 135(v) Autonomous ••• 135

Delegated Legislation ••• 136Control of Delegated Legislation ••• 136

1. Parliamentary Control ••• 1362. Procedural Control ... 1363. Judicial Control ... 1364. Internal control ••• 1375. Public opinion ... 1376. Expert opinion ••• 137

PRECEDENTS ... 137Principles in Precedents ... 140

Stare Decisis ... 140England ... 142Doctrine of Stare Decisis in Different Countries ••• 1421. English Rule of Stare Decisis ••• 142

Development of Precedent in England ••• 1422. France ... 1433. India ... 144

Ancient Hindu Law ... 144Modern Position ... 144Muslim Laws ... 144

4. Australia ... 1445. United States of America ... 144

Privy Council ... 145

CONTENTS xvii

Page6. Continental Practice ... 145Conclusion ... 145Supreme Court and Stare Decisis ... 145Stare Decisis and Res judicata ... 147Ratio Decidendi ... 148Tests for determining ratio decidendi : ... 148

1. The reversal test of Prof. Wambaugh ... 1482. Dr. Good Harts test ... 148

Obiter Dicta ... 149Doctrine of Prospective Overruling ... 150Classification of Precedent ... 151

1. Original Precedent ... 151Decision per incuriam ... 152

2. Declaratory precedents ... 1523. Authoritative precedent ... 152

Absolutely Authoritative Precedents in India ... 1524. Persuasive Precedents ... 153Advantages of Legislation over Precedent ... 153

Circumstances Destroying the Binding Force of Precedents ... 154CUSTOM ... 154

Definition ... 154Holland Definition ... 154

Reasons for the Acceptance of Customs ... 155How a Custom is Developed ... 155Classification of Custom ... 155

1. Legal and conventional custom ... 155Conventional Custom or Usage ... 155Distinction between legal and conventional custom... 155

2. Local and General Custom ... 156Elements of a Valid Custom ... 156

1. Immemorial Antiquity ... 1562. Reasonableness ... 156

Illustrations ... 1563. Continuity ... 1574. Compulsory observance ... 1575. Certainty ... 1576. Consistency ... 1577. Conformity with statute law ... 157

CUSTOM AS A SOURCE OF LAW ... 1571. Custom is the formal source of law (Historical School) ... 1572. Custom is the sole source of law (Savigny) ... 157

Criticism ... 1573. Custom has only persuasive value ... 158

Criticism ... 158Importance of Customary Law ... 158

xviii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

PageDistinction between Custom and Prescription ... 158

JURISTIC WRITINGS ... 158OTHER SOURCES OF LAW ... 159

Professional Opinions ••• 1591. Obiter Dicta ... 1592. The legal profession ... 1593. The opinions oi the text-books ... 159

Religion ... 160Agreement ... 161Equity ... 161

Definition of Equity ... 161Origin and Development of Equity ... 161

CHAPTER 8LEGAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES

ELEMENTS OF LEGAL RIGHT ... 163CLASSIFICATION OF RIGHTS ... 164

1. Perfect and Imperfect Rights : (Stressing onenforceability) ... 164Scope of protection accorded to Imperfect rights ... 164

2. Positive and Negative Rights : (Stressing on effecton others) ... 164

3. Rights in Rem and Rights in Personam : (Stressingon field of operation) ... 165

4. Proprietary and personal Rights : (Stressing theeconomic value) ... 165

5. Rights in re propria and rights in re aliena(Stressing on object concerned) ... 165

6. Principal and Accessory Rights : (Stressing on relationto other rights) ... 166

7. Legal and Equitable Rights. ... 1668. Antecedent (Primary) and Remedial (Sanctioning)

Rights ... 1679. Vested and Contingent Right : A vested right is one

in which the right is vested to a person. It is anabsolute right ... 167

10. Public and Private Rights ... 16711. Ordinary Rights and Fundamental Rights ... 167

DUTIES ... 168KINDS OF DUTIES 168

RIGHT-DUTY: CORRELATION ... 168Relationship of 169

1. Right with Liberty ... 1692. Right and Power 1693. Right and Immunity 1704. Right and Duty 170

CONTENTS xix

Page5. Right and claim ... 170

Austin's View of Rights and Duties ... 1701. Relative Duties ... 1702. Absolute Duties ... 170

(i) Self Regarding Duties ... 170(ii) Duties to Non-human beings ... 171(iii) Duties to Indeterminate Persons ... 171

Conclusion ... 171CHAPTER 9

JURISTIC ACT(INTENTION AND NEGLIGENCE) ... 172AUSTIN'S DEFINITION OF ACT ... 172

Difference between Act and Consequence ... 172SALMOND'S DEFINITION OF ACT ... 172

