The Geoarchaeology of Gullies and Arroyos in Southern Arizona Michael R. Waters Journal of Field Archaeology , Vol. 18, No. 2. (Summer, 1991), pp. 141-159. Stable URL: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0093-4690%28199122%2918%3A2%3C141%3ATGOGAA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z Journal of Field Archaeology is currently published by Boston University. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/about/terms.html . JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/journals/boston.html . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. The JSTOR Archive is a trusted digital repository providing for long-term preservation and access to leading academic journals and scholarly literature from around the world. The Archive is supported by libraries, scholarly societies, publishers, and foundations. It is an initiative of JSTOR, a not-for-profit organization with a mission to help the scholarly community take advantage of advances in technology. For more information regarding JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. http://www.jstor.org Wed Sep 12 10:47:06 2007
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Journal of Field Archaeology is currently published by Boston University.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/about/terms.html. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtainedprior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content inthe JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.
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Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printedpage of such transmission.
The JSTOR Archive is a trusted digital repository providing for long-term preservation and access to leading academic journals and scholarly literature from around the world. The Archive is supported by libraries, scholarly societies, publishers,and foundations. It is an initiative of JSTOR, a not-for-profit organization with a mission to help the scholarly community takeadvantage of advances in technology. For more information regarding JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
Many of the major rivers and streams in the arid and semiarid American Southwest can beclassified asgullies and awoyos. The histoly of deposition, stability, and erosion ofgully andawoyo environments has had a profound injuence on the archaeological recmd containedwithin valley and bajada (piedmont) alluvium. The tempmal and spatial sample of archae-ological sites in southern Arizona is as much a reFeccion ofgeolog.ical processes as it is of cul-tural processes. Where bothgeolog.ical and archaeological data sets are well preserved, de-tailed lanhcape reconstructions are possible and prehistmzmzcctivity can be placed in the
context of the prehistwic lanhcape. In southern Arizona, the location of Hohokam agricul-tural settlements at any particular time, changes in position of these settlements throughtime, and agricultural technolog-y were affected by the confi;quration of the lanhcape, by the
hydrologic rgime of the bajadugullies and valley awqos, and by lanhcape changes thathave occuwed through time. In act, prebistoric Hohokam agriculturalists may have initi-
ated some of the environmental degradation observed in thegeological record.
Introduction that merge downstream into a single entrenched channel
Arroyos and gullies are dynamic components of the (FIGS.3,4; Leopold, Wolman, and Miller 1964; Packard
semiarid landscape of southern Arizona (FIGS. , 2 ) . Their 1974; Graf 1987). The walls of the entrenched channel
distribution, hydrologic characteristics, and history have gradually decrease in height downslope from the headcut,
shaped the archaeological record of the major alluvial val- because the slope of the channel bed is less than the slopeleys and affected the location of the late prehistoric agri- of the original valley floor into which the channel is en-
cultural settlements. Conversely, prehistoric human activ- trenched. Eventually the walls and bottom of the channel
ities have in turn affected these fluvial environments and merge downslope at a location known as the intersection
caused the landscape to change. While these concepts are point. Downslope of the intersection point sediment
illustrated with examples from southern Arizona, they are eroded from the channel accumulates to form an alluvial
broadly applicable to other arid and semiarid areas of the fan (FIGS. ,4 ; Graf 1987; Leopold, Wolman, and Miller
American Southwest where arroyos and gullies are com- 1964; Packard 1974). This gully-mouth fan is the terres-
mon. Before the relationship between the archaeological trial equivalent of a river delta (i.e., it forms on the land
record, prehistoric human behavior, and fluvial processes surface instead of underwater).
are dscussed, it is necessary to understand these processes Discharge through a gully system is initiated after rain-
and the alluvial deposits of gullies and