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JOURNALOFTHEANTHROPOLOGICALSOCIETYOF
SOUTHAUSTRALIA
SpecialEditionAboriginalRelationshipswithRiverCountry:
ArchaeologicalandAnthropologicalPerspectivesontheMurrayDarlingBasin
VOLUME41–DECEMBER2017
EDITORSAmyRoberts,MichaelMorrison,IanMoffatandHeatherBurke
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DIET,MOBILITYANDSUBSISTENCE-SETTLEMENTSYSTEMSINTHELATEHOLOCENELOWERMURRAYRIVERBASINOFSOUTHAUSTRALIA:TESTINGMODELSOFABORIGINALSEASONALMOBILITYANDSEDENTISMWITHISOTOPICANDARCHAEOLOGICALDATA___________________________________________________________________________F.DonaldPate1
1CollegeofHumanities,ArtsandSocialSciences,FlindersUniversity,GPOBox2100,Adelaide,SA5001,AustraliaAbstract___________________________________________________________________________Bone
collagen stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data forarchaeological
human remains suggest that the territorial behavioursreported in
relation to Tindale’s ethnographic research for the lowerstretches
of theMurray River of South Australia in the vicinity of
therivermouthandadjacentcoastalregionscanbeextendedbackthroughthe
late Holocene. Testing hypotheses regarding the presence of
lateHolocene semi-sedentary and sedentary
subsistence-settlementsystemsalongvariousregionsoftheLowerMurrayandadjacentcoastrequires
comprehensive archaeological research, including
improvedchronometricdating fora rangeofarchaeological
sites,demonstrationof the use of a range of key plant and animal
foods, and expansion
ofstableisotopeapplicationstoincludestrontiumandoxygen.ThispaperprovidesanoverviewofthenaturalenvironmentoftheLowerMurrayRiverregionofSouthAustralia,includingtheavailabilityofwaterandarange
of food resources. The importance of foods available in thevicinity
of the riverine zone that could have provided reliable
dietarysources is emphasised. Such ecological data regarding the
abundanceand availability of key plant and animal foods are
fundamental
toimprovedunderstandingsofhunter-gathererbehaviouralvariability
intheregion.
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Introduction___________________________________________________________________________Aboriginal
subsistence-settlement systems in the ecologicallydiverse Lower
Murray River region of South Australia
(SA)wouldhavebeeninfluencedsignificantlybythedistributionandabundanceofwater,
floraand fauna (Lawrence1968;Peterson1976; Tindale 1981). This
paper investigates the interaction offood and water resources
available in the region and
theexploitationofthoseresourcesbypastAboriginalpopulations.Itprovidesanoverviewofsomeofthekeyplantandanimalfoodsthat
could potentially allowmore sedentary lifeways,
includingyear-rounduseofbasecamps.
Previousresearchhasdemonstratedthatsedentaryandsemi-sedentary
settlements are possible among hunter-gatherers in areas with
abundant and reliable water and foodresources. Furthermore, in
order to increase the reliability offood resources over longer
periods of time, hunter-gatherersextended the availability of key
foods by employing foodpreservation, storage, fire management, and
technologicalinnovationsincludingfishweirs,netsandholdingareasforeelsand
fish (Bettinger 1982; Builth 2002; Cohen and Armelagos1984;
Fitzhugh and Habu 2002; Gamble 2008; Hiscock
2007;Kelly1983;LeeandDeVore1968;Lourandos1985;Owen2004;Pate1997,
1998, 2006;Pate andOwen2014;Price andBrown1985;Williams1987).
TheLowerMurrayregionwasoneof themostdenselypopulated geographic
areas of Australia prior to Europeancolonisation (Clarke 1994;
Mulvaney 1969:40; Radcliffe-Brown1918:230-231; Wilson 2017). On the
basis of historical andethnographic accounts from the Lower Murray
region of SA,Clarke (1994:75) reported that ‘Aboriginal descent
groupterritories in this resource rich riverine-coastal zone,
beingrelatively small, reflected amore sedentary life style’ (also
seePeterson 1976). However, within these territories
seasonalmovements of habitation sites occurred in relation to
harshcoastal weather and limited food sources associated with
thewintermonths.Somenon-coastalgroupsalsopracticedseasonalmovements
from lakes and rivers to nearby sheltered
inlandareasduringwinter(Clarke1994;Tindale1981).
Archaeologists have employed isotopic analyses
ofhunter-gathererskeletalremainsfromvariousglobalregionsto
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test ethnographic and historical models related to
seasonalmobility versus more sedentary behaviours associated
withyear-round use of base camps. Subsistence-settlement
systemsbased on ethnographic and historical data cannot simply
beextended to the archaeological past employing
analogies.Variability in hunter-gatherer
subsistence-settlementbehaviours across space and time must be
investigated usingarchaeological data. In some cases, the isotopic
data
contradicttheethnographicandhistoricalmodelsandsuggestthepresenceof
different behaviours in the past, while in other cases
theisotopicdata support the long-termpersistenceof
subsistence-settlement systems (cf. Roberts et al. 2013; Sealy and
van derMerwe1986, 1988; Sealy 2006; Tafuri et al. 2017;Walker
andDeNiro 1986;). Oxygen isotope analyses of shells
fromarchaeological middens and mounds have also been used
todemonstrateseasonaloryear-rounduseofcoastalsites(Jewetal.2014).
Bonecollagenstableisotopedata(PateandOwen2014)suggest that the
territorial boundaries reported by
Tindale(1974)fortheLowerMurrayandadjacentcoastalregionsofSAwere
established by the late Holocene. Stable carbon
andnitrogenisotopedataforcoastalskeletalsamplesdemonstrateaheavyrelianceonmarine-basedfoodsandlimitedmovementtoinland
riverine and terrestrial habitats (Pate et al. 2002;Owen2004).
Further research is required in order to determine
theextenttowhichsedentaryandsemi-sedentarybehaviourswereassociated
with hunter-gatherer populations along the upperinland stretches of
the Murray River in SA (cf. Clarke
1985a,1985b,1994,1998,2009,2015;Hilletal.2016;Pate1997,2006;Littleton
1999; Littleton and Allen 2007; Martin 2006,
2011;WestellandWood2014).
StableisotopedatafortheinlandriverineSwanportandRoonka
archaeological populations near Murray Bridge andBlanchetown, SA
(Figure 1), respectively, indicate that lateHolocene inhabitants
focusedonC3-basedplantananimal
foodsourcesassociatedwiththeriverandadjacentplainsanddidnotinclude
marine foods in their diets (Pate 1998a, 1998b, 2000,2006). Thus,
marine foods from the southern coast were not
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being imported to inland riverine regions and people living
atSwanportandRoonkadidnotspendsignificantamountsoftimeinsoutherncoastalregionswheretheywouldhavehadaccesstomarine
foods. However, the bone collagen stable carbon andnitrogen isotope
data do allow formovement of the
SwanportandRoonkainhabitantsalongtheinlandstretchesoftheriver,assimilar
C3-based plant and animal foods would be
associatedwiththeseregions.
The expansion of stable isotope research to
includestrontiumandoxygenintoothenamel(Bentley2006;Buddetal.2004;
Pate 2008a, 2008b) could provide more
detailedinformationregardingrestrictionofhunter-gatherermovementsbetween
various geographic localities and provide data
toexaminehypothesesregardingsemi-sedentismandmobility forboth
coastal and inland riverine regions. Westell and Wood(2014)
andMartin (2006, 2011) argue that earthmound sitesalong the Lower
Murray and Murray Riverine Plain wereassociated with repeat-use pit
ovens for the intensiveexploitation of wetland resources for food
and fibre. Theysuggest that the use of reliable root/tuber foods
like bulrush(Typha spp.) allowed increased levels of residency
andpopulationgrowthfromthemidtolateHolocene.
The reliable riverine water sources and diverse foodsassociated
with the Lower Murray and adjacent mallee plainecosystems, provided
the environmental conditions for
thepotentialestablishmentoflong-termresidentialhunter-gathererbases
associated with logistical mobility to access foods andother
resources in the surrounding landscapes (Binford
1980,1982,1983;Bettinger1999;HabuandFitzhugh2002).
Pate (2006:238–239) provides an overview of theethnographic and
historical accounts relating to thesocioeconomically complex
Ngarrindjeri, who were organisedinto a number of territorial clans.
The Ngarrindjeri occupied
alargetriangularareaofcoastalandriverinelandstretchingfromjust
aboveMurrayBridge in the north toEncounterBay in thesouthwest
andKingston in the southeast. This region includesthe coastal
Coorong, the Murray River mouth, and the
LowerMurrayRiverinthevicinityofSwanport(SeeBell1998;Berndtand
Berndt 1993; Jenkin 1979; Meyer 1846;
Radcliffe-Brown1918;Salgado1994;Taplin1859–79,1874;Tindale1974;Pateetal.2003;Wilsonetal.2012;Wilson2017).
