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JOURNAL OF
PRECISION TEACHING
VOLUME IV SPRING 1983 NUMBER 1
Editor
Patrick McGreevy
Associate Editor
Lynette Lacy
Contributing Editors Parallel between frequency testing
Peggy Albrecht and performance on essay questions
Eugene "Skip" Berquam in a theories of personality course
Carl Binder Abigail Calkin C. E. McDade
Marie Eaton S. B. Rubenstein John Eshleman C. P. Olander
Stephen Graf Eric Haughton Ogden R. Lindsley Charles Merbitz
Variability: An aid in the assessment
H. S. Pennypacker of the effectiveness of training
Ann Starlin procedures
William D. Wolking Fred Spooner
Consulting Editors Doreen Sponner
Beatrice H. Barrett Ray Beck Walter R. Berard L A computerized
math deficit remediation Marie Blackburn Bob Bower Donna McCarthy
-Jensen Susan Evans Kenneth U. Campbell William Evans Sheila Fox
Edward Framer Henri Goettel Self-counting in the treatment of
Marilyn Hefferan Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome Jim Johnson Nancy
Johnson William H. Evans Carl Koenig Susan S. Evans Steven Krantz
Harold Kunzelmann Sarah Kyrklund Thomas C. Lovitt Dagmar Neal We
were spell bound Charles P. Olander Susan Reiter Denise M. WrightC
a r p Robbins Jim Rudsit About PT Susan Ryberg Gene Stromberg Julie
Vargas Owen White Deborah Wood
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EDlTORIAL POLICY
The Journal of Precision Teaching is a multi-disciplinary j ourn
a1 ded ica ted t o a science of human behavior which includes
direct, continuous and standard measurement. This measurement is
composed of standard units of behavior--frequencies--which are
collected and recorded on a standard scale-the Standard Behavior
(Celeration) Chart. Collections of frequencies are summarized on
this Chart using a standard measure of behavior change--celeration.
Frequencies and c elerations displayed on the Standard Behavior
(Celeration) Chart form the basis for Chart-based decision-making
and for evaluating t h e effects of independent variables.
The purpose of the Journal of Precision Teaching is to
accelerate the sharing of scientific and practical information
among i t s readers. To this end, both formal manuscripts and
informal, Chartsharing articles are considered for publication.
Materials submitted for publication should meet the following
criteria: (1)be written in plain English, (2) contain a narrative
that is brief, t o the point and easy t o read, (3) use the Journal
of Precision Teaching Standard Glossary and Charting Conventions,
(4) contain data displayed on the Standard Behavior Chart that
justify conclusions made, (5) be submitted in quadruplicate t o the
editor, and (6) include one set of original charts or hand-drawn
copies. Each formal manuscript will be reviewed by one consulting
editor and two reviewers, two of whom must approve i t prior to
publication.
The Journal of Precision Teaching i s published quarterly in
April, July, October and January by Plain English Publications,
P.O. Box 7224, Kansas City, Missouri 64113. Each volume begins with
the April issue. Volume I began in April, 1980. The annual
subscription rate is $20.00 t o libraries, $16.00 to individuals
and agencies, and $12.00 t o full-time students, payable in U S .
currency. The single copy price is $5.00. Advertising rates are
available upon request.
Submissions, subscriptions and other correspondence should be
addressed t o Plain English Publications a t the address above or t
o Pa t r i ck McGreevy, Editor, Journal of Precision Teaching, 3952
N .W. 82nd Street, Kansas City, Missouri 64151.
Any article i s the personal expression of the author. Likewise,
any advertisement is the responsibility of t h e adver t i ser . N
e i ther necessarily carries Journal endorsement.
Library of Congress JSSN number: 0271-8200
As part of i t s goal t o disseminate research, the University
Affiliated Facility for Developmental Disabilities (UAF) a t the
University of Missouri in Kansas City, under the direction of Carl
Calkins, assisted with the production of this Journal.
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PARALLEL BETWEEN FREQUENCY TESTING AND PERFORMANCE ON ESSAY
QUESTIONS IN A TtiEORIES OF PERSONALITY COURSE
C. E. McDade S, B. Rubenstein
C, P. Olander Center for Inaividualized Instruction
Abstract
Reinforcing high frequency of cor rec t responses in a pe r sona
l i t y theories course resulted in s tudent , fluency with those
theorists s tud ied . This stuay examined the relationship between
f r equency t e s t i n g of o a s i c c o n c e p t s a n d
application of those concepts on essay questions. A consistent
concomitant increase in frequency of cor rec t basic concepts
described or identified on flash cards ana frequency of ccrrect
concepts written on essay questions was observed. When concepts
were identified through an identical rnethoa on a microcomputer,
similar results were observed.
In recent years there has been an emergence of a l t e r n a t i
v e rn easurern e n t and in s t ruc t iona l s t ra teg ies such
as P rec i s ion Teach ing (P?'), Personalized Systems of
Instruction (PSI) ana Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI). Each
system has proauced valid principles which can be used t o improve
in s t ruc t ion . T h e C e n t e r f o r Individualized
Instruction (CII), Jacksonville State University, has experimented
with f r e q u e n c y testing, a component of PT, in conjunction
with CAI and PSI. Frequency t e s t i n g r e f e r s t o assess
ing s tuaen t accuracy and fluency with academic material during
short counting periods.
F requency t e s t i n g key basic concepts in a discipline can
result in a proficient understanding of these concepts oy the s
tuaent , as well as, positive reinforcement for the instructor
(Merbitz & Olander, 1~8U) . Both student and professor aevelop
a common ground--a working f luency wi th t h e terminology--which
allows them t o discuss freely and confidently the more complex
iaeas in the aiscipline.
A cornoination of t h r e e innovative teaching methods--PT,
PSI, ana CAI--allows a student t o l e a r n through self-pac ed
instruction, with no penalty for repetition of material or for
oeing "slower" than other students. Large lessons are diviaea in to
r~lodules which t h e s tudent learns one a t a time, achieving a
fluency criterion determined ~y the instructor.
Microcomputers can be used for frequency testing stuaents, s
ince they c a n minimize b ias and completely eliminate scoring
errors. Scanlon
(1361) suggestea that the con~puter is riot meant t o replace
the teacher ana should rarely oe usea without aavisor or instructor
supervision. In the CII, microcomputers are used t o provide
testing, exe rc i s e s , or s imula t ions , m o s t r e q u i r i
n g a d v i s o r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c t i o n t o i n t e
r p r e t computer-generated feedback.
The unique na ture of frequency testing mai
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8046, and ( 2 ) a minimum correct frequency of 10 concepts per
minute. A randomly chosen essay question was used to assess student
knowledge of more complex concepts (i.e., app l ica t ion ,
integration, synthesis, or evaluation). If the number of carrect
concepts written exceeded the nunlber of incorrect concepts (i.e,
those omitted or definitely incorrect), the essay was scored,
"Pass!" If not, the essay was scored, "Try again!" Once a student
chose to frequency test, s/he was required t o attempt an essay
question immediately a f t e r the frequency sess ion , regardless
of whether fluency was reached.
Course material was organized into four units, each with three
or four individual theorists. The frequency testing component of
evaluation was presented on ilash cards for the first and last quar
ters of the course, while an Apple I1 microcomputer presented i t
for the second ana third quarters. The flash cards allowed the s
tudent t o s ee and sort all ten terms to be defined and required
the student to give a verbal response t o an advisor. It was the
advisor's responsibility to time the student and assess his/her
accuracy. When the microcomputer controlled the frequency testing,
i t presented questions in the concealed multiple choice format,
randomking both questions and indiv idu a1 foils. The computer
determined the student's accuracy and fluency. In both forms of
frequency t e s t i n g , t h e s t u d e n t received immediate
performance feedback. The difference between t h e f o r m s of
frequency tes t ing could be described as recall vs. recognition.
After each testing period, the students were required to chart
their frequencies carrect and incarrect for both essay performance
and the flash card or computer frequency testing. A l l charting
was done on Standard Celeration Charts, usually with the assistance
of an advisor.
Results
Number of attempts t o read fluency with both types of frequency
testing--the flash card technique and the computer-assisted
testing--were compared. No significant d i f fe rence was observed.