Comparison of the views of Salmond and Austin ... 172CLASSIFICATION OF ACT ... 172

1. Acts in Law and Acts of the Law ... 1732. Positive and Negative Acts ... 1733. Inward and Outward Acts ... 173Intentional and Negligent Acts ... 173Intentional Act or Intention ... 173Difference between 'Intention' and 'Motive' ... 173

NEGLIGENCE ... 173Subjective Theory ... 174Objective Theory ... 175The Justification of Punishment for Negligence ... 177Contributory Negligence and Composite Negligence ... 177Degrees of Negligence ... 178Recklessness ... 178

1. Subjective recklessness ... 1782. Objective Recklessness ... 179

CHAPTER 10PERSONS

ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF JURISTIC PERSONALITY ... 181KINDS OF PERSONS ... 181

1. Natural Persons ... 1822. Legal Persons ... 182

Legal Status of Unborn Child ... 182Legal Status of Dead Man, Minor and Drunken Person ... 183Double Capacity and Double Personality ... 183Legal Status of Animals ... 184Legal Status of a Firm • ... 184Legal Status of a Hindu Joint Family ... 184

xx JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

PageLEGAL PERSONS ••• 184

Legal Status of Corporation or Company(Corporate Personality) ... 185

Types of Corporation ••• 185(i) Corporation Aggregate ... 185(ii) Corporation Sole ••• 185

Theories Regarding the Nature of Corporate Personality ... 185(i) Fiction Theory ... 185(ii) Realist Theory ... 186(iii) Bracket Theory ... 186(iv) Concession Theory ••• 186

CHAPTER 11

POSSESSIONReason why Possession is Protected ••• 187

MEANING OF THE TERM 'POSSESSION' ... 187Possession can be of two kinds ••• 187

1. Possession in Fact : (De facto possession) ... 1872. Possession in Law : (De jure Possession) ... 188

ESSENTIALS OF POSSESSION ... 188Corpus Possessionis ... 188

1. Physical Power of the Possessor ••• 1892. Personal Presence of the Possessor ••• 1893. Secrecy ... 1894. Respect for Rightful Claim ... 1895. Protection afforded by the Possession of

other Things ... 1896. Visibility of Claim ... 189

Animus Possidendi ••• 189KINDS OF POSSESSION ... 190

1. Corporeal and Incorporeal Possession ••• 1902. Mediate and Immediate Possession ••• 1903. Concurrent Possession or Duplicate Possession ... 1914. Constructive Possession ... 1915. Adverse Possession ... 191Acquisition of Possession ... 191

1. Taking ... 1922. Delivery ... 1923. Operation of Law ... 192

Relationship between Ownership and Possession ... 192Justification for Granting Possessory Remedies ... 192Conclusion ... 192

CHAPTER 12OWNERSHIP

DEFINITION OF OWNERSHIP ... 193

CONTENTS

Austin's DefinitionHolland's DefinitionSalmond's view

KINDS OF OWNERSHIP1. Corporeal and Incorporeal Ownership2. Sole ownership and co-ownership

Example of co-ownership3. Trust and Beneficial Ownership4. Vested and Contingent Ownership

Condition Precedent and Condition SubsequentCondition PrecedentCondition Subsequent

5. Legal and Equitable Ownership6. Duplicate OwnershipDuplicate Ownership is again divided into :Modes of Acquiring OwnershipOwnership under Indian Law

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POSSESSION AND OWNERSHIPCHAPTER 13

TITLETYPES OF TITLES

Salmond's classification1. Investitive facts.2. Divestitive facts.

Bentham's ClassificationMODES OF ALIENATION OF TITLES

1. Act of Parties or Act in Law1. Unilateral acts2. Bilateral actsClasses of Agreements

2. Operation of LawCHAPTER 14

PROPERTY : THE CONCEPTKINDS OF PROPERTY

Corporeal PropertyIncorporeal Property

MODES OF ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY1. Possession2. Charge3. TrustsModes of Acquiring Property

1. Possession2. Prescription3. Agreements

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Xxii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

Page(i) Assignments ••• 204(ii) Grants - 204

4. Inheritance ••• 204CHAPTER 15

LIABILITYDefinition of Liability ••• 205

CLASSES OF LIABILITY ••• 205Civil and Criminal Liability ••• 205Remedial and Penal Liability ••• 205