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In addition, ethnographic and historical
accountsidentifyarangeofkeyplantandanimalfoodsthatwereusedintheresourcerichLowerMurrayregionat
thetimeofEuropeancontact. Coastal inhabitants had access to marine
fish
andshellfish,waterfowlandtheireggs,marinemammals(seals,sealions and
stranded dolphins and whales), and vegetable foodslike berries.
Further inland, key food sources includedfreshwater fish,
shellfish, crayfish, yabbies, turtles, waterfowl,bird eggs,
possums, rats, bandicoots, wombats, snakes,
lizards,bardi(orwitchetty)grubs,andbulrushroot(Typhaspp.).Valuedmeat
was obtained from larger mammals such as kangaroos,wallabies and
emus (Angus 1847; Berndt and Berndt 1993:80;Clarke 1994, 2009,
2011, 2015; Pate 2006:237–238;
Worsnop1897).Theavailabilityofarangeofreliableriverinefoodswouldhave
provided an environment that allowed the potentialdevelopment of
sedentary and semi-sedentary subsistence-settlementsystems.
Archaeologicalresearchsuggests thatamajorityof thelate Holocene
earth mounds concentrated along the MurrayRiverine Plain of
southeastern Australia were associated withthe baking/steaming of
carbohydrate-rich wetland plant foodsuch as bulrush (Typha), club
rush (Bolboschoenus) and waterribbons (Triglochin), as reported
inethnographicandhistoricalaccounts for the region (Coutts et al.
1979; Gott 1999;
Martin2006,2011;WestellandWood2014).Thesemoundsconsistofashysediments,charcoal,bakedclayheatretainers,bone,stoneand
shell artefacts, a range of wetland faunal remains,
andoccasionallyintrusivehumanburials(Martin2011:162–163).
Theseethnographicandhistoricalrecordsprovidedatato construct
hypotheses about prehistoric diet and associatedsettlement systems
in the region. A comprehensiveunderstanding of the distribution and
abundance ofwater andfood resources in the Lower Murray will
improve scientificprocesses involving the generation and testing of
hypothesesemploying archaeological data. Detailed information
regardingthe abundance and distribution of key plant and animal
foodsassociated with the riverine ecosystem will provide
importantdatatoaddresshypothesesregardingtheexistenceofsedentary
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andsemi-sedentarylifewaysintheLowerMurrayregionduringthe late
Holocene. Expanded archaeological research in
theregionwillimproveourunderstandingofAboriginalbehaviouraldiversityacrossthediverseLowerMurrayecosystems.
Figure1Mapshowingkeyplacesreferredtointhetext(adaptedfromPate2006).
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MurrayRiverEcology___________________________________________________________________________TheMurrayRiveristhemajortributaryoftheextensiveMurrayDarlingriversystemofsoutheasternAustralia.BoththeMurrayand
the Darling rise in the higher rainfall areas of the
GreatDividingRangeon theeastern coast and then flow through thedry,
flat lowlands to the southwest. The rivers deliver largequantities
ofwater to these semi-arid lands. TheMurray
Riveroriginatesinthe2228mKosciuskoPlateauofNewSouthWalesand flows
for approximately 2600 km to the Southern Oceansouthwest of
Adelaide, South Australia (Gill 1973; Hills
1974;Jennings2009;Walkeretal.1986).
The Murray is the only major river in SA. Its
watersenterthestateonthesoutheasternborder,flowwesterlytowardthe
Mount Lofty Ranges and then southerly to the ocean.
SAtopographyisgenerallylowinrelief.Approximately50percentof
thestate is less than150mabovesea levelandover80percent is
lessthan300m.TheMurraydropslessthan22minits642kmtrekbetweentheborderandtheocean(Aitchison1974).
SAisthemostaridstateinAustralia,with83percentofthelandmassreceivinglessthan250mmofrainfallperannum.The
northeastern region of the state occurs in the arid core ofthe
continentwheremean annual rainfall is less than 125mm(Gentilli
1971, 1972; Lee and Gaffney 1986; Williams 1979).Consequently, the
Murray River, with its abundant
watersupplies,providedanimportantecosystemforinlandsettlementbypastAboriginalpopulations.
The river morphology exhibits great variability
withinthestate.FromthestatebordertoOverlandCorner(ontheriver75 km
east of Roonka, Figure 1) the rivermeanders through awide alluvial
valley bordered by tall limestone cliffs. BelowOverland Corner, the
Murray has dissected the upliftedlimestone Pinnaroo Block producing
a steep-sided
gorgetopography(Twidaleetal.1978).TheLowerMurrayGorgewasincised
during middle and late Pleistocene glacio-eustaticregressions
(Twidale et al. 1978).Today, limestone cliffs
tower30–40mabovetheriverbottom.Thisdeeplyentrenchedgorgehas
restricted floodwater dispersal and swamp development
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(Twidale et al. 1978). Thus, there is an abrupt transition
fromthe surrounding semi-aridmallee eucalypt plain to the
narrowalluvialriverflats.Thelimestonecliffsdecreaseinheight30kmsouth
of Blanchetownnear SwanReach, andwide alluvial
flatsemergeagain.Numerousswampsandbroad,shallowlakesoccurinthiscoastal
lacustrinezone.Theseconditionscontinueforanadditional90kmtotherivermouthatLakeAlexandrina.(BrownandStephenson1991;Fenner1931;Firman1973,1985).
The modern river morphology became establishedbetween 8000 and
6000 years ago. Ancestral rivers in
theMurrayDarlingsystemdatingfromca.14,000to7000BPweregenerally
larger and straighter than theirmodern
counterparts(Fluinetal.2009;Hilletal.2009;Pels1964;Prendergastetal.2009).
The change of the Murray River to its present
slower,meanderingmorphology resulted in increased floral and
faunalproductivity associated with the increased representation
ofshallow lagoons, billabongs, swamps, and lakes (Brown
andStephenson 1991; Gingele et al. 2007; Pardoe 1995).
LakeAlexandrina at the rivermouthwaswell-established by
7800–7600calyrsBP(Fluinetal.2009).
Priortohistoricalinterventions,likelocksanddams,thewater level
of the Murray River was primarily affected byprecipitation in the
eastern highlands. An examination ofsediments in a deep sea core
(MDO3-2611) collected off
thecoastofSA(Gingeleetal.2007)identifiedtwoperiodsofhigherriver
water levels and discharge at 13,500–11,500 and 9500–7500 years BP
associated with higher rainfall in easternAustralia. During the
period from 17,000–5000 years BP, thesedimentary signature in the
core was dominated by
alluvialsedimentsfromtheMurrayDarlingBasin(MDB).
Water derived from monsoonal rains is transporteddown the
Darling and spring snow melt down the Murray.Waters begin to rise
in the Lower Murray in the late winterthrough early spring.However,
the arrival of floodwaters fromthe two sources usually does not
coincide and there are twopeaks during this period.When they do
coincide, a large floodresults and the Murray floodplain can be
entirely inundatedduring theseheavy floods.Regular
floodingcannotbeexpecteddue to the unpredictability of droughts in
the highlands. Theriver usually reaches its highest level
inmid-December. In lateDecember the water begins to recede and
reaches its lowest
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level during the late summer and fall (Burton 1974; Gill
1973;Johnson 1974). Water temperature ranges from 8.5° C in
thewinterto25.5°Cinthesummerwithameanof16.8°C(Shieletal. 1982).
Even during extended periods of drought in thehighlands that
significantly reduced river flow, there werereliable water supplies
available in deep recesses of the riverbottom(Burton1974).
The Lower Murray region has distinct seasonalvariability, as
does most of SA. The summers are hot and
drywithmeanmaximumJanuarytemperaturesof28–32°C.Wintersare cool and
wet with July minimum temperatures of 3–5° C.Two-thirds of the
rainfall occurs fromMay toAugust as gentleshowers. Scattered
convectional thunderstorms are commonduring the summer months. The
Mount Lofty Ranges create adistinct rain shadow effect. Mean annual
precipitation
reaches1200mmintherangeseastofAdelaideanddecreaseseastwarduntil
only 250–300 mm is received along the Murray River.There is
considerable variation in precipitation from year toyear,
andextensivedroughts lasting from two to five years arecommon. The
inland areas experiencemore frequent droughtsthan the wetter
coastal region. Evaporation exceedsprecipitation during all
seasons. Due to the high evaporationrates and sandy texture of the
soils, standing surface water israre and ephemeral. Water will
accumulate on claypans andsoaks (claypans filled with sand) for
short periods followingrainfall. Smaller streamson
theadjacentplainsoriginate in thebetter-watered upland regions. The
major ephemeral
streams,theMarneRiverandBurraCreek,draintheMountLoftyRanges(Aitchison1974;Hills1974;Nix1981;Tisdall1974;).