The mean number of a t tempts t o reach fluency on the material by
recall on flash ca rds was y.0 and by recogni t ion on t h e
computer was 10.2 (Mann Whitney U = 15.5, p = .38). Additionally,
the individual quartws of the course were compared with a
Kruskal-Wallis One Way ANOVA. No significant difference in the
number of attempts to reach fluency was found (h = 1.68, 1= 3).
A consistent, concomitant increase was seen in frequency of
carrect basic concepts described or identified on both frequency
testing methods (i.e., f lash cards and microcomputer) and
frequency of correct concepts written on essay
questions. Charts 1 and 2 display one student's performance on
frequency testing of basic concepts and essay questions. Generally
(for all students), as the frequency of correct concepts on the
frequency testing component increased, the frequency of correct
concepts on the essay questions also increased. The opposite also
holds true for the frequency of incorrect concepts.
Typically, also, the frequency of words and concepts wri t ten
per minute on the essay questions increased over t h e course . A
comparison between the las t essay question on the second unit and
the thirteenth unit showed a mean increase in frequency of words of
5 8 (t = 2, p < .05), as well as a mean increase in frequency of
correct concepts of 0.69 (t = 0, p< .05). The authors also
observed that students were answering the essay questions
concisely, without excessive verbage.
Discussion
The present study has two implications fo r improving college
instruction. First, frequency testing key basic concepts, result
ing in t he student becoming fluent as well as accurate,
facilitates student use of those concepts on essays. Not only do
the students apply the concepts better as they identify them
fluently, but they also do so more concisely.
Secondly, frequency testing requiring recall and frequency
testing requiring recognition appear to have the same effect on
essay performance. With no d i f fe rence in the mean number of
attempts to reach fluency, both formats of frequency testing are
efficacious. Instructars with access t o niicrocomputers can enjoy
t h e benefits of computerizing frequency testing without fear of
the machine "de-humanizing" the c lass room. Those who do not have
t h e technological advances in their se t t ings can create flash
card decks which will assess studeilt performance just as well.
The validity of frequency for shaping and evaluating student
performance is being supported by a growing body of empirical data.
Given the charge of teaching unique individuals with varying levels
of intelligence, motivation, and past academic performance, the
university instructor may find frequency indispensible for
accomplishing the task.
REFERENCES
Bloom , B. S., & Broder, L. Problem solving processes of
college students. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950.
Lochhead, J., & Clement, J. (Eds.). Cognitive process
instruction: Research on teaching
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. N, No. 1, Spring, 1983
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CO
UN
T PE
R M
INU
TE
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-
McD
ade, C
.E.,
Rubenstein,
S.B
., and
Olanc,., , C.P.
Parallel
between
frequency testing
and perform
ance on
essay qu
estion
s in
a th
eories
of p
erson
ality co
urse.
JoumaZ
of
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h;ng, V
olume
IV,
Num
ber 1
, S~
ring
, 1983.
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thinking skills. Philadelphia, PA: Franklin Institute Press,
1979.
lvlerbitz , C. T., & Olander, C. P. Precision teaching in a
univgsity center. Journal of Precision Teaching, 13 8U, 1(1),
18-26.
Porter, L., Lawler, E., & Hackman, J. Behavior in
organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1375.
Scanlon, R. T. Computer-assisted instruction in Latin and in
English vocmulary development. The Classical Journal, 1981.
C. E. McDade is the Director, S. B. Rubenstein is a graduate
assistant and C. P. Olander is the A s s o c i a t e D i r e c t o
r of t h e C e n t e r f o r Individualized Instruction,
Jacksonville S t a t e Univwsity, Jac~sonville, Alabama 36265.
VARIABILITY: AN AID IN TtiE ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF TRAINING YROCEDURES~
Fred Spooner Western Carolina Center
and University of North Carolina a t Charlotte
Doreen Spooner Western Carolina Center
Abstract
PennypacKer, Koenig, and Linasley's variability procedure was
used t o illustrate the bounce in per f orrnance of e ight s eve re
ly /p ro f o u n d l y handicapped persons when they were trained t
o assemble two complex vocational tasks via two training proceaures
(total task presentation and Dackward chaining). Prom an analysis
of the r e su l t s , i t c a n b e concluded tha t subjects'
correct performance under the backward chaining conaition was
significantly more variable than when correct responding was
controlled by the t o t a l t a s k c o n d i t i o n . P r a c t i
t i o n e r s a r e encouraged t o quantify and analyze bounce t
o
l T h e authors would like t o acknowledge Owen R. White,
University of Washington, for a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e ana lys
i s of the data; Jim Favell, Nestern Carolina Center, for editorial
critique; Meda Smith, Western Carolina Center, for typing the f
inal manuscr ip t , a s wel l a s p rev ious d r a f t s ; and
Cynth ia S t i rewal t for assistance in redrafting the design.
assist in making decisions about the effectiveness of training
procedures.
The quantification of behavior change (celeration) and
variability (bounce) a r e two of t he many features of the
Standard Celeration Chart t ha t h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t i
m p a c t on t h e da i ly decision-making behavior of
practitioners. The relationship between celeration and bounce and t
o what extent the bounce is due t o celerat ion or uncon t ro l l
ed va r i ab i l i t y i s an important p r ac t i ca l t r a in
ing issue. F requen t ly , t h i s relationship i s not used t o
its greatest practical ut i l i ty--an aid in t h e a s s e s s m e
n t of t h e effectiveness of training procedures.
Pennypacker, Koenig, and Lindsley (1978) and White (Note 1 )
suggest that the more variability t ha t can be explained by the e
f f ec t s of t h e celeration, the more effective the procedure,
and t h e g r e a t e r t h e p r e d i c t i v e p o w e r of t h
e p r o c e d u r e . In e s s e n c e , measurement of variability
during the t r e a t m e n t phase of a t r a in ing program c a n
b e used t o a s s i s t in assessing the effects of procedures on
learning. T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s pape r is t o expla in
Pennypacker e t al.'s (1972) p r o c e d u r e f o r measuring and
quantifying variability, and t o apply this method t o t h e
assessment of t h e effectivenss of backward chaining (BC) and
total task (TT) training procedures wi th s eve re ly handicapped
persons.
Method
S u ~ j e c t sand Setting
The subjects were eight severely and profoundly handicapped
indiv idua ls l iv ing i n a s t a t e residential training
facility. The five women and three men ranged in age from 14 t o 58
years. Their 1.q. '~ as measured by the Stanford Binet ranged from
14 t o 27. Six of the subjects were enrolled in a vocational
training program where they sorted plastic spoons, while two
adolescent subjects were enrolled in an on-grounds ~ h o o l
program.
The setting was a 5 by 4 meter room divided by a wall t o
provide two t r a in ing rooms. The settings were tailorea t o be
similar.
Apparatus
Two d i f fe ren t items, a arain and a gate valve, were
assembled by each subject. Each i tem consisted of seven different
pieces. No pieces of t h e t w o i t e m s w e r e i d e n t i c a
l o r interchangeable. The drain was composed of a 7 cm by 3.5 cm d
r a i n head , a .65 cm rubbe r washer, a 6.5 cm hexagonal lock
washer, a 4.5 cm by l u crn pipe, a 4 crn slip nut, a 4.5 cm
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1983
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plast ic washer, and a 4.5 cm ruober stopper. The g a t e valve
was composed of a 6 crn turn knob, a 1 cm nut, a 2.5 cm cap, a 4
cni by 4 cm valve, a 5 cm plastic washer, a 6.5 cm by 7.5 cm
housing, and an 11 cm stem. Each item was placed in a wooden
training t ray (ti0 cm by 45 crn) that had seven dilferent
compartments. The i tems were organized in the order desc r ibed
above. Pieces for th ree drains or three gate valves were placed in
each tray.