THEORY OF REMEDIAL LIABILITY ... 2051. Duties of imperfect application ••• 2062. Duties which by nature are incapable of specific

performance ••• 2063. Where specific performance is inexpedient or

inadvisable ... 206THEORY OF PENAL LIABILITY (CONDITIONS FOR

IMPOSING LIABILITY) ... 2061. Actus reus ... 206

Elements of act ... 207(i) Origin ... 207(ii) Circumstances ... 207(iii) Consequences ... 207Characteristics of act ... 207

2. Mensrea ... 207Characteristics of'mens rea' ... 208Mens rea in English Law ... 208

WRONGFUL ACT ... 208DAMNUM SINE INJURIA AND INJURIA SINE DAMNUM ... 209Damnum sine injuria (Damage or Loss without violation

of right) ... 209Injuria sine damnum (Injury or violation of right

without damage) ... 210CAUSATION ... 210

Presumption ... 211Abnormal Circumstances ... 211

INTENTION ... 211Constructive Intention ... 212

MALICE ... 212Malice in Law and Malice in Fact ••• 213

NEGLIGENCE ... 213Subjective Theory ... 213Objective Theory ... 214The Justification of Punishment for Negligence ... 215Contributory Negligence and Composite Negligence ... 216

CONTENTS xxiii

PageRECKLESSNESS ... 216

1. Subjective recklessness ... 2162, Objective Recklessness ... 217

DOCTRINE OF STRICT LIABILITY ... 218Exceptions to the Rule of Strict Liability ... 219

(a) Natural Use of Land ... 219(b) Thing which Escaped is not Generally Dangerous ... 219(c) Consent of the Plaintiff (volenti non fit injuria) ... 220(d) Statutory Authority ... 220(e) Act of Third Party ... 220(f) Act of God (vis major) ... 220(g) Default of Plaintiff ... 220

ABSOLUTE LIABILITY ... 221Circumstances which led to the Rule of Absolute Liability ... 221

The Bhopal Gas Leak Case ... 221Criticism by Jurisprudents and Press ... 221

Oleum Gas Leak Case ... 221VICARIOUS LIABILITY ... 222

Vicarious Liability in Civil law ... 224Legal Heirs ... 224Partnership Firm ... 224Agency ... 225Masters and Servants ... 225Essentials to impose the liability on the master are : ... 225

Vicarious Liability in Criminal Law ... 225This general rule is subject to certain exceptions : ... 225(1) Section 155 and 156, IPC ... 225(2) Licences ... 226

Vicarious Liability of the State ... 226Under EnglKi Law ... 226Under Indian L.aw ... 226

Sovereign Immunity ... 227CHAPTER 16

LAW OF OBLIGATIONSSOURCES OF OBLIGATIONS ... 229

1. Contractual Obligation ... 2292. Delictal Obligation (Tortious obligation) ... 2293. Quasi-Contractual Obligation ... 2294. Innominate Obligation ... 229

SOLIDARY OBLIGATION ... 2301. Several Solidary Obligation ... 2302. Joint Solidary Obligations ... 2303. Joint and Several Solidary Obligation ... 230

XXIV JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

CHAPTER 17ANCIENT LAW

Page

The Evolution of Private Property ••• 2 3 2

The Evolution of Wills - 2 2 2

The Evolution of Codification ••• 2 3 3

Evolution of the Law of Nature ••• 2 3 3

The Evolution of Society - 2 3 3

The Evolution of Crime ... 234The Evolution of Contracts ••• 2 3 4

Evolution of Law of Crimes ••• 234Testamentary Succession ••• 2 3 4

Conclusion - 2 3 6

CHAPTER 18THE LAW OF TORTS

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF TORTS ••• 2 37Essential Features ••• 2 3 8

What Constitutes 'Tort'? ••• 2 3 9

Foundation of Tortious liability ••• 240Distinction between Tort and Contract ••• 241Distinction between Tort and Trust ••• 242Distinction between Tort and Bailment ••• 2 4 3

Distinction between Tort and Quasi Contract ••• 243CHAPTER 19

THE LAW OF CRIMESNature of Crime ••• 2 4 4

DEFINITIONS OF CRIME ••• 2 4 4

Kenny defines ••• 2 4 4

Crime is not static ••• 2 45ELEMENTS OF CRIME •• 2 4 6

Tort and Crime distinguished ••• 247CHAPTER 20

THE LAW OF PROCEDURESUBSTANTIVE LAW AND THE LAW OF PROCEDURE ... 249

Elements of Judicial Procedure ••• 249EVIDENCE ... 250

Definition ... 250Oral, Documentary and Real Evidence ••• 25°

KINDS OF EVIDENCE ... 250(i) Judicial and Extra Judicial Evidence ••• 250(ii) Personal and Real Evidence ••• 2 5 0

(iii) Primary and Secondary Evidence ••• 2 5 0

(iv) Direct and Circumstantial Evidence ••• 251(v) Original and Hearsay Evidence - 2 5 1

The Production of Evidence ... 251

CONTENTS xxv

iative Force of Evidence(i) Conclusive Proof(ii) Presumptive Proof (Rebuttable proof or

Conditional proof)(iii) Exclusive Evidence(iv) Insufficient Evidence(v) Facts which are not Evidence

CHAPTER 21GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION

Literal or Grammatical InterpretationLogical Interpretation1. Ambiguity2. Inconsistency3. LacunaeMischief Rule of InterpretationGolden rule of interpretation'Ejusdem Generis' RuleRule of Cassus Omissus

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1.2.