Historicalaccountsdescribeariverineenvironmentrichinsubsistenceresourcesat
the timeofEuropeanexploration inthe 1830s and 1840s (Angus 1847;
Clarke 2002, 2003, 2009,2011; Eyre 1845; Lawrence 1968; Pate 2006;
Sturt 1833).
Theriverwithitsassociatedfloodplain,swamps,lagoons,creeksandflats,andadjacentmalleeplainsprovideddiversehabitatswhichsupported
a wide range of floral and faunal species. The riverbank and
floodplain supported stands of river red
gums(Eucalyptuscamaldulensis). Bulrushes (Typha spp.), rushes
and
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sedges (Juncus,Bolboschoenus[formerly Scirpus],Cyperus
spp.),andreeds(Phragmitescommunes)wereassociatedwithadjacentswampy
areas. This aquatic environmentwould have
providedvariousedibleroots,waterfowl,fish,turtles,frogs,molluscs,andcrustaceans.Thedenselywoodedflatsbackfromthefloodplainwere
covered with river box (E. largiflorens), coolibah (E.microtheca),
black oak (Casuarina cristata), false
sandalwood(Myoporumplatycarpum),lignum(Muehlenbeckiacunninghamii),shrubs,
and perennial grasses. Various fleshy fruits, seeds,tubers, greens,
insects, and small game (possums, koalas,rodents) would be
available. Lagoons and creeks were
foundadjacenttothesesavannawoodlands.Sandflatswerestabilisedby
native pines (Callitris spp.) and perennial tussock grasses(Angus
1847; Clarke 2002, 2003, 2009, 2011; Eyre
1845;Lawrence1968;Pate2006;Sturt1833).
The adjacent mallee plains were vegetated by variousdwarf
eucalypts (2–12 m in height), including oil mallee (E.oleosa), bull
mallee (E. beariana), blue mallee (E. polybroctea),white mallee (E.
dumosa), and slender mallee (E. calycogona),saltbush (Atriplex,
Rhagodia spp.), bluebush (Maireana
spp.),mulga(Acaciaspp.),andgrasses(Danthonia,Stipa,Triodiaspp.).Larger
game (kangaroos, wallabies, emus), birds,
reptiles(snakesandlizards),andvariousplantfoodscouldbefoundonthemalleeplains.TheplainsextendhundredsofkilometresintoVictoria
toward the east and are bordered by theMount
LoftyRangestothewest(BowlerandMagee1978;Cleland1966;Lautetal.1977;LeighandCostin1974;Paton1983).
PollenevidencefromswampandlakecoresedimentsinsoutheasternAustralia
indicates that theperiod from50,000 to10,000 years BP was
significantly drier than the Holocene(Dodson 1974, 1975, 1977; Hope
1984; Kershaw 1981). Theshift from a dry Late Pleistocene to wetter
Holocene in theregion is supported by a range of palaeoclimatic
data (Dodson1989;Johnsonetal.1999;Mageeetal.2004).
Dodson (1975) provides an overview of climate
andvegetationchangesforsoutheasternSouthAustraliaonthebasisofpollendata.Thedriestperiodwasfrom26,000to11,000BP.Anopeneucalyptwoodlandwithheathunderstoreywaspresentbetween50,000
and26,000BP.During the followingperiod
ofpeakaridity,amoreopenvegetationdominatedbygrassesandherbs
(Poaceae and Asteraceae) with scattered eucalypts and
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heathhadexpanded toproduceamorediversevegetalmosaic.This mosaic
was replaced by the modern eucalypt woodlandwith heath and savanna
understoreys around 10,000 BP. Thepresence of eucalypts throughout
this period suggests that themean annual minimum temperature for
the region was above10° C and themean annual rainfall was greater
than 200–250mm.
According to pollen evidence from Lake Leake andWyrie Swamp in
southeastern South Australia (Dodson 1974,1977), theclimateof
theHolocenehasbeenrelativelystable.Aslightly wetter period occurred
between 6900 and 5000
BP.From5000to2000BPconditionsbecamedrier,awetterperiodreturned from
2000 to 1300 BP, and from 1300 BP to thepresent it has been
relatively dry again (Dodson 1974, 1977).Climatic data suggest that
the Holocene floral and faunaldistributionsof
theLowerMurraywouldhaveresembledthosereportedatthetimeofEuropeancontactduringthedryperiods,whereasthewetterperiodsmayhaveallowedexpansionofplantandanimalspeciesandarelativelyrichersubsistencebase.
Recent palaeoenvironmental research (Fletcher
andMoreno2012;Gliganicetal.2014;Moyetal.2002;Pethericketal. 2013)
suggests that there were substantial changes in
thepatternandspatialdistributionofwestern-drivenrainfallintheSouthernHemisphere
after 6000–5000 years BP in associationwith increased variability
in the El Niño Southern Oscillation(ENSO). In some regions,
variations in these large-scaleatmospheric systems would have
resulted in warmer, drierperiods associated with increased ENSO
activity followed bycooler,wetterphases.However,pollendata
fromAustralia andthe Pacific islands indicate little climate change
during
theHolocene(Pickettetal.2004;Wanneretal.2008).Gliganicetal.(2014)
employed dated shoreline lake sediments, lacustrineshells and
speleothems to examine the impact of these
large-scaleatmosphericvariationsonregionalpalaeoenvironmentsinsouthern
central Australia. Elevated lake levels in the
FlindersRangesofSouthAustraliaassociatedwith
increasedrainfallareidentified for the periods 5800–5200, 4500,
3500–2700 and1000 years BP. They argue that these lateHolocene
periods of
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increased precipitation would have increased the reliability
ofresources for regional human populations during a time
ofreducedwinterrainfall(Gliganicetal.2014).
Thus a range of palaeoenvironmental evidence suggestthat
Aboriginal people living along the Lower Murray Riverwould have had
access to a rich riverine ecosystem during atleast the last 7000
years. In contrast, the abundance
andreliabilityofplantandanimalfoodresourcesassociatedwiththeadjacent
semi-arid mallee plains would have fluctuated duringthe late
Holocene in relation to alternating cooler, humid andwarmer, drier
climatic phases related to variations in ENSOactivity.
The perennial water supply which originates in
theeasternhighlandscreatedauniquehabitatwithinthesemi-aridplainsregionthatwouldhaveprovidedalarge,permanentwatersource
for Aboriginal populations. According to
historicaccounts,theLowerMurraywasoneofthemostdenselysettledAboriginal
areas of Australia, along with the northern,
easternandsoutherncoastalregionswhererainfallwashighest.
In this district the natives were very numerous,
theirencampmentsbeingscatteredalongthenarrowstripofgroundbetween
the limestone cliffs and the water's edge: there
theyfindplentyoffoodfromthefish,mussels,crayfish,bullrushrootandotherproductsofthislargerriver.(Angas1847:58)
The greater availability and reliability of food and
waterresources in these areas supported larger populations.
Eyre(1845) estimated an Aboriginal population of three to
fourpersonspermileofriverintheMoorunderegion,11kmsouthofRoonka.Henotedthatsettlementsizeschangedfromseasontoseasonaccordingtotheabundanceoffood.Duringthesummer,the
river flooded and increased the habitat size of
mussels,crayfishandfish.Summercampswerequitelargeandconsistedof
simple brush windbreaks on the banks of the river. Eyre(1845)had
encounteredAboriginal congregations of up to
600individuals.Inthewinter,thepopulationsdispersedintosmallercamps
consisting of solid log huts covered with grass
andvegetationorrocksheltersinresponsetothecold,wetweather.Sturt(1833)alsoencounteredAboriginalgroupsexceeding100personsashe
travelledsouthwardalong theLowerMurray.On
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thebasis of theobservationsofTaplin
(1879),Radcliffe-Brown(1918:230) estimated that the Aboriginal
population in
theLowerMurraywasbetween1800and6000people,atadensityof between1–3.2
individuals per square kilometre prior to theEuropean introduced
smallpox epidemics (Clarke 1994:57–60;Humphries2007).
Ahigherdegreeofsedentismassociatedwithlong-termresidential bases
or year-round occupation of residential basecamps would be possible
in the resource rich regions of
theLowerMurrayenvironment(Owen2004;Pate2000,2006;Pateand Owen
2014). However, some mobility may have beennecessary due to the
scheduling and seasonality involvedwithfloral and faunal
procurement (Binford 1980; Flannery 1968;Poiner 1976) and the
distribution of food resources and
stonetoolrawmaterialsacrossthelandscape.Stratifiedarchaeologicalsites
such as rockshelters and mounds accompanied bycemeteries could be
related to increased sedentism and use oflong-term residential base
sites, but such year-round use
ofresidentialbasesitesmustbedemonstratedemployinga
rangeofarchaeologicaldata.