Procedures
Experimental design. The exper irn ental design was a
multielement design (Sidman, 1960; Ullnan & Sulzer-Azaroff,
1975). 'Chis design is also refwred to as an alternating t
reatments design (Barlow & hayes, 1979). Figure 1 is a graphic
depiction of the display of t he design, using Johnston and P
ennypacker's (19 8 U ) notation of design elements. The independent
variables were the backward chaining (BC) and the total task (TT)
training procedures. Daily c o r r e c t and incorrect frequencies
were collected for each of the two i tems and served as t h e d e p
e n d e n t variaole. Each subject s tar ted in a baseline (i.e.,
non-training) condi t ion , a g a i n s t which progress in the
training condition was evaluated. T h e ~ a s e l i n e cond i t i
on w a s a l s o u s e d t o empirically validate t ha t the
learner could not assemble t h e itemis) without training. ?'rials
w.ere a l te rna tea as outlined in Figure 1. For example, on the
first day of baseline, Subject 1 s t a r t e d wi th Se t t i ng 1,
Trial 1, gate valve. During that trial the subject was allowed many
opportunities to assemble pieces of the item for three minutes. The
frequency of correct and i n c o r r e c t p i e c e s was r eco
rded on a d a t a collection form and a corresponding Standard
Celeration Chart. Then, Suoject 1 moved t o Setting 2, Trial 2,
drain. Trial 2 was conducted in the same manner as Trial 1.
Sumequent to Trial 2, the subject remained in Setting 2 with the a
ra in and completed Trial 3. After Trial 3, the subject returned t
o Setting 1 and the ga t e valve and completed Trial 4. This
completed Session 1.
The secona day of baseline opened with Session 2, Trial 5 (see
Figure 1). Trials 5 and & were conduc ted in setting 2 with the
arain, while trials ti and 7 were conducted in Setting 1 with g a t
e valve. Sessions 1 and 2 were al ternated every other day until
"steady s t a t e responding1' ( t he celerat ions for the cor rec
t and incorrect frequencies were X1) was achieved. Data were
collected and charted separately for each Trial number. On the f i
r s t day of training, Subject 1 started wi th sess ion 1 in S e t
t i n g 1 w i t h t h e T'1' p r o c e a u r e and t h e g a t e va
lve . T h a t trial consisted of one opportunity t o assemble
every
piece of tha t item. Irrlrnediately following tne completion of
T r i a l 1, S u b j e c t 1 rnovea t o Setting 2 ana was trained
with the BC proceaure on the drain. Trial 2 was one opportunity t o
a s s e m ~ l e the l a s t piece of the item. Sumequent to 'Crial
2, the learner immediately went t o 'l'rial 3 which occurred in the
same setting ana with the BC proceaure. After Trial 3, the learner
returned t o Setting 1 with the TT condition and the gate valve ana
completed Trial 4. Session 1 was completed with the conclusion of
Trial 4.
The second day of training opened with Session 2 which star ted
with l'rial 5. In Session 2, the order in which Subject 1 received
the item and t r a in ing p r o c e d u r e was r eve r sed from
tha t received in Session 1. On the third training day, S u ~ j e c
t1 received the sequence reported in Session 1 and on the fourth
training day t h e S e s s i o n 2 s e q u e n c e , and so on f o
r e a c h subsequent day in the investigation. As in the base l ine
cond i t i on , da t a were collected ana charted separately for
each 'l'rial number.
Training proceduresBackward Chaining (BC) and Total Task (TT).
In t h e BC p rocedure t h e s u b j e c t was p re sen ted wi th a
"comple ted assembly" except for the last piece. When tha t p i e c
e w a s c o m p l e t e d e i t h e r c o r r e c t l y or
incorrectly, the t r ia l and the counting period were over . A t t
h e t ime of the study, the authors could not find published
indicators of a c c e p t a ~ l e frequency aims for similar
vocational tasks. Therefore, subjects were required t o meet a c r
i te r ion of six consecutive cor rec t pieces (wi thout a s s i s
t a n c e ) ac ros s t r i a l s b e f o r e attempting to learn
the "next to the last" piece. On subsequent p r e s e n t a t i o n
s , t h e i t em was presented t o the suDject with a l l but the
last two pieces completed. The subject fallowed this progression
until s/he was completely assem bling an unassembled item.
In t h e TT procedure, every step was trained every time and the
subject started with the f i r s t s t e p of t h e task . When a l
l 7 pieces were corlipleted either correctly or incorrectly, the
trial and the counting period were over. A total of s ix c o n s e
c u t i v e c o r r e c t i t e m s (wi thou t assistance) across
trials was the criterion.
Calibration and rel iabi l i ty . T h e d a t a were collected
by two principal trainers. The trainers received approximately 12
hours of training prior to the s t a r t of "live" data collection.
The key elements of the calibration training were: ( a ) frequency
of cor rec t pieces, 0) frequency of inccrrect pieces, (c)
recording procedure, and (d) timing procedure. These elements were
trained to ensure stability, accuracy, reproducibility, and
generality of the record responses (Johnston & Pennypacker,
1980).
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1983
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During simulated "live" training (calibration), the t rainers
could i n t r o d u c e known sou rces of variation t o provide
assurance that the observer was exposed to a lull range of possible
values. Frequencies were also checked and compared t o a
mechanically produced recccd be. , videotape). T h e s e t w o c a
l i b r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s a r e recommended by Johnston
and Pennypacker (1980) and w e r e used t o ensure accuracy of
human recording. When the trainers had trained each other in two
consecutive trials without error, the calibration criterion was
met.
For this investigation there was no measure of inter-observer
reliability. This decision was based on Johns ton and Pennypacker's
(1980) statement that, "Using two or more observers t o d e t e c t
behavioral events cannot provide any information about t h e
reliability of any one ooserver's judgmentff (p. 163).
Measurement and &&antification of Variability
The va r i a ~ i l i t y (bounce) analysis used in the present
study was secondary t o t h e or ig ina l celerat ion analysis. In
the celeration analysis, Spooner (1381) found the TT procedure t o
be more effect ive than the BC procedure. After a thorough
examination of t he variability in the data , i t was decided that
the variability analysis carld be used t o help assess the
effectiveness of the two procedures.
The procedure described by Pennypacker e t al. (1972) is a
measure of the t o t a l bounce around t h e ce l e r a t i on
compared t o the to ta l bounce including t he celerat ion (see
Chart 1). Other i n v e s t i g a t o r s have used a l te rna t
ive terms to d e s c r i b e t h e s e bounce r e l a t i onsh ips
. F o r example, Lindsley r e f e r s t o the t o t a l Dounce
around the celeration as the "celeration course" because of t he
analogy between celeration and i t s bounce and a river and i t s
banks (Graf, Note 2) . Johnston and Pennypacker (1980) call the
total bounce including t h e celeration a range coefficient. "The
range coeff icient is readily visual ized a s p ropor t i ona l t o
t h e d i s t a n c e be tween t h e l a rges t and the smallest
values displayed on a logarithmic scale" (Johnston &
Pennypacker, 1980, p. 360). The ratio of these two measures is the
percentage of bounce which is not accounted for by the
celeration.
Pennypacker, Koenig, and Lindsley's (1972) Procedure
This procedure i s a straightforward, .powerful way of
quantifying var iab i l i ty . I t 1s n o t a s ta t i s t ica l
comparison for which a researcher needs a computer t o determine
the analysis. The p r o c e d u r e i s conceptualized in the
following format:
1. Measuring "up bounce," "down bounce," and "total bounce1'
around the celeratlon: a. First, draw the celeration line. D. Next
, draw a l ine parallel t o the
celeration line which passes through the lrequency that is
farthest above t he celerat ion l i n e ( s e e C h a r t 1, P o i
n t A). The dis tance along any aay hne from the celerat lon line t
o the new line is the up bounce.
c. Draw a line parallel t o the celeration l i n e t h a t p a s
s e s t h r o u g h t h e frequency tha t is farthest below the
celeration l ine (see Chart 1, Point B). The aistance along any day
line from the celeration line t o the new line is the aown
bounce.
d. T h e t o t a l b o u n c e around t h e celeration is the
total distance along any day line that is described by the distance
of t he up bounce and the down bounce (see Chart 1, Point C).
2. Measuring t o t a l bounce including the celeratlon: a. Draw
a horizontal l ine through the
highest frequency in t h e s e t ( s e e Chart 1, Point D).
D. Draw a horizontal l ine through the lowest f requency in t h
e s e t ( s e e Chart 1, Point El.
c. Measure t he to ta l bounce including t h e c e l e r a t i o
n a s t h e d i s t a n c e Detween these two lines (see Chart 1,
Point F).