3.4.5.6.

COMPARATIVE LAW

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Definition ... 263Comparative Law is Different from Jurisprudence ... 263The Nature and Scope of Comparative Law ... 264The Contemporary Significance of Comparative Law ... 265Comparative Law as an Academic Discipline ... 265Comparative Law as a Tool of Construction ... 265Comparative Law as a Means of Understanding Legal Rules ... 265Types of Comparison ... 266Methods of Comparison ... 266An eight-point method of comparison provided in

Peter De Cruz ... 266Reasons for Neglecting Comparative Law ... 267Origin and Development of Comparative Law ... 267Development in India ... 268Types of Comparative Law ... 269Study of Comparison of Laws ... 269Advantages of Comparative Law ... 269Suggestions for Improvement ... 270

xxvi JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

CHAPTER 2WORLD'S MAJOR LEGAL SYSTEMS : AN OVERVIEW

PageClassification of Systems ... 273

ROMAN LAW ... 274JEWISH LAW (HALAKHAH) ... 274GEZEIRAH, TAKKANAH AND MINHAG ... 275ISLAMIC LAW ... 276HINDU LAW ... 276Gradation of Courts ... 276Qualification of the Judges ... 277CHINESE LAW ... 277AFRICAN LAW ... 279COMMON LAW ... 281CIVIL LAW ... 282

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CIVIL LAW AND COMMON LAW ... 282CHAPTER 3

CONTEMPORARY TRADITIONS OF LAWSOCIALIST LAW AND BOURGEOISIE LAW ... 283

Difference between Civil Law and Socialist System ... 284Similarities ... 285

CHAPTER 4TRENDS IN UNIFICATION OF WORLD LAW

UNIFICATION OF PRIVATE LAW ... 287Definition of Unification ... 287Concept and Function of Unification of Law ... 287Advantages of Unified Law ... 288Disadvantages of Unified Law ... 288Forms of Unification ... 288Objects of Unification ... 289Problems of Unification ... 290Great Britain and the Movement for Unification ... 291The American Uniform Laws ... 291

THE MECHANISM OF UNIFICATION ... 292Process of Unification ... 292

The Preliminary Stage ... 292The Formulatory Stage ... 292The Operative Stage of Unification ... 293

CHAPTER 5PRINCIPAL UNIFICATION AGENCIES AT WORK : A SURVEY

INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION ... 296Origin ... 296Mandate and Area of Work ... 296

THE UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONALTRADE LAW ... 296

CONTENTS xxvii

PageOrigin ... 296Mandate ... 297Composition ... 297Secretariat of UNCITRAL ... 297UNCITRAL working groups ... 297Sessions of UNCITRAL and its working groups ... 297Area of Work ... 297

WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION fWIPO)... 298Origin ... 298Mandate and Area of Work ... 298

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION ... 298Origin ... 298Mandate and Area of work ... 298Composition of ILO ... 299

THE U.N. HUMAN RIGHTS AGENCIES ... 300General Assembly ... 300Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) ... 300Commission on Human Rights ... 301Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and

Protection of Minorities ... 301Procedures and Mechanisms of CHR ... 301Commission on Status of Women ... 302

UNESCO ... 302UNESCO's Plan of Action ... 302Human Rights Committee ... 302Centre for Human Rights ... 303Office of UN High Commissioner for Human Rights ... 303Other UN Organs Principally Concerned With

Human Rights ... 303WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION ... 304

Origin ... 304Mandate and Composition ... 304Area of Work and Achievements ... 304

CHAPTER 6COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF EMERGENCY

AND CONSTITUTIONALISMEmergency Provisions under the Indian Constitution ... 306Suspension of Enforcement of Fundamental Rights ... 307

EMERGENCY POWERS AND CONSTITUTIONALITY,A COMPARATIVE APPROACH ... 307

CHAPTER 7

COMPARATIVE JUDICIAL PROCESSJUDICIAL PROCESS IN INDIA ... 309

Jurisdiction of Civil Courts ... 309

xxviii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

Page1. Territorial or Local Jurisdiction ... 3092. Pecuniary Jurisdiction ... 3093. Jurisdiction as to the Subject Matter ... 309