Anexaminationoftheseasonalavailabilityofplantandanimal foods
provides one means to address the
temporalassociationofhunter-gathererswithvariousarchaeologicalsites(Bailey
1983; Jochim 2012; Kelly 1983; Rocek and Bar-Yosef1998; Rossignol
andWandsnider 1992). Physical anthropologyandstable
isotopeanalysesprovidepowerfulmethods that cansupplement
conventional archaeological data to examinevariability in
pre-contact Aboriginal diet, health, settlementpatterns and
landscape use in the Lower Murray River Basin(Katzenberg 2000;
Larsen 2003; Pate 1997, 2000, 2017;
PateandOwen2014;PateandSchoeninger1993).
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TheRiverineEcosystem___________________________________________________________________________SoilsandTerrestrialVegetationThesoilsandvegetationof
the riverinezonearemoreuniformwhen compared to the adjacent mallee
plain because they areless dependent on local rainfall. There is an
abrupt
vegetationtransitionfromthesemi-aridmalleetothebetter-watered,morefertile
black silts of the river floodplain. The open malleewoodland with
its sclerophyllous-chenopodiaceous shrubunderstorey
isreplacedbydenselywooded flatsandasavannaunderstorey. The river
banks are covered with
bulrushes,rushes,andsedges(LeighandCostin1974;Specht1972).
Canopy composition changeswith reduced soil
fertilityandwateravailabilityawayfromtheriverfront.Riverredgums(E.camaldulensis)
are dominant along the river's edge and
arereplacedbyriverbox(E.largiflorens)ontheflatsadjacenttothefloodplain.
Eucalypts in these better-watered areas reach30minheightandhavea
foliageprotectivecoverof10–30percent.Coolibah (E. microtheca),
false sandalwood (Myoporumplatyearoum), black oak (Casuarina
cristata), dry-land tea tree(Melaleuca lanceolata), sand pine
(Callitris spp.), and mulga(Acacia spp.)arethedominantspecies inthe
lowwoodlandsofthe drier peripheries. These trees are 5–10 m tall
and have afoliage protective cover of less than 10 percent. The
drought-resistant understorey expands as the canopy thins out
(Specht1972).
The savanna understory is dominated by tussocks ofperennial
kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra), wallaby
grass(Danthoniaspp.),andspeargrass(Stipaspp.).Inthedrierareasaway
fromtheriver, the topsof thesegrassesbecomedormantand wither and
die in response to the hot, dry
summerconditions.Theyachievetheirmaximumgrowthduringthelatespringfollowingwinterrainfall(Gott1982;Specht1972).
Orchids (Orchidaceae), liliaceous plants (Liliaceae
andHypoxidaceae),andyamdaisies(Microserislanceolata)areotherdry-landplantsthatarewidespreadonthebanksadjacenttotheriver.
These plants sprout green leaves from undergroundrhizomes
inthecoolerdaysofautumnandusestarchstored inroots, tubers, corms,
or bulbs until they can grow vegetativelywith winter rainfall.
Flowers occur in spring and the plants
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continue growth until water becomes limiting in the
summer.During summer dormancy, the plants are reduced to
theirundergroundpartsagain(Gott1982;Specht1972).
Shrubs, including golden wattle (Acacia pycantha),kangaroo thorn
(A. paradoxa), daisy (Olearia spp.), hopbush(Dodonaea viscosa), and
native box (Bursaria spinosa), aresparse, but will expand with
repeated firing. Onion weed(Asphodelus fistulosus), onion grass
(Romulea spp.), and otherannuals invade theunderstory in the spring
after rainfall (Gott1982;Specht1972).
Wetlandplantsoccur indensestands in
locationswithpermanentwateror inareas thatareseasonally floodedby
theriver.Dominantrepresentativesincludebulrushes(Typhaspp.),rushes
(Cyperaceae) and waterribbons (Triglochin
procerum).Theseplantspropagate fromrhizomes
inadditiontoproducingnumerous small seeds in the spring. Maximum
growth
occursduringthehotsummer.Theriveralsofloodsduringthisperiodand
increases the area which will sustain growth. In the
latesummerandearlyautumn,thetopsoftheplantsdieinresponseto reduced
temperature and recession of floodwaters
(Gott1982;Specht1972).TerrestrialFaunaA number of small mammals are
associated with the
riverinehabitat.Thenocturnalherbivorousphalangersareadaptedtoanarboreal
life. This family includes possums (Trichosurusvulpecula,
Pseudocheirus peregrinus) and the koala(Phascolarctus cinereus).
These small mammals nest in
thehollowsoftreesandfeedupontendershootsandleaves,flowers,nectar
and fleshy fruits. The koala's highly specialised diet isrestricted
to the leaves ofEucalyptus spp. (Barrett 1955;
Jones1969;Ride1970).
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AquaticFloraandFaunaThe freshwater biome includes two main
ecosystem types:running waters or lotic habitats (streams and
rivers) andstanding waters or lentic habitats (lakes, ponds,
swamps,marshes).Swampsandmarshesaresomeofthemostproductivehabitats
on earth (Simmons1979).Most of the flora and
faunaareconcentratedintheshallowlittoralzone.Rootedplants,suchas
cattails (Typha spp.), lilies (Nymphaea spp.) and
pondweeds(Potamogeton spp.), and small floating plants, such
asduckweeds (Lemna,Wolffiaspp.), are the dominant
producers.Consumers include worms, insects, crustaceans, and
molluscs.Waterfowl, fish, turtles,andamphibiansmove inandoutof
thelittoralzone.Phytoplanktonbecomethedominantproducersintheopen-waterzone.Algaeanddinoflagellatesareconcentratednearthesurface.Zooplanktonincludecopepodsandcladocerans.Fish
and fish-eating birds are the dominant larger
animals.Bottomdwellersincludeworms,insects,andmussels(Simmons1979;Williams1981a,1983).
Thecombinedeffectsofannualdischargevalues,erraticchanges in
water level, drought, and the aridity of thesurroundingmallee have
produced a depauperate fauna in theMurray Darling system. Twelve
families, 18 genera, and
19speciesoffishoccurintheMurrayDarling,whereas13families,52
species, and over 260 species are found in
theMississippi-Missourisystem.LackofspeciationisalsoevidentintheMurrayDarling
waterfowl, mammal, and invertebrate fauna. Riverinespecies have all
adapted to the widely fluctuatingwater levelsand associated changes
in productivity (Keast 1981a; Smith1978;Williams1981b).
The riverine fauna is dominated by
invertebratesconsistingprimarilyofarthropods,e.g.,
insects,crustaceansandtheirallies.Themacro-invertebratefaunaisverylimitedduetotheunstablenatureoftheriverbottom(Williams1981a,1983).Two
species of mussels (Mollusca) Velesunio ambiguus andAlathyria
jacksoni and several crustaceans, including thefreshwater shrimp
(Paratyaaustraliensis), river prawns (Macrobrachium) and crayfish
(Cherax spp. and Eusastacus
armatus),occurintheLowerMurray(Williams1981a,1983).
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InsectsLarvae of the large rain moth Trictenaatripalpis(bardi
grubs)escapedryseasonsanddroughtsinmoistundergroundburrowsat
thebasesofeucalyptus treesalong the
river.Eachmothwilllaythousandsofeggsatthebaseoflargeriverredgumtrees(E.camaldulensis).Whenthegrubshatchtheyburrowinto
thesoilandfeedonthetreeroots.Followingrainfall,themothsemergefrom
the burrows and disperse (Common 1990). These
largepopulationsofbardigrubswouldhaveprovidedareliable foodsource
for hunter-gatherers (See Grehan 1989; Tindale
1966;Yen2012;Yenetal.2017).FishAlthough the Murray Darling fish
species diversity is low, theriver supports a large number of
important food species,including catfish, perch, cod, and blackfish
(Clarke 2002). TheMurray cod (Maccullochella macquariensis) is the
largestfreshwaterfishinAustraliaandcanreachlengthsofupto1.8mandweightsofupto113kg.Theaveragespecimenweighs10kg.Golden
perch (Plectroplites ambiguus) weigh up to 4 kg
andaverage1.4to1.8kg.Breedinginmanyoftheselargerspeciesistriggered
by increasing spring water levels and rising watertemperature.
During these periods, both habitat size and
foodsupplyareexpanded.Increasedplanktonanddetritusinputandgreater
aquatic plant and insect productivity provide thisadditional food
(Barrett 1955; Frith 1974; Keast
1981b;McDowall1996).Adultgoldenperchandsilverperch(Bidyanusbidyanus)migrate
upstream for distances up to 1000 km afterspawning, whereas Murray
cod and freshwater catfish(Tandanustandanus) are relatively
sedentary (Reynolds
1983).Radio-trackedMurraycodintheMurrayRiverhavemigratedupto 120 km
upstream to spawn before returning to exactly
thesameriverchannelfromwhichtheydeparted(ToddandKoehn2009).