3. Finding the ratio of total bounce around celeration t o t o t
a l bounce inc luding celeration: a. T a k e t h e measure of to ta
l bounce
around t he celeration a s found in Chart 1, Point C and place i
t in the numerator of a fraction.
D. N e x t , p l a c e t h e m e a s u r e t h a t describes
total bounce including t he celeration, as found in Chart 1, Point
I?, i n t h e d e n o m i n a t o r of t h e fraction.
c. Finally, aivide the numeratar by the denominator . T h e r a
t i o i s t h e percentage of bounce not accounted for by the
celeration.
Using Variability as a Measure of the Effectiveness of Treatment
Procedures
For the variability (bounce) analysis, the most typical
performance for each individual subject was compared across
training procedures. This was done by comparing the char t s for
each of the four t r ia l numbers, calculating the points of least
difference and determining the most typical t r i a l . C h a r t 2
shows a summary of the most typical celeration and the "celeration
course1' for a l l 8 s u b j e c t s in t h e BC and TT t r a in
ing
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1983
-
CALENDAR WEEKS DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 C Y C L E - 1 4
0 D A Y S ( 2 0 W K S ) B E H A V I O R R E S E A R C H CO BOX 3 3
5 1 - K A N S A S CITY K A N S 6 6 1 0 3
( T h i s i s n o t da ta ; i t i s a d e s c r i p t i o n
SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR D A Y S o f how t o measure bounce)
/ / r - ' , i / , y / ' op< 0 pi op* op-' 0 pi obi 1 0 0 0 ~
~ ~ . I I 4 I I I I I I I2 I a I I6 I I 20 O P J m
SUPERVISOR A D V I S E R M A N A G E R A G E LABEL COUNTED
BEHAVER
500 - .
100- 50 -
.- - - DEPOSITOR AGENCY TIMER COUNTER C H A R T E R
'Y%' ~ m o 3 c n 3 m w m :. 2 7 to 3 +. rt 7 - 0 -5 s o m
- h a
2 rt' R 3-D Q ~ S z m a x - h m
- m -ha o C, 0
< r t 3
2,S.q 3 !?
MIN m m V, o o
I H W - 5 - < m - o m -h s * - 2 z = rt
3-5< IITPJ PJ
.-5 m- I . -5 -5 s --I. --'. 9,
-10 --z z -1
m u -r. - 2 0 u-5ct
-50- 2.0 .. s m
-50 9 g g
A- t h e f requency t h a t i s f a r t h e s t above t h e c e
l e r a t i o n 1 ine ;
B- t h e f requency t h a t i s f a r t h e s t below t h e c e
l e r a t i o n l i n e ;
C- t h e t o t a l bounce around t h e c e l e r a t i o n (up
bounce and down bounce);
D- t h e h i ghes t frequency; E- t h e l owes t f requency; F-
t h e t o t a l bounce i n c l u d i n g t h e c e l e r a t i o n
;
C - = t h e percentage o f bounce n o t accounted - - - - f o r
by t h e c e l e r a t i o n
Char t 1. Measuring Up Bounce, Down Bounce, To ta l Bounce
Around C e l e r a t i o n and T o t a l Bounce I n c l u d i n g
Cel e r a t i o n : Pennypacker, Koenig , and L i n d s l ey '
s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
0 5 - E
-
CHART TRACER (CT-SEN) B E H A V I O R R E S E A R C H CO B O X 3
3 5 1 - K A N S A S C I T Y K A N S 66103
Total Task(TT) Backward Chaining(BC)
U
correct correct cel eration cel eration
total total bounce bounce around around correct correct cel
eration cel era t i on (celeration (cel era t i on
course) course)
< median value
Chart 2. The Most Typical Celeration and "Celeration Course" for
a l l 8 Subjects in the BC and TT Training Procedures.
Spooner. F. Spooner, D. 8 subjects assemble pieces of gate valve
and drain
-
procedures. Using the median "celeration course" for each
training procedure, i t is eviaent that the BC procedure is 1.5 t
ines more variable than the 1'T procedure. The percentage of bounce
not accountea for by the celeration, for each subject 's most
typical BC trial, was comparea with the percentage of bounce not
accounted for by celeration for each subject's most typical TT
trial (see Table 1). The range in bounce not a c c o u n t e d fo r
by t h e c e l e r a t i o n wi th TT procedure is 16% - 68%, with
a median of 41%. The range in bounce not accounted for by the
celeration with the BC procedure i s 28% - 9 6%, wi th a median of
76%. In a l l but one case (Subject 8 ) , t h e p e r c e n t a g e
of bounce n o t accounted for by celeration was less for the TT
procedure. Charts 3 and 4 show Subject 2 's most typical TT and BC
performance (Trial 6 ) . In the TT procedure ( C h a r t Y ) , 16%
of t h e bounce i s not accounted for oy the celeration. On the
other hand, for the BC procedureichart 4) , 85% of the oounce i s
not accounted for oy the celeration.
Table 1
The Correct Celeration and the Percentage of Sounce not
Accounted for oy Celeration
Correct Percentage Subject Proceaure Celeration of Bounce
Not Accountea for by Celeration
*This is the only case in which the percentage of bounce not
accounted for by the celeration is less for BC than for TT.
Discussion
Variaoility is a measure t ha t may be used t o assis t in the
assessment of the effectiveness of training procedures. Data in
this study were used t o i l lustrate Pennypacker e t al.'s
(1972)
procedure as a uselul quantification too l when r e s e a r c h
e r s a r e interested in more than just "estimating" variability.
The median total bounce around celeration was 1.5 times greater for
the backwara chaming (BC) procedure than for the t o t a l tasK
(TT) proceaure. In all ~ u t one of eight cases, t h e p e r c e n
t a g e o t bounce n o t accoun ted f o r by the celerat ion for
the BC procedure was greater than the percentage of bounce not
accounted for by the celeration for the TT procedure.
T h e r e s u l t s of t h i s i nves t iga t ion c a l l t h e
researcher's attention t o variability (bounce) as a rn e a s u r e
of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r a in ing procedures. The
relationship between celerat ion and bounce and t o what extent
that bounce is due t o celeration is an impor t an t p r a c t i c
a l training issue. If bounce around the celeration is small and
the Dounce including the celerat ion i s l a r g e , t hen a g r e
a t e r proportion of t ha t bounce is a c c o u n t e d f o r by
learn ing . The t r a in ing p r o c e d u r e i s a l s o exerting
greater control over suuject responainy. On the other nand, it t he
bounce around the celeration and the oounce including the
celeration a r e bo th large, tnen a grea te r proportion of that
bounce is not accounted for by learning. In this case, the oounce i
s attriuutea t o uncontrolled sources and less control is exerted
on responding by the training procedure. If the bounce is accounted
for by learning, then the practitioner shoulu continue t o wserve
responaing and continue with t he training procedure. If the bounce
is no t a c c o u n t e a f o r uy learning, then i t would be
necessary t o plan a program change.
'fhe iinaings of this study and Spooner's (1981) previous work
challenge the continued use of the BC proceaure. With this
procedure, learning is l i ~ e l y t o o e less ana unaccounted var
iab i l i ty g r e a t e r when coinpared t o t h e t o t a l tasK
proceaure. Practitioners should consider using the to ta l task
procedure because of its effects on both celeration and bounce.
RE EE REN CE NOTES
1. White, 0. K . Personal communication, May 18 and 22,
1981.
2 . Graf, S. Personal communication, November 24, 1982.
RE EERENCES
Barlow, D. h., & Hayes, S. C. Alternating t r e a t m e n t
s design: O n e s t r a t e g y f o r conlparing the effects of two
treatments in a single su~jec t . Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 1979, 12, 139-210.
Johnston, J . M . , & P e n n y p a c k e r , ti. S.