Original and Appellate Jurisdiction ... 309Suits Expressly Barred ... 311Suits Impliedly Barred ... 312Jurisdiction of Criminal Courts ... 312Court of Session ... 312Other judges ... 312High Court ... 312Supreme Court ... 312

COMPARISON WITH THE BRITISH JUDICIARY ... 313Independence of Judiciary ... 314

COMPARISON WITH FRENCH JUDICIARY ... 314Independence of the Judiciary ... 315

CHAPTER 8COMPARATIVE APPROACH OF THE LEGAL PROFESSION

The Advocates Act ... 317Bar Council of India ... 317Comparison between Legal Profession in India and in England ... 318Autonomy of Indian Bar Council ... 319Organisation of Bar ... 320Constitution of State Bar Council ... 320Functions of State Bar Council ... 321Organisation of Bar-A Comparative Approach ... 322Organisation of Bar in England ... 323Organisation of Bar in United States ... 324Organisation of Bar in France ... 324Bar in other Countries ... 326Interrelation between Court and Bar ... 326Importance of the Problems of Misconduct ... 327

CHAPTER 9COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LAW REFORM

Advantages and Disadvantages ... 329LAW REFORMS IN CHINA ... 329JAPANESE LAW REFORM ... 330THAILAND'S JUDICIAL REPLANNING AND

RESTRUCTURING ... 332VIETNAMESE LEGAL REFORMATION ... 332PHILIPPINES JUDICIAL SYSTEM AND REFORMS ... 333MALAYSIAN LAW REFORMS ... 334PAKISTAN JUDICIAL REFORM PROJECT ... 335

CONCLUSION ... 336

CONTENTS xxix

CHAPTER 10COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF GENDER JUSTICE

PageWomen Quota System and Related Issues ... 337Gender Justice : An International Perspective ... 338

CHAPTER 11COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Environmental Protection in India ... 340Constitutional Provisions relating to Environmental Protection ... 343Judicial Activism against Environmental Pollution ... 344Comparative Approach to the International Standards ... 347"Stockholm (Sweden) Conference" on Human Environment ... 347United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) ... 349Nairobi Declaration ... 349Rio Declaration - 1992 (Earth Summit) ... 350

CHAPTER 12COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CONTRACT LAW

Law of Contract : A Comparative Approach ... 351CHAPTER 13

COMPARATIVE FAMILY LAWConcept of Marriage ... 353Marriage among Hindus ... 354Christian law on Marriage ... 355Muslim law on marriage ... 356Disputes Relating to Marriage and Family ... 356Why Family Counts? ... 358History and Background of Family Courts ... 360Evolution of Family Courts in India ... 360Matrimonial Litigation ... 360Family Courts : A Comparative Approach ... 364Australia ... 364Japan ... 365Pakistan ... 366United States of America ... 366England ... 367

CHAPTER 14COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ACCESS TO LAW

Access to Law—An Indian Perspective ... 369Developments in Australia—Comparing with Indian Viewpoint ... 370Locus Standi of Public Interest Groups ... 372

CHAPTER 15COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF RELIGION, TRADITION

AND CUSTOMRELIGIOUS RIGHTS ... 375

xxx JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW

PageRELIGIOUS FREEDOM UNDER THE CONSTITUTION

OF INDIA ... 375RELIGIOUS RIGHTS UNDER THE GENERAL STATUTES ... 377RELIGIOUS RIGHTS AND PERSONAL LAWS ... 378LEGAL NATURE OF PERSONAL LAW ... 379CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONAL LAWS ... 380STATUTORY PERSONAL LAWS ... 380NON STATUTORY PERSONAL LAWS—CUSTOM AND USAGES... 381

CHAPTER 16COMPARATIVE STUDIES ^F LEGISLATIVE PROCESS

LEGISLATIVE PROCESS IN INDIA ... 384Rajya Sabha—Council of States ... 384Functions of Council of States ... 384Lok Sabha—House of the People ... 385

Composition ... 385Functions of Lok Sabha ... 386Powers and Immunities of Members of Parliament ... 387

COMPARISON WITH BRITISH PARLIAMENT ... 387THE HOUSE OF LORDS ... 387

Powers of the House of Lords ... 388THE HOUSE OF COMMONS ... 388

Functions of the House ... 388CHAPTER 17

COMPARATIVE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEMThe Constitutional Rights of an Accused in India ... 390French Criminal Justice System ... 391

Index ... 393