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Thecontrolofriverflowbylockshashadadetrimentaleffect on the
distribution and abundance of fish. Floodwatercontrol has decreased
habitat size and reduced breedingopportunities. Winter flows have
been reduced and latesummer/autumn levels increased. Macquaria
australasica,Maccullochellamitchelli andGadopsismarmoratus are
seriouslythreatened,whileT.tandanus,P.ambiguus,andM.macquariensisnumbershavebeendrastically
reduced (Frith1974;Shiel et al.1982).WaterfowlTheMurray Darling is
themost important waterfowl breedingarea inAustralia.Twelveof the19
species ofAustralianducks,geese and swans are common inhabitants of
the river system,and two northern tropical species, the
grass-whistle duck(Dendrocygnaeytoni) and water-whistle duck
(D.arcuata), areoccasional visitors. These birds feed on aquatic
plants,invertebratesandsmallfish(Frith1982).Waterfowlprovidedakey
food source for Aboriginal people inhabiting the
LowerMurrayregion(Clarke2016).
Waterfowl behaviour is also keyed to changes in riverlevel and
food abundance. Species that inhabit shallow,temporary waters
(Malacorhynchus membranaeeus,
Anasgibberifrons)arehighlynomadic.Breedingoccursinresponsetorisingwater
levels and increased food supplies, but as soon asthe floods recede
the habitat can no longer support the entirelocal population and
some migrate to better-watered coastalplains and estuaries. The
remaining waterfowl species occupythe more permanent deeper swamps
and lakes. They
aresedentaryormigrateregularlybetweenlocalswampsandlakes.Shorebirds
include plovers, dotterels, stilts, avocets,
pratincole,gulls,andterns(Frith1974,1982;Pizzey2013).ReptilesThreespeciesofturtleinhabittheLowerMurray,theAustraliansnake-necked
turtle (Chelodina longicollis), broad-shelled long-necked turtle
(C. expansa), and Murray short-necked turtle(Emydura macquari). In
Australia, freshwater turtles arereferred to as ‘tortoises’ to
distinguish them from the largermarine forms. Freshwater turtles
(‘tortoises’) are found in theriverandassociatedstreams,
lagoons,andswamps.Adults feed
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onfish,molluscs,crustaceans,frogs,tadpolesandaquaticinsects(Cogger2014;Goode1967;Worrell1970).
E. macquari and C. longicollis go ashore frequently
tobaskinthesun,butC.expansaonlyleavesthewatertolayeggs.From 10–15
elongated, brittle-shelled eggs are laid in
nestsexcavatedinmoistsoils.Theeggsareburiedandleftunattendedtohatchwith
theheatof thesun.C.longicollus
andE.macquarinestinearlysummerandeggshatchinlatesummerorearlyfall,whereasC.expansa
layseggsinfallwhichoverwinterandhatchthe following spring. The
young emerge fully developed
andimmediatelyenterthewatertofeedoninsect larvae.C.expansaadults
are the largest freshwater turtles in Australia.
Theyachievecarapacelengthsupto50cmandweightsover5.5kg.C.longicollisandE.macquarireachcarapace
lengthsof25cmand30cm,respectively(Cogger2014;Goode1967;Worrell1970).
Ectothermic reptiles are extremely sensitive
totemperaturechanges(HeatwoleandTaylor1987).Turtlesentera state of
winter dormancy (brumation) in response to
coldtemperature.C.longicollisretreatstomoistearthenburrowsontheshore,whileC.expansaandE.macquariburrowunderwaterinbottommudorinadjacentbanks.
Awidevarietyofpredatorsposeathreattoturtlesatallstages of their
life cycle (Goode 1967). Eggs are eaten bypossums,snakes,
lizards,waterrats,anddingoes.
Juvenilesareconsumedbywaterfowlandsnakes,andadultsbyhawks,eagles,waterfowl,waterratsanddingoes.AmphibiansFrogs
were the only amphibians found in the
pre-EuropeanLowerMurrayenvironment.Urodelesandcaecilians(newtsandsalamanders)andtoads(Bufonidae)didnotoccur
inthenativeAustralianfauna.Mostfrogspeciesarenocturnalandterrestrial,butthegenusLitoriaalsocontainsarborealmembers.Alladultsarecarnivorousandwilleatanythingtheyareabletocatch,killandswallow.Insectsandsmallrodentsarecommonconstituentsof
the diet. Adult size ranges from 13.8 mm in Ranidelladeserticola to
104.2 mm in Litoria caerulea (McFarland et
al.1979;Tyler1978;Tyleretal.1981).
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Waterlossisamajorproblemfacedbyamphibiansdueto the permeability
of their skin. Moist microhabitats arerequired to regain water lost
by evaporation and for thesuccessful development of eggs and
larvae. Many
terrestrialforms(Neobatrachus,Cycloranaspp.)burrowtolocatemoisture,while
others (Limnodynastes spp.) are restricted to
permanentwatersources.MostAustralianfrogsareopportunisticbreedersthatuseephemeralwatersforreproduction.L.rubellacompleteslarval
development in as few as 14–15 days following fall andwinter
rainfall, whereas species occupying permanent
watersmayrequireupto5months.Riverinespeciesbreedyear-roundorinthelatewinterandspringinresponsetorisingriverlevelsand
increased food supplies. Many terrestrial frogs
remaindormantinburrowsorothermoistmicrohabitatsduringthehot,dry
summer (McFarland et al. 1979; Tyler 1978; Tyler et
al.1981).MammalsAquatic mammals include the platypus
(Omithorkynchusanatinus)andwaterrat(Hydromyschrysogaster).Theseanimalsshelter
in burrows excavated in the banks of the river andassociated creeks
and lagoons. The diurnal platypus feeds onmussels, freshwater
shrimp, insects, and worms at dawn andtowards dusk. Much of its
time is spent in the deep
burrow,whichmayextendupto30mfromthewater’sedge.Thefemalelays two to
three soft-shelled eggs in a nest concealed in theburrow. The
platypus remains in its burrow in
hibernationduringwinter(Barrett1955;Jones1969;Morcombe1968).Thehighly
specialised water rat is unique to Australia. It feeds oncrayfish,
mussels, small fish, insects and aquatic plants. Thenocturnalanimal
isextremelyshy.Adults reach
lengthsofover50cm(Barrett1955;Jones1969).MolluscsFreshwater mussels
are sessile bivalve filter feeders.
Theyinhabitrivers,streams,lagoons,andbillabongsinwatersoflessthan
10m depth.Murray River species burrow in fine alluvialsilts or
attach to large submerged dead trees. These shallowhabitats expose
them to great temperature variations andfrequent desiccation (Burky
1983; Russell-Hunter 1983; Seed1983;Smith1978).
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Hibernation in muddy bottom sediments occurs inresponse to cold
winter temperatures. Velesunio
ambiguusbecomesinactiveatwatertemperaturesbelow12°C(Hoffmann1983;
Millington and Walker 1983; Walker 1981a, 1981b).Mussels also
aestivate in mucus cocoons with falling latesummer/autumn river
levels and the summer drying ofterrestrial habitats. Adults can
survive in these cocoons foryears. Larger specimens survive up to
30 per cent longer thansmaller ones due to slower desiccation rates
associated
withlowersurfacearea/volumeratios(Dudgeon1982;Morton1979;Williams1983).
Great variations in mussel population size occur
withfluctuatinghabitatsizeandfoodsupplies.Largenumbersofeggsareproducedinthespringashabitatareaisincreasedbyrisingriver
levels and winter rainfall. The glochidial larvae attach toand are
dispersed by fish hosts (Burky 1983).
Velesunioambiguusadultsfromthemainriverstreamreachlengthsupto94 mm
and heights to 55 mm. Lagoon forms are smaller
andmoreflattened(Cotton1961;MilingtonandWalker1983).CrustaceansShrimp
are simply smaller genera of prawns. The
maximumlengthofthefreshwatershrimpParatayaaustraliensisis25mm,whileriverprawns(Macrobrachium
spp.)growto178mmandweighupto400g.TheSAfreshwaterformsinhabitinlandriversand
other permanent waters. They are active at warm watertemperatures.
Optimum growth occurs at 28–30° C in M.rosenbergii. Their diet
includes detritus, smaller crustaceans,molluscs, polychaetes, and
other invertebrates (Hale 1927–1929;NealandMaris1985).
Femalescarryfromlessthan100toover100,000eggsontheirpleopodsforthreetofivemonths.InM.rosenbergii,theplanktonic
larvaewashdownstream
toestuarinewaterswheretheymaturewithinfourmonths.Thejuvenileswillonlysurviveinbrackishwaterswithsalinitiesfrom12–16ppt.Adultsmigrateupstream
to fresherwaters (Neal andMaris 1985;
Provenzano1985;VernbergandVernberg1983).