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1983
-
DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0
W K S ) B E H A V I O R RESEARCH CO
l w F I I I 4 1 I I I 1 I I2 I 1 1 I 6 I I 20 o w m
To ta l Task(TT) T r a i n i n g
Co r rec t c e l e r a t i o n = x1.5 To ta l bounce around c e
l e r a t i o n = x4.5 To ta l bounce i n c l u d i n g
c e l e r a t i o n = x28
The percentage o f bounce not accounted f o r by c e l e r a t i
o n = 16%
Char t 3. Sub jec t 2 ' s Most Typ i ca l To ta l Task(TT)
Performance ( T r i a l 6)
-
-
MIN
-I
, - 2
-5
-10
- 20
.- 50
- 100
0 3 3 r'. ID Y 0) 3 $. rk 7
3 S O I D
- h P ' - 3 - (D rk R 3 n J 0 I D S c ID P 3 - h m y -hu
ID 0 0 0
e C t 3
2'2.2 c m - 3 3 I D I D 0
cn 0 H c n '5 < ID Y 0 0
- h 3 Z . E: rk 3 3 < UP, P, ID 4. '5 3 3 --1.
--1. nJ
*-2 !z A
c n o --1. -0 3 rk 3 0% a. 0 .. 3 ID cP P D * 5 3
'5 - I D P, U3cn a. a3. P
Spooner, F. Spooner, D. SUCCESSIVE CALENDAR DAYS Sub,ject 2
assembl ed p ieces
SUPERVISOR ADVISER MANAGER BEHAVER AGE LABEL COUNTED
-- -- -- - - . - .- o f a 7-p iece d r a i n assembly
DEPOSITOR A G E N C Y TIMER COUNTER C H A R T E R
-
CO
UN
T PE
R M
INU
TE
-
a.
w
w
03
3r
km
oo
A.
--C
0
m s 3 3
3P
Q ll
w -.I.
ct3
0\
A.c
O
m -
0 --
3
(D
O
II
-5
Ln
w
-
Strategies and tact ics of human behavioral research. hillsdale,
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaurn & Associates, lu8U.
Pennypacker, ti. S., Koenig, C. H., & Lindsley, 0. H.
Liandbook of the standard behavior chart: Preliminary edition.
Kansas City, Kansas Precision Media, 1972.
Sidrnan, M. T a c t i c s o f s c i e n t i f i c research:
Evaluating experimental data in psychology. New York: Basic Bodts,
Inc, lb6U.
Spooner, F. An operant analysis of the effects of oackward c h a
i n i n g a n d t o t a l t a s k presentation (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Florida, ly8U ). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 1 981, 41, 39 Y2A. (University 1Vlicrofilrns No.
81~5615)
Uhnan, J . D . , & S u l z e r - A z a r o f f , B.
Multielement oaseline design in educational research. In E. R.
Ramp, & G. Semb (Eds.), Behavior analysis: Areas of research
and application. Englew oad Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-tiall,
1975.
Fred Spooner is a visiting assistant professor a t t he
University of North Carolina-Charlotte and a research associate a t
t he nurnan Development Research 'Training Institute a t Western
Carolina Center , Ivlorganton, Nor th Caro l ina 28655. Doreen
Spooner is the Director of Industrial Therapy a t Western Carolina
Center.
A COMPUTERIZED M A T t l DEFICR REMEDIATION
Donna McCarthyJensen Kenneth U. Campbell
North Marion Middle School
Paul is a twelve year ola l ea rn ing d isab led student. h e
came t o the North Marion Middle School resource room for daily
instruction over a three-month period l a s t winter until his
family moved out of the school district.
In assessing his math %ills, we found that Paul was proficient
in basic addition and subtraction f a c t s . h e u n d e r s t o o
d t h e c o n c e p t of multiplication, but made many errors in
see-say multiplication lac ts.
h e had access to Raaio Shack's TKS-8U hardware ana dohn 'I
'rifiletti 's spar^ 8U Computer ized Courseware for Instruction in
lvlathernatics. 'l'his software program presents basic math skills
in a Precision Teaching format. Inaividual skills are timed, with
the numoer of ccrrect ana incorrect a i g i t s typea pe r minute
recorded. When an i n c o r r e c t answer i s typed, t h e s t u d
e n t i s instructed t o try the proolem again. If a second
incffrect answer is typed, the ~nachine flashes the correct
answer.
Paul had access to the colnputer for an eight to ten ~~ i inu t
e time period four days per week. n e was put on the ranaorn X2
drill in January. As seen on Chart 1, Paul began in the acquisition
s tage of learning, corupleting 29 digits correctly with 12 errffs
in one minute. After four days with no sign of improvernent, an
intervention was ~ ~ r a d e : P a u l was to ld t h a t h e cou ld
e a r n "computer game tiuiel' if his cor rec ts went up and his
incffrects went down. Over four weeks, Paul 's cor rec ts
accelerated a t the rate of X1.3 per week t o SU digits per minute.
This cor rec t frequency was almost exactly the same as his
multiplication tool ~ o v e r n e n t irequency. His incorrects
decelerated during the first week and "leveled off1' a t a ~ o u t
three per minute.
\Ve a r e v e r y e x c i t e d by t h e r e s u l t s of
computerized instruction skill drills. Precision T e a c h i n g
programs c a n t a k e a s t u d e n t t o proficiency if the
prerequisites for learning the specific skill exist. Perhaps ~ e s
t of all, students enthusiastically approach each computer
session.
Donna IVlcCarthy-Jensen and Kenneth U. Campbell a r e resource
teachers in Exceptional Student Education a t North Marion Middle
School, Ci tra, Florida 32627.
SELF-COUNTING M THE TREATMENT OF GILLES DE LA TOURETTE
SYNDROME
William ti. Evans University of West Florida
Susan S. Evans Pensacola, Florida
Gilles de la Tourette symrorlle i s character ized oy a high r a
t e of involuntary physical tics and utterances which are often
vulgar. The subject in this investigation was a 12 year old student
who sufierea from this condition. dis classroom behavior was
adversely affected by a high rate oi utterances of an expletive. As
indicated on Chart 1, an oDserver recorded the number of times this
word was saia during a 5U minute c l a s s per iou . An initial
baseline phase was
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1383
-
DAILY BEHAVIOR CHART (DCM-SEN) 6 C Y C L E - 1 4 0 D A Y S ( 2 0
W K S ) B E H A V I O R R E S E A R C H CO B O X 3 3 5 1 - K A N S
A S C I T Y K A N S 6 6 1 0 3
I
41 0 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 12 16 20I I I I I I I I I I I I 500 -
ix2 f a c t s
x l f a c t s ( t o o l movement)
100- i game t imen1 -50 -A j /
Jk K 1-t
M I N
- I
- 2
- 5
4 - 1 0
Char t 1 . Using Microcomputers t o Teach M u l t i p l i c a t
i o n Facts
SUCCESSIVE C A L E N D A R D A Y S paUl 12 types d i g i t s ---
- - .-
A
S U P E R V I S O R A D V I S E R M A N A G E R B E H A V E R
AGE L A B E L C O U N T E D
Nor th Marion Midd le School C i t r a , F l o r i d a D. M-J. -
on a microcomputer - --.----D E P O S I T O R A G E N C Y T I M E R
C O U N T E R C H A R T E R
-
Evans,
William
H. and
Evans,
Susan S
. S
elf-counting in
the treatm
ent
of G
illes de la
To
urette Syndrom
e. Jo
urn
al
of P
recision
Tea
chin
g,
Volum
e IV
, N
umber
1 , Spring , 1983.
0,
c
.r
C,
s
s
0
U
't-
1 i i
c 0
31
flNIW
U3d
lNfl0
3
-
followed by a self-counting proceaure in which the suuject
counted ana recordea each utterance of the expletive. 'The nurnoer
of exp le t i ves during this intervention decelerated a t the rate
of /3.5 p e r week. l ' h e l a s t 5 d a t a po in t s indicated
zero expletives chrring tne class period. A ~ase l ine phase was
rar ls t i tuted and proauced
a n a r a p i dan i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e a i a t e a c c e l e r a t i
o n of expletives. Due to this rapid increase, the self-counting
procedure was reintroauceu. During this phase, the expletives
decelerated t o zero a t tne rate of /id per week.
'These data suggest that self-counting 111a57 be an effect ive
means of treating imiviuuals who have ueen diagn~sed as having
Gilles de la Touret te synarome. Further research is neeaeu,
however, t o determirle if se11-counting can reduce t h e l r e q u
e n c y of o the r i ~ i a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h i s
disorder.