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Freshwater crayfish are quite common
throughoutinlandAustralia.Theyoccupy the
shallowwatersofbillabongs,creeks, lagoons, and rivers (Frost 1975).
Crayfish areomnivorous. Adults eat large quantities of aquatic
vegetation.They are grazers in addition to taking phytoplankton
anddetritus with filtratory setae. Animal foods include
smallercrustaceans, molluscs, fish, annelids, arthropods,
andzooplankton.Theyoung
feedonplanktonanddetritus.Feedinggenerallyoccursduringtheearlymorningandevenings.Fisharethe
primary predators (Cobb andWang 1985; Grahame
1983;MillsandMcCloud1983).
Theyabbie(Cheraxdestructor)isawarmwaterspeciesthat is extremely
well-adapted to the dynamic Lower Murrayenvironment. It is active
atwater temperatures above16° C
inthespring,summer,andearlyautumn.BypossessingcombinedcharacteristicsofbothR-andK-reproductivestrategies(Pianka2011;
Sastry 1983; Stearns 1977, 1980) yabbies can
rapidlyincreasepopulationnumbersandcolonisenewhabitatscreatedbyspring
floodwatersandwinterrains.Theybreedthroughouttheir active period,
produce large numbers of young,
provideparentalcare,matureearly,andexhibitrapidgrowthrates.
From300–400eggsarecarriedonthefemalepleopodsfrom October to
March, and eggs hatch in about six weeks
at20°C.Theyoungarebornaliveandclingtothemotheruntiltheyreach 3mm in
length. This initial parental care results in veryhigh survival
rates when compared to the pelagic larvae
ofmarinecrustaceans(Provenzano1985).Youngare independentwithin
41–90 days of spawning, depending on watertemperature. The optimum
temperature for growth is
between20-25°C.Mostyoungyabbiesreach10cminlengthwithintwoyearsofhatching.Adultsreachtotallengthsof20cmandweighupto200g.Ediblemeatcomprisesabout25percentofthistotalweight.
Life span is about three years (Faragher 1983;
Frost1975;MillsandMcCloud,1983;Provenzano1985).
As water temperature drops below 16° C in the
lateautumnandwinter,yabbiesretreattounderwaterburrowsandenterastateofdormancy.MostburrowsareoccupiedbyApril.Theyalsobecomedormantinresponsetodrought.Asephemeralwater
holes dry out in the hot summer, the crayfish enter asealed burrow
and follow the retreating water table.
Tunnelsmayextendover3mdeep.Aestivationwillcontinueuntilwater
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returns to the overlying ground. Dormant yabbies have
beendiscovered beneath lake beds which have been dry for up toeight
years, although yabbies attempt to avoid
summerdormancybymigratingtomorestablehabitatsfollowingwinterrainfall(Frost1975).
TheMurrayRiver lobster (Euastacusarmatus) isacoldwater
speciesactiveat temperatures in the5–10°C range. It
ismuchmoreK-orientedthanC.destructor.Asinglematingoccursin late
autumn and each female produces up to 400
eggs.DevelopmentissimilartothatofC.destructor,butgreatertimeisinvolved.
At these colder temperatures eggs do not hatch
untilfourmonthsafterspawning.Adultsreach50cmtotallengthandweighupto2.5kg.UnlikeC.destructor,thiscrayfishhasasmalltail-body
ratio. Summerdormancy takesplace
inmudburrowsintheriverbanks(Frost1975).RiverineTrophicStructure___________________________________________________________________________The
primary limiting factors affecting the abundance
anddistributionofaquatic floraand fauna in
theLowerMurrayarefluctuating river level and water temperature.
Flood watersbring inputs of nutrients, plankton and detritus, and
increasehabitatsizeforbothfloraandfauna.Theactivity-breedingcyclesof
crustaceans, molluscs, turtles, mammals and some fish
arekeyedtochangesinwatertemperature.
Because large aquaticplants are scarce, phytoplanktonand
detritus are themajor sources of primary productivity. Inaddition,
wetland plants provide abundant supplies of smallseeds during the
spring and early summer. Insects are thedominant riverine
herbivores. Omnivores include
crustaceans,molluscs,fish,andwaterfowl.Theplatypus,riverrat,andturtlesareprimarilycarnivorous(Walkeretal.1986).
In relation toAboriginal food supply, animals
aremostabundantinthespringandearlysummerwhentheriverlevelisrising
and water temperatures are warm. In the winter, thecrayfish Cherax
destructor, shrimp, mussels, turtles,
mammals(platypus,riverrat)andsomeinsectsbecomedormant,andfishandwaterfowlnumbersaregreatlyreducedinresponsetocold
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watertemperatures,lowriverlevels,andreducedfoodsupplies.Thecold-adaptedcrayfishEusastacusarmatus
ismostabundantduringtheseperiods(Walkeretal.1986).
DuetotheerraticdischargevaluesoftheMurrayRiverthatexistedpriortohistoricalwatermanagementpractices,themagnitude
of these seasonal changes in floral and faunaldistribution and
abundance would have been less predictable.Furthermore, major
non-seasonal droughts in the easternhighlands have disrupted the
regular cycle in the past
andreducedthelowerreachesoftherivertoaseriesofwaterholes(FrithandSawer1974;Walkeretal.1986).TheMalleeEcosystem___________________________________________________________________________VegetationThe
major part of the mallee occurs between the 200 and450 mmannual
isohyets.Thecanopyof themalleeopenscrubconsistsofsmall treesand
tall shrubsdominatedbyEucalyptusspp. Mallee eucalypts are
sclerophyllous evergreen perennialswhich sprout from subsurface
lignotubers. They have deep taproots and shallow extensive lateral
root systems. The diversesclerophyll heathland understorey contains
over 130 plantgenera (Beadle 1981; Specht 1972, 1979, 1981a,
1981b;Williams1979).
Theamountandseasonalityofrainfallhasagreateffecton the availability
of mallee plant foods. Regular autumn andwinter rainfall produces
lush periods of vegetation growthduring which both perennial and
annual plant foods areabundant. Groundwater reserves accumulated
during the rainyseason allow plants to remain productive during the
annualsummerdrought.However,plantfoodsaregreatlyreducediftheregular
rainfall does not arrive. During these dry periods onlythe stems,
leaves, roots, fruits and seeds of drought-resistantplants are
available (Cloudsley-Thompson and Chadwick 1964;Mayhew1968).
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FaunaBirdsSpecies density surveys (Foulkes and Gillen 2000;
Pianka andSchall 1981; Simpson 1973a, 1973b) indicate that birds
are byfar the most diverse vertebrate class inhabiting the
malleeregion. Foulkes and Gillen (2000) provide an overview of
themaximum total number of species recorded from various
pastsurveys. Birds (257 spp.) are followed by reptiles (75
spp.),mammals(66spp.),andamphibians(fourspp).Mobilityallowsbirds to
successfully exploit patchy distributions of food
andwater.Nectar,flowers,pollen,fleshyfruits,seeds,andinsectsareprimary
sources of food. Abundant nectar-producing plantsprovide a
concentrated high energy source in an otherwisemarginal environment
(Recher 1981). Numerous species ofpasserine birds feed primarily on
nectar. The
Meliphagidae(honey-eaters)contributegreatlytothehighspeciesdiversityinthemallee.
Many of these small birds conserve preformed andmetabolicwater
anddonotneedtodrink.Water conservation,combined with an ability to
tolerate high body temperatures,allow these birds to remain active
during the heat of the
day(Dawson1981;Keast1981a,1981b;Kikkawaetal.1979).Sincemanybirdsarenomadictheyopportunisticallyenterthemalleefor
food and then return to better-watered surrounding areas,such as
the riverine and coastal zones. The emu
(Dromaiusnovaehollandiae)onlyentersthemalleefollowingwinterrainfalland
is active during the evening and cooler parts of the day.Others,
including the territorial mound-building mallee fowl(Leipoa
ocellata) and bustard or plains turkey
(Ardeotisaustralis),areresidentspecies.Additionalgamebirdsinhabitingthe
mallee include quails, pigeons and doves (Barrett
1955;Pizzey2013;Kikkawaetal.1979).
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ReptilesReptilesarewell-adaptedtoaridregions.Severalcharacteristics,including
a thick skin with few dermal glands, excretion
ofconcentrateduricacid,nocturnalactivity,andtheuseofburrowsduringthehottestperiodoftheday,minimisewaterlosstotheenvironment.
The almost exclusive carnivorous diet,
includinginsects,frogs,birdsandsmallmammals,providesanappreciablepercentageofthereptilianwaterrequirement.Additionalwateris
obtained by opportunistic drinking and from
metabolicsources.Breedingusuallyoccurs in the spring
followingwinterrainfall when a greater quantity of higher quality
food isavailable(Mayhew1968).