William 11. Evans is an assistant professor o i Spec i a l
Euucation a t the University of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida a
L5U4. Susan S. Evans is an eaucational consultant in Pensacola,
Ploriaa.
WE WEKE SPELL BOUND
Denise M. Wright r'loriua State University
On illy initial visit t o Fairview I~~liacileSchool's S p e c i
i i c Learn ing b isao i l i t i es class, i t was urougr~tL O nly
attention by orle of the teachers trrat Lavoris, a sixth grade
student, consistently receivecl failing scores on weekly spelling
tests. 'I'r~ese tests were given in Lavoris' Language Arts class.
The reason for the failing scores was due t o the oi~~ission or
insertion of letters in words, proaucing a r~ign frequency of
spelling errors. As a resul t oi this inforination, I decided t o
work wit11 Lavoris for two hours per week uuring a six week perioa,
in!ple~iienting various teaching strategies t o i n c r e a s e t h
e a c c u r a c y of, h i s spelling.
'1'0 a c h i e v e t h e u l t i m a t e goal of increasing
Lavoris' hear worcl/vdrite w oru spe l l ing ( t h e inethou used
during the weekly spelling tests), three strategies were
i~plernentecl. A record of Lavoris' progress was Kept using the
Stanaard Celeration Chart. During the f i rs t vdeeKs of da ta
collection, I ielt i t was necessary to assess trle nuii~uer of
\torcis Lavoris cwlu see/say from a selected list ol UU words. Un
eacn ten i~iinute timing, Lavoris cc r r ec t ly s e e / s a i d X
U of o U worus, with a I r e ~ u e n c y 01 2 correc t and 4
incorrect woras p e r x i n u t e . 'I 'hese r e s u l t s i nd i
ca t ed tha t Lavoris could not see/say the
selected woras accurately.
In view of the uifficulties Lavoris had, the use of picture cues
was iri.pleniented as t he i i r s t teaching strategy. One picture
cue, selected iron^ a ~~lagazirie or urawn ~y Lavoris, was paired
with the word i t represented. Lavoris' task was t o loo^ at each
picture and orally spell the wora r epresentea. With each
sicceeaing session, the total nu~iluer of pictures presented
increaseu. Lavoris' see pic ture/say word spelling accuracy
irnyroveu (see Chart I).
Tnen, I i e l t i t was necessary for Lavoris t o aavance to the
next steps in achieving our goal of hear ing words /wr i t ing ,
words c o r r e c t l y . 'I'herefore, new s t ra teg ies were
implemented. Lavoris was askea t o select 3U words to work on
during the next phases. h e chose 34 woras. This selection
established the static aim of 34 words t o ue spellea accurately
during movement oased
All p i c t ~ i r e cues were orliitteu during the next two
phases. For a period of one week, da ta were collected t o assess
Lavoris' hear word/say hord spelling accuracy. During the i ina l
week ol uata collection, I assessed hear word/write woru. Chart 1
shows tha t Lavoris' accuracy ililprov&.
Lavoris anu I were ooth extremely proud of his steacly progress;
how ever, our proudest niornent ca i~ le in a uitter-sweet victcry.
Lavoris attain& tlie estaulishecl s tat ic aim of 34 spelling
words written correctly on the uay I was scheaulea to c o r ~ ~ p l
e t ea a t a c o l l e c t i o n aria c o n c l u a e our sessions.
nad time permitted, the next phase wculu have concentrated on the
use of strategies t o increase Lavoris' speed in completing this t
a m
I uecicled to coinpare the spelling performance of Yolanaa, a s
ixth grade s tudent who was n o t enrolled in a special eaucation
class, with that of Lavoris. Yolanaa was aescriued by Lavoris'
Lang,uai; e A r t s teacher as an "average sixth graae speller."
Each day auring the t h r ee day periou of aa ta collection, I saia
the same 34 worus t o Yolanda in random order. Yolanda was asked t
o write the woras as fast and accurately as possible. Fro111 Chart
1 i t i s ev ident t h a t Yolanaa's and Lavoris' s p e d
performances were sinilar. In addition, Lavoris was considerably
inore accurate.
Denise b!. Wright is a student oi Iblar~ Koorlanc's a t r'loriaa
State University. She resides at '1153 Irving Scott Drive, ~ac~sonv
i l l e , Florida dxSU9.
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1583
-
Wrig
ht,
De
nise
M.
We w
ere s
pe
ll bound.
Jou
rna
l o
f Pre
cisio
n
Tea
chin
g,
Vol um
e IV
, N
umber
1 , S
prin
g , 1983.
-
NOTES FROM THE EDITOR
Patrick McGreevy
Welcome t o Volume IV of the Journal. If you are a new
subscriber, a special welcome goes out to you.
The Journal needs manuscripts and chart-sharing articles. Don't
be h e s i t a n t t o submi t your material.
We w i l l b e e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h a f e w mod i f
i ca t i ons t o our review po l i cy . T h e modifications a r e
indicated in bold print. Each formal manuscript will De sent t o a
pr imary reviewer. This person, along with two others d e s i g n a
t e d by h e r / h i m , w i l l r e v i e w t h e manuscript. The
review process is "blind." Each reviewer w i l l make suggested
changes on t h e manuscript ana select one of the three options:
(1) I recommend publishing the manuscript "as is1'; (2) I recommend
publish& the manuscript after the suggestea changes are made,
or (3) I do not recommend puolishing this manuscript. The primary
reviewer will consolidate the reviews. If a l l t h r e e r e v i e
w e r s s e l e c t opt ion ( I ) , t h e manusc r ip t will b e s
e n t t o t h e ed i to r fo r publishing in the next available
issue. If two or inore reviewers select option (Y), the manuscript
wi l l be rejected and will be returned t o the au tho r t s ) . If
t w o r e v i e w e r s s e l e c t a n y combination of options
(1) and (2), the primary reviewer will consolidate t he Suggested
changes on one copy. S/he will contact the editor and learn the
identity of the author@), The primary reviewer will then be
responsible for working with the authds) to see that these changes
are understood and incorporated into a revision of the manuscript.
Once this revision i s approved by the primary reviewer, it will be
sent to the editor for publishing in the next available issue.
These lnodif ications will continue t o insure a "blindtt review
while increasing the important information tha t is shared in JPT.
It will also he lp each of u s become b e t t e r P r e c i s i o n
Teachers.
If ar t ic les that include the Standard Celeration Chart or
make reference t o Precision Teaching a r e published in other
journals at. books, please le t us know so that we can pass the
information along t o cur readers.
CURRICULUM Marie Eaton
One of the ir~teresting topics of discussion a t the recent
Precision Teaching Conference in Orlando was the use of SAFMEDS t o
teach aaul ts ana children basic content for a variety of courses.
SAFMEDS are a variation on the old f lashcards t ha t we used t o
learn our math facts when we were in grade school. Ogden Lindsley
coined the new term t o avoid any old learned behaviors we may have
retained in the use of flashcards and to remind us how t o use the
cards. SAFMEDS s t a n d s f o r Say A11 E a s t Minute E a c h p a
y Shuff led . Ogden Lindsley, BOD Bower, S teve Graf and others
have been using SAFMEDS for quite a while t o help their s tudents
in college courses . During the discussion, some of t he folks
dfered t o share the SAFMEDS they have prepared with o thers who a
re teaching similar content.
Below is a listing of some of the SAFlVlEDS that those who were
at tending were in te res ted in snaring. Others did not find the
time a t the conlerence t o give me their lists. If you a r e using
SAFMEDS a t any level of curriculum and are willing t o share them
with others, please senci a listing of the topic areas and the
number of items you include. The items do not have t o be in card
format. Send them to: Marie Eaton, Department of Education, Western
Washington University, Bellingham, WA 98225 and we'll list them in
the next column.
lblada Kay Morehead Washington School District 8blU N 19th Ave
Phoenix, AZ 8bU21
Probe Construction (100 items) Formative Evaluation (120 items)
Direct Inslruction (100 items) Reading , IVlath,Spelling, H a n d w
r i t i n g , Language Sampling (100 i terns)
Jim Pollard Merrimack Special Ed Collaborative 101 M i l l Road
Chelmsford, MA 01824
Fractions, Decimals & Minute/ Secona Equivalents Teaching
Self Care and Chaining Skills (Back chaining, cueing, prompting,
practice, toileting) Physical Therapy (how physically handicapping
conditions impact on instnrction) Orientation (the agency's policy
manual) National Electric Code Tne Intel 8U8U Microchip (CPU)
Manual TSI Personal Computer Manual
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1983 1
9
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Claudia lVlcDade Chuck Olander Center for Individualized
Instruction Jacksonville State University
SAFMEDS for the following courses: Psy B U U Intro t o
Behavioral Statistics Psy 335 Personality Theories BY 36U
Pathophysiology
Marie Eaton Sheila Pox Western Washington University
Bellingharn, WA 98225
Precision Teaching V o c a ~ (50 items) Movement Cycle Vocab (45
items) Probe Construction (40 items) Learning Hierarchy (4U items)
Celeration - Read slopes Celeration - draw slopes Data Decisions Is
intervention needed? (40 items)
Data Decisions Choose intervention (40 items)
Principles of Behavior (4U items)
COMPUTERS
Bill W a l k i n g , Steve Graf & John Eshleman
Active exploration and d e b a t e t yp i f i e s t h e i n t e
r f a c e b e t w e e n P rec i s ion Teach ing and microcomputer
technology. One thing i s clear, Precision Teachers a r e not going
t o make an automatic, knee-jerk jump t o microcomputer technology.
They want t o make sure that the benefits gained are not outweighed
by liabilities, p a r t i c u l a r l y in te rms of constraints on
f r e e o p e r a n t movements . Many mic rocompu te r p rog rams
present tasks a t r a t e s which place severe limitations on the s
tudent 's ability t o r e s p o n d f l u e n t l y . h o w e v e r
, s o m e program-omputer combinations a r e capable of p r e s e n
t i n g problems a t we l l above 300 per minute--ample f o r t h e
fu l l deve lopment of fluency and i t s side benefits for Inany
academic *ills.
More and more Precision Teachers showed an in te res t in, or
use of, microcomputers a t the 1 983 Precision Teaching Winter
Conference in Orlando. Og Linasley continued t o promote the Apple
11+ a s the s tandard microcomputer for Precision Teachers. John
Eshelrnan presented some stimulating work on a program capable of
changing contingencies of reinforcement as a consequence oi t he s
tudent 's performance and learning. Educational software which
learns as a function of student performance is an important trend.
Precision Teachers are probably the only
ones with in easurement technology sophisticated enougn to
support the development of iunctional self-modifying instructional
soi tware. Steve Grai ana Jack Auman presented the l a t e s t
version of the i r progralr~ t o e n a ~ l e teachers t o prac t
ice data-oased decisions in a greatly condensed time iralnework.
Bill Wollting demonstrated the use of "visi-calc type1' programs f
o r ana lyz ing and summarizing information on la rge quantities ot
Precision Teaching da t a . S t u d e n t t each ing outcome d a t
a can be conveniently digested by supervisors and used t o set new
contingencies for student teachers with this program.
Charles Olander and Claudia McDade presented tneir l a t e s t
work applying direct, continuous and frequency-~ased measurement
technology t o a un ive r s i t y l ea rn ing c e n t e r . Chuck
Meroitz showed how t o rig a hand-held microcomputer t o De the
brains of a system for automatic data collection on movement
frequencies and pa t te rns fo r t h e phys ica l ly a i sab led .
Chuck's work demonstrates one more way t o ge t sophisticated and r
e l e v a n t d a t a on important problems in natural
settings.
A popular event a t the PT Winter Conference was a
"microcomputer program share session." Ray Beck has an Apple I1+
program t o generate curriculum slices using either w ords, sentenc
es or math facts . This program i s easy t o use and shculd De of
great help t o teachers who need t o g e n e r a t e original
curriculum slices for their s tudents and eliminate merriorized f i
r s t rows. (Ray Beck, D i r ec to r , G r e a t Falls Precision
Teaching Project, Box 2428, Great Falls, Montana 3 9 4 0 1 ) Nearly
600 references on PT covering the years Detween 1364 and 1982 are
available on an Apple 11+ d i s ~ e t t e from John Eshelrnan.
Books, journa l and n e w s l e t t e r a r t i c l e s a r e
included. Applewriter is used t o print these files. (John
Eshleman, Celerationwar e, 1064 VanVoorhis Rd, Morgantown, W V
26505) Michele Buss will share a TRS-8U (mod HI) program tha t
provides practice, timings and printed reports of progress in
learning PT facts and names. About 330 t e r m s and f a c t s a r
e included with the program. Add your own terms or use for other
items. (Michele Buss, Special Education, Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 3 2611)
There were games galore a t the program share session. O n e g i
r l was heving a good t i m e playing wi th Verb Vipers, a
Developmental Learning Materials publication. This and o ther
programs in the series combine the fun and speed of arcade games
with educational skills content. S e e Cha f f in , Maxwell &
Thompson ARD-ED Curriculum,Exceptional Children, 1983, 49(2) ,
173-79. More on this series in future columns.
Happy microcomputing! Keep sending your l a t e s t info on PT
and n~icroeomputirg to: Bill Wolking,
20 Javnal af Precision T e a c m , Vol. N, No. 1, Spring, 19
83
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Special Education, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, EL 32611.
Carl Binder and Charles Merbitz
Greetings t o Precision 'Leachas in RehaDilitation! We have just
finished the Third Annual Precision Teaching Winter ConSerence in
Orlanao, Plor ida (March 9-12, 1383), and as always i t was
exciting and instructive t o meet. In addition t o t h e
presentations that were lauelled "rehauilitation," Charted data
from other contexts offered lessons for rehatilitation as well .
The communication of the Standard Celeration C h a r t aga in vas t
l y transcends the labels we use t o divide people.
Coming up nex t i s t h e Nin th Annual ABA convention, in
Milwaukee. Let us see a lot of Precision Teaching presentations,
symposia, and mee t ings a t this ABA and even more a t the next.
Also, as long as you'll be in Milwaukee, why aon' t you come t o
Chicago a day before ABA and tour the Rehabilitation Institute?
Call o r w r i t e Chuck Merbitz if you could make a pr e-ABA
visit. Finally, we want your suggestions, comments, and concepts f
a - this column. You don't have t o be formal--a postcard w i l l
do. Send material t o either of us!
Carl Binder Precision Teaching & Management Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box 169 Nonantum, MA 02195
Char1 es M erbitz Roolr1 981 Rehaoilitation Institute of 345
East Superior Chicago, IL 60611 (312) 649-6397
Chicago
ADMINISTRATIVE CHARTS
Skip Berquam, w i t h l o t s of h e l p from Tom Anderson, of
Port Angeles, Washington, Gary Meyerson, of Poway, California, and
Abiga i l CaUtin, somewhere in Kansas
The Third Annual (Final?) Precision Teaching Winter Conference
in Orlando is histcry, and in the coming months I predict you w i l
l see the phrase ''..at the Winter Conference in Orlando..!' appear
in these pages between 6 ana 12 times (xn is narmal range, right
Owen?), judging by the number of references made af te r the f i rs
t two Winter Conferences (yes, Miss Buslee, that was all one
sentence [Miss Buslee was my high school
English teacher (who wasn't 1 U U % successful in teaching me
cornpcsition and grammar)^, which is a gooa inaication tha t sorne
worthwhile ideas vv ere exchanged (I personally exchanged sev era1
of my own ideas ) , and tha t the Conference serves to promote
communication. (I know, thank goodness for a period.) [I wouldn't
touch that l ine with a ten foot pole (not t o ment ion a seven
foot Czech)J. Thanks to Ron and everyone in Orange County for a job
well done, and for your kind thoughts and regards. I should b e
Pack t o work in a month or so.
During the Conference I haa the opportunity t o visit with
several precision administrators, t o ~ ~ S C U S Sadrr l inis trat
ive d a t a , ana countable behaviors (yes, I suppose a l l behav
io r s a r e coun tao l e ) . 'l'ne tollowing composite l i s t of
behaviars is the result of sharing by a number of people. I have
tried, rather unsuccessfully t o this point, t o provide a
structure or organization t o the list . I'm sure that structure is
a logical next step, and will De forthcoming. For now, will merely
relate the list we have t o date.