Fat storageallowsreptiles to reduceactivityor remaindormant in
their burrows during colder months or periods offood shortage. Such
daily and seasonal metabolic inactivityallows reptiles to
capitalise on limited and unpredictable
foodsupplies.Itisamajorfactorcontributingtotheirrelativesuccessover
mammals and birds in the arid interior of
Australia(Mayhew1968;Pianka2011).
Lizardsandsnakesarethedominantreptiliangroupsofthe mallee.
Rawlinson's (1966) literature review of
reptilesrecordedintheVictorianmalleereports73speciesrepresenting34generaandninefamilies.Theseinclude45speciesof
lizardsand25speciesofsnakes.
Microhabitat specialisation and variability in times ofactivity
have contributed to the great lizard diversity.
Manyspeciesarerestrictedtosandridges,sandplain-Triodiaorshrub-Acaciahabitats.Alargenumberarenocturnal.Nocturnallizardsinclude
geckos, pygopodids, and skinks. Most agamids andvaranids are
diurnal. The majority of lizards in regions withMediterranean
climates breed only during the spring wheninsects becomeabundant
(Barrett 1955;Mayhew1968; Pianka1981).
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Theelapidsarethemostcommonsnakesofthemallee.Snakeshavearelativelylimitedheattoleranceandconsequentlymostarid-landsnakesarenocturnal.Daysarespentinburrows,hollowlogsorcoolriverinehabitats.Theirdietincludesrodents,frogs,
lizards, birds, bird eggs, other snakes, insects, andadditional
small invertebrates. Snakes are capable of goingwithout food for
periods of six to twelve months without
anyseriousconsequences.Breedingoccursinthespringandautumn(Barrett1955;Mayhew1968;Pianka1981).MammalsSmall
rodents are the dominant mammal group of the
mallee.Malleerodentsincluderats,mice,rat-kangaroos,andbandicoots.The
burrowing rodent-like wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons) arealso
common (Cloudsley-Thompson and Chadwick 1964;
Jones1969;Leeetal.1981;Ride1970).
Nocturnal activity, combined with the use of
burrowsandnestsduringtheheatofthedayand/ordailytorpor,allowsrodents
to evade arid-land conditions and reduce evaporativewater loss.
Evaporative water loss is a critical problem due totheir small size
and large surface area/volume ratio. Most oftheirwater isobtained
from foodandmetabolic sources.Manyrodents enter a prolonged state
of dormancy or aestivationduring the annual summer droughts.
Aestivation is similar
towinterhibernation,butitoccursinresponsetoextendedperiodsofheatandaridityrather
thancold
(BartholomewandDawson1968;Cloudsley-ThompsonandChadwick1964;Leeetal.1981).
Rodent populations and territorial ranges
weredrasticallyreducedbythe1890–1920sduetocompetitionwithintroduced
European species (Lee et al. 1981). Rabbits(Oryctolaqus cuniculus)
and house mice (Mus
musculus)competedforburrowspaceandfood,whilefoxes(Vulpesvulpes),dogs(Canisfamiliaris)andcats(Feliscatus)increasedpredationpressures
(Keast 1981b; Lee et al. 1981). Other nocturnalburrowers include
the echidna or spiny anteater (Echidnaaculeatus)and
thenumbatormarsupialanteater (Myrmecobiusfasciatus). These mammals
feed on a variety of small insects,includingantsandtermites.
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Large herbivores are represented by the
familyMacropodidae,whichincludeskangaroosandwallabies(Dawson1995;Hume1982;MainandBarker1981).Thelowermetabolicratesandruminant-likedigestionofkangaroosallowanefficientuse
of poor quality fibrous vegetation (Janis 1976;
Tyndale-Biscoe2005).
During drought periods small 2.5 kg hare-wallabies(Lagorchestes
spp.)cansurviveontheopenmalleeusingwaterobtained directly from
vegetation (preformed water) and
viametabolicoxidation(metabolicwater),whereaskangaroosover25 kg
must move toward areas where free water is available(Main and
Barker 1981). Large kangaroos move toward theMurrayRiver in
thesummerandthenreturn to themalleeandarid grasslands following
winter rainfall (Archer 1984a; FrithandCalaby1969).
Distributions of macropods are also related to habitatand diet.
Themajor proportion of the diet consists of grasses.Grasses are
supplemented with herbs. The red kangaroo(Macropus rufus) occupies
open plains and remains highlymobile during the rainy season in
search of newly sproutedgrasses and ephemeral dicots which have
greater water andprotein contents. Red kangaroos occur on the arid
grasslandsbordering the mallee. Grey kangaroos (Macropus
fuliginosus)rarelyventurebeyondthedensemalleescrubandwoodedareasadjacent
to theMurrayRiver. They consume greater quantitiesof grass than red
kangaroos and are less selective. The greykangaroo remains closer
to the river during drought periods,whileredkangaroosmove toward
theriver front
fromthearidgrasslands(FrithandCalaby1969;Jones1969;Newsome1965a,1965b;Tyndale-Biscoe2005).
Solitary macropods include the euro (Macropusrobustus) and
wallabies. Euros and rock wallabies (Petrogalespp.) seek shade in
rocky outcrops, gullies, and beneathmulga(Acaciaaneura). Euros do
not normally venture further than a1km radius of their shelters.
They feed on lower qualityperennial grasses such as spinifex. Other
wallabies arewidespread throughout all inland woodland and
desertcommunities (Frith and Calaby 1969; Jones 1969;
Newsome1965a,1965b;Tyndale-Biscoe2005).
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The native carnivorous mammals that have
inhabitedtheSAmalleeregionareconfinedtotwofamilies,theDasyuridaeandtheThylacinidae.TheTasmaniandevil(Sacrophilusharrisii)and
the native cats (Dasyurus spp.) are included in theDasyuridae, and
the dog-like Tasmanian wolf or thylacine(Thylacinus cynocephalus)
is the only member of the
familyThylanicidae.Allofthesecarnivoreswerenocturnal.
TheTasmaniandevilandTasmanianwolfarenolongerpresent on the
mainland. Mainland extinction in southeastAustralia probably dates
back no more than a century.
TheTasmaniandevilsurvivedinWesternAustraliauntil430±160BPand in the
Northern Territory until at least 3120±100BP.Mainland evidence for
the Tasmanian wolf comes from
theKimberleyregionat0±80BPandthesouthwestat3090±90BP(Archer 1981).
Native cats still survive today, but
theirpopulationsandrangeshavebeenreducedsubstantially(Archer1981;Barrett1955).
Competition associated with the introduction of thedingo
(Canisfamiliarisdingo) between 4000 and 3000 BPmayhave been
responsible for the mainland extinction of
thethylacineandtheTasmaniandevilsincethesenativevertebratefauna
survived in Tasmania in the absence of the
dingo.CompetitionwithdingoesandEuropeanintroduceddogs(Canisfamiliaris),
red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and cats (Felis catus),accompanied by
reductions in rodent populations, led toTasmanian devil and native
cat declines (Archer 1984b; Gollan1984; Johnson andWroe 2003;
Oskarsson et al. 2011).
Nativecatswerealsokilledbyfarmersbecauseoftheirincessantraidsonhenhouses(Archer1981;Barrett1955;Jones1969).
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Aboriginal Subsistence-Settlement Systems in the
LowerMurrayEnvironment___________________________________________________________________________Thepalaeoenvironmentaldataindicatethattherehasbeenlittlechange
in the climate and vegetation of southeastern Australiaduring the
last 10,000 years. Major vegetation changes areconfined to the
period following European colonisation. Themodern productive Murray
River system was established by7000 BP. Therefore, Aboriginal
populations living along
theLowerMurrayRiverexperiencedasimilarnaturalenvironmentthroughout
thepast7000–8000years (Fluinetal.2009;Hill etal. 2009). Coastal
groups near the mouth of the Murray Riverwouldhavehadagreateraccess
tomarine resources followingsea-level stabilisation at 6000 BP
(Lampert and Hughes 1974;Perlman1980).
Consequently,modern ecological data can complementarchaeological
and historical records by providing estimates ofthe floral and
faunal resources available to Aboriginal riverinepopulations during
the majority of the Holocene.
Althoughavailableatdifferentseasons,theemploymentofarangeofplantfoods
from the riverine andmallee ecosystems would provideyear-round
access to fruits and seeds (Clarke 1985b,
1994,2015).Plantstorageorgans(tubers,roots,bulbs),aquaticplants,and
naturally desiccated fruits, such as Santalum
andSolanumspp.,wouldremainavailableduringperiodsofdrought(Clarke1985a,2015;Gott1982,1999;Martin2011;WestellandWood2014).However,manydrought-escapingseedsandgreensfrom
the mallee habitat would not be available (Specht
1972,1981b;Pate1986).