1. Classrooms visited. 2. Student discipline contacts. 3. Parent
contacts. 4. Teacher contacts. 5. Phone calls; number and duration.
6. Paperwork forms sent home. 7. Referrals far special help. 8.
Parent conferences. Y. Number of teacher/administratcr
meetings.
10. Duration of meetings. 11. Administrative interruptions of
classroonis. 12. Teacher absences. 13. Student aosences. 14.
HealtNaccident referrals. 15. Number of days with no discipline
problems. 16. Hours/meetings far staf'f development. 17.
Number/type of comments a t staff meetings. 18. Parent/community
vis i tas t o school. 19. Volunteer hours. 20. Minutes p e r d a y
s p e n t on p ro fe s s iona l
reading/writing. 21. Number of teachers charting. 22. NumDer of
suggestions t o try charting. 2s. Number of non-mandated p r o c e
d u r e s or
programs in use. 24. Positive/negative s t a t e m e n t s in
teachers '
workroom. 25. Lunch count, f ree lunch, cold lunch, etc. 26.
Grade distributions. 27. Supply use, such as ditto paper, pencils,
etc. 26. School bus rides, problems, distances. X Y . Enrolhents Dy
grade, schoal, area, d i~ t r ic t . 3U. Number of reports and
memos. 31. Special a c t i v i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; b a
n d ,
athletics, etc. 32. Testing data. 33. Budget data; accounting,
projections. 34. Amount of copy paper (or other supplies)
Journal of Precision Teaching, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1983 2
1
I
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used. 35. Amount of time spent at computer. 36. Number and type
oi decisions made. 37. Library use: Number of bocks chec~ed
out;
numDer of users; overdue books; lost books; periodicals.
38. Birtn rates and enrollment projections.
There are, of course, categories of administrator behavior that
would group these pinpoints. As those categories are defined, they
will elicit more pinpoints for each of them. Some of these p
inpoints a r e a self management t y p e of behavior. (See Car l
Binder's Data Sharing Newsletter, and ADigail Calkin's work on
inner behaviors for some excellent information on this topic .)
In choosing a pinpoint, i t probably makes sense to identify the
general area of concern. This w i l l help specify the pinpoint.
If, for example, horne/school or community/school communication is
of ruajor concern, several pinpoints come to mind. Number of
newsletters ar reports, number of phone ca l l s in i t ia ted ,
number of parent meetings scheduled, number of school visitors--
each of these could help monitar communication.
One of the keys t o making use of data is the way i t is
organized or sorted. In counting any of the above pinpoints or
related behaviors, i t may be very meaningful t o keep track of
things like positive or negative, time of day or day of week,
subject being taught, weather conditions; details about the s e t t
i n g t h a t could b e t t e r describe the pinpoint should be
recorded.
If you are a manager or administrator reading this column,
presumaDly you are a data ariented person. How about sharing some
of your ideas on count ing? If you a re a teacher or other
professional with a supervisor who is no t a "counter," s tar t a
project for your supervisor that illustrates the effectiveness of
some direct data.
Next issue: Improving administrator behavior using the Standard
Celeration Chart, a balance bearn, and the Solunar Tables.
CALL FOR PAPERS
This is a request far submission of manuscripts to be
considereci for publication in a topical, d t e d volume on
Precision Teaching. The topic for Volume I of this series concerns
the general e f f e c t s of a Precis ion Teaching model of
instruction.
Data-based rn anuscrip ts concerning experimental studies or
comparisons of resul ts Detween a Precision Teaching moael and
other instructional
models will be considered. For the purposes of this volume, a
Precision Teaching model is one which uses one or more of t h e fo
l lowing con~ponent s
(1)Practice and measurement strategies based on frequency of
response;
(2) Chart-basea monitcring and feedback; (3) High frequency
performance; (4) High rate of growth.
Data concerning the following populations are of interest:
(1)The mildly handicapped; (2) The mare seriously handicapped;
(3) Preschool and public school classes; (4) Vocational settings;
(5) College and graduate courses; ( 6 ) Adult education and
training; ('I ) Technical training.
The following types of manuscripts would generally not be
appropriate for the c u r r e n t volum e:
(I) Individual or small N studies, unless specific comparisons
have been made between Precision Teaching components and other
instructional strategies;
( 2 ) Studies using Precision Teaching methods to compare or
evaluate the effects of different ~~iaterials procedures.or
Please submit manuscripts ar a prospectus with sample data to
the editars of this monograph:
Marie D. Eaton, Ph.D. Special Education Western Washington
University Bellingham, Washington 98225
Skip Berquam, Ph.D. 1525 West Seventh Port Angeles, Washington
98362
ANNOUN CEMENT
Researchers in Precision Teaching w i l l present information on
recent developments, including appl ica t ion with both mildly and
severe ly h a n d i c a p p e d p o p u l a t i o n s . PRECISION
TEACHING: COMPUTERS AND OTHER RECENT DEVELOPMENTS is a special
workshop t o be offered June 7-10, 1983, in Billings, Montana. Drs.
Kathleen Liberty, Tom Lovitt and Ray Beck will be ins t ructors . 3
c r e d i t s availaole. Contact: Dr. Chris O'Connell-Mason,
Institute for Habil i tat ive Services, Eas tern Montana College,
1500 N. 30th, Billings MT 591014298, ( 4 ~ 6 )b57-2351.
Registration $60; continuing education credit $30. Dorm space
available a t b7/day.
Journal of Precision Teach@, Vol. IV, No. 1, Spring, 1983
-
Plain English Publications P.O. Box '12x4
Kansas City, MO 64113 (616) 436-6543
ORDER FORM
Teaching and Learning in Plain English by Patrick IVlcGreevy,
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A combination textbook ana complete teaching k i t that
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and parents.
A set of flash caras is available upon request a t no
charge.
A behavior counter is included fo r an additional $3.50, maicing
the total 922.45.
Journal of Precision Teaching
Volume I started in April, 1980.
Volumes I, I1 and 111 Full Time Students Libraries
Volume IV (beginning April, 1983) Full Time Students
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Behavior Counters Abacus bead counters t h a t will help you
monitor two behaviors daily. Each side of the counter will tally a
daily count up t o 9Y.
copies of Teaching and Learning in Plain English k! $18.95 per
copy (if I U or more, $l'I.US per copy)
copies of Teaching and Learning in Plain English with a behavior
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shipping charges-$130 per copy for the f i r s t 5 copies; $ 5 0
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charges-$30 for the first counter; b.15 for each additional
counter
If Missouri resident, add .04625 sales tax
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Dedicated to Mrs. Irene McGreevy, a very special person, and to
the
children, who, by sharing t h e i r Charts, taught us what we
know.
Volume 4 Number 1 CoverEditorial Review Board
Editorial PolicyParallel Between Frequency Testing and
Performance on Essay Questions in a Theories of Personality
CourseAbstractMethodSubjects and SettingProcedure
ResultsDiscussionReferencesChart 1. A Student's Performance on
Flash Card or Computer Frequency Testing in a Theories of
Personality CourseChart 2. A Student's Performance on Essay
Questions in a Theories of Personality Course
Variability: An Aid in the Assessment of the Effectiveness on
Training ProceduresAbstractMethodSubjects and SettingApparatus
ProceduresFigure 1. Experimental DesignChart 1. Measuring Up
Bounce, Down Bounce...Chart 2. The Most Typical Celeration and
"Celeration Course" for all 8 Subjects...Table 1DiscussionReference
NotesReferencesChart 3. Subject 2's Most Typical Total Task (TT)
Performance (Trial 6) Chart 4. Subject 2's Most Typical Backward
Chaining (BC) Performance (Trial 8)
Chart SharingA Computerized Math Deficit RemediationChart 1.
Using Microcomputers to Teach Multiplication Facts
Self-Counting in the Treatment of Gilles De La Tourette
SyndromeChart 1. Self-counting Decelerates Expletives
We Were Spell BoundChart 1. Lavoris' Spelling and how it
Compares to Yolanda's Spelling
About PTNotes From The
EditorCurriculumComputersRehabilitationAdministrative ChartsCall
for PapersAnnouncementPlain English Publications Order Form
Dedication