Storagecouldbeusedtoextendtheavailabilityofdriedfruits and
seeds. Techniques for the drying of plants wereemployed in the
Lower Murray. In relation to basketmaking,rushes were sun dried or
placed in a heated oven and thenbundledupandstored for
futureuse(Clarke2015:234).Fruitsof Kunzea pomifera were dried in
the form of cakes (Tindale1981:1879).
Faunal variety ensured that animal foods were alsoavailable
throughout the year. Furthermore, buried turtle andmallee hen eggs
and dormant crayfish and mussels could
beobtainedbydigging.Variousmeatscouldbepreservedbydryingandthenstoredfor
futureuse.AccordingtoClarke(1994:165–
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170, 2009), fishing techniques employed in the LowerMurrayregion
ranged from netting, spear fishing and trapping, toopportunistic
harvesting and storage (Eyre 1845; Krefft
1862–1865;Tindale1930–1952).Ethnographicaccountsindicatethatfish
were stored in small dams, pounds or mud pools
(Clarke1994:169;Sturt1833,Vol2:165).Inaddition,theavailabilityoffish
was extended via drying on racks (Berndt and Berndt1951:29). Bird
eggs (e.g., emu, waterfowl) and freshwatermusselswere stored
formonthsbyburying them indamp soil(Clarke 1994; Simpson and
Blackwood 1973;). Non-localdroughts that reduced river flowwould
have had the
greatestimpactonfaunalabundance.Manyanimals,includingwaterfowl,fish
and turtles, could migrate to better-watered areas duringthese
stressful periods. On the other hand, local
droughtsresultedinincreasedfaunaldensitiesneartheriver.
Ifhumanbehaviour isviewedasanadaptive responseto specific
environmental conditions, then pre-contactAboriginal population
size in the Lower Murray should
belimitedbytheperiodofgreatestresourcestress.Unpredictableextended
droughts that reduced both riverine and malleeresources would have
provided the ultimate test of survivalskills. Food
storagewouldprovide an importantmechanism tosustain populations
during extended periods of drought, but iffood reserves were
depleted, alternative strategies would berequired.Access tomore
reliable foodsources in the resource-rich Murray River mouth and
nearby coastal regions
wouldprovideinlandriverinepopulationswithameanstoreducetherisksassociatedwithextendeddroughts.
IfAboriginalgroupsinhabitingtheLowerMurraywereto obtain
non-local resources with the least amount
ofoppositionandeffort,someformofsocialtieswouldberequiredin these
areas. Exogamous marriage between regions aspracticed in
themarginal desert habitats ofAustraliawouldbeonemechanism to
facilitate such relations (Berndt and Berndt1993; Stanner 1965;
Strehlow 1965; Yengoyan 1968, 1976).Individuals socialised in one
area would carry the essentialresource procurement knowledge of
their homelands to
theirspouse'speople.Tradenetworkswouldprovideaccesstoother
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Volume41,December2017154
resourcesthatwerenotequallyavailabletoallpopulations,suchas
stone, marine and riverine shell, ochre, and local
foods(McBryde1984;McCarthy1939).Alternatively, the use of
foodstorage,fishtraps,andothertechnologicalmeanstoincreasethereliability
of local foods (intensification) could be employed
toreducethedependenceonneighbouringgroupsandfavourmoreclosed social
relations associated with territoriality
(Clarke1994;Lourandos1985,1988,1993,1997).
HistoricalAboriginalpopulationnumberswerereducedsubstantially by
introduced European diseases and violentconfrontationswith
settlers. Smallpox spread rapidly along
thecoastsanddowntherivervalleys(Butlin1993;Campbell2002).The first
smallpox outbreak among Aboriginal
populationsoccurredinSydneyin1789,withinoneyearoftheestablishmentof
the colony. Itwas again reported along theMurray River atSwan Hill
in the early 1800s (Stirling 1911). The disease wascommon among
Aboriginal groups of the Murray Darlingbetween 1830 and 1845 (Sturt
1833; Stirling 1911; Clarke1994).
Disputes over trespassing and the hunting of
livestockresultedinnumerousAboriginaldeaths.ManyAboriginalpeoplewere
either poisoned or shot on sight (Eyre 1845, II; Smith1880). Burke
et al. (2016) provide a detailed overview ofhistorical accounts of
frontier violence in the western
CentralMurraybetween1830and1841withafocusonfive ‘hotspots’where
repeated evidence of conflict occurred. This
researchinvestigatedthesignificantincreaseinviolentconflictassociatedwith
the opening of theOverland StockRoute between Sydneyand Adelaide in
1838. Campbell (1939) estimated that theAboriginal population of
southeastern South Australia
declinedby50percenteveryfiveyearsfrom1840through1900.
Consequently, historic and ethnographic accounts
ofAboriginalbehaviourmost likelydonotaccuratelyportraypre-contact
lifestyles. Rapid population reductions andenvironmental
degradation could completely disrupt formersocial relations and
produce new adaptive requirements
andopportunities.TheremnantsofformerAboriginalgroupswouldbefacedwiththechallengesofsurvivalunderavastlydifferentsetof
conditions than thoseexperiencedby theirpredecessors.Access to food
and blanket rations,medical assistance,
alcohol,andemploymentresultedinconcentrationsoflargenumbersof
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Volume41,December2017155
Aboriginal people from various groups around
Europeanmissions,governmentposts,homesteads,andpopulationcentres(Foster
2000; Foster et al. 2001;Rowley1971). Eyre (1845, II:445) stated
that only 150 of the 600 to 800 Aboriginal
peoplewhofrequentedAdelaidewereoflocalorigin.Conclusions___________________________________________________________________________Accesstoreliablewaterandthewiderangeofplantandanimalfoods
available in the Lower Murray riverine and adjacentmallee
ecosystems provides environmental data to generatehypotheses about
past variability in
hunter-gatherersubsistence-settlementsystemsintheregion.Ethnographicandhistorical
data relating to diet and landscape use in variousregions of the
LowerMurray can contribute tomodel
buildingandhypothesistesting.However,modelsrelatingtopre-contactseasonalmobilityor
increased sedentismassociatedwith
long-termuseofresidentialbasesmustbetestedemployingarangeofarchaeologicalandenvironmentaldata
inordertoassessthevalidityoftheirapplicationacrossspaceandtime.
In relation to support for hypotheses regarding thepresence of
semi-sedentary or sedentary hunter-gathererlifeways along the Lower
Murray during the late Holocene,archaeological research must
establish multiple lines ofindependent evidence that suggest the
long-term use of basecamps associated with particular riverine
landscapes orterritories. Collaborative research projects
involvingarchaeologistsandvariousAboriginalcommunitiesintheregionwillbeessentialtothesuccessfulachievementofthesegoals.
In order to test these hypotheses across the LowerMurray region,
improved data associated with the followingareasisrequired:
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Volume41,December2017156
Ø Expanded excavation and chronometric dating for a range
ofsite types, includingrockshelters,middens,moundsandcemeteries
to demonstrate long-term use particulararchaeological sites (cf.
Littleton et al. 2017; Pate et al.1998,2003;Wilsonetal.2012);
Ø Comprehensiveandsystematicanalysesoffaunalandfloralremains and
artefacts associated with variousarchaeological sites to
demonstrate past use of a range ofkeyanimalandplantfoods;
Ø Expanded analyses of earth mounds to providearchaeological and
environmental evidence to
supportethnographicmodelsregardingtheprocessinganduseofarange of
key plant and animal foods, including faunalanalyses and residue
analyses (chemical, phytolith)
ofgrindstonestoestablishassociationwithplantslikeTyphaspp.;
Ø Expandedstable isotopebaselinevalues inboneand teethfor a
range of animals associatedwith different diets andhabitats;
Ø Expanded stable isotope data base in bone and teeth forhuman
remains associated with a range of cemetery andother burial sites
across different habitats to
demonstratelong-termtiestoparticularsitesandregions,
i.e.,presenceofbasecampsorterritories;and
Ø Comprehensive and systematic employment of
physicalanthropology associated with a range of cemetery
andotherburialsitesacrossdifferenthabitats.
Acknowledgements___________________________________________________________________________Over
thepast35years,my researchhasbenefited significantlyfrom
collaborative involvement and support from a number ofAboriginal
communities in South Australia. I
acknowledgecontributionsfromtheGerardCommunityCouncil,theMannumAboriginal
Community Association Inc. and the NgarrindjeriHeritage Committee.
In addition, the South
AustralianMuseumhasprovidedinvaluablesupportforarangeofresearchprojects.I
thank Mick Morrison and Philip Clarke for their
invaluableadviceregardingtherevisionofthemanuscript.
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Volume41,December2017157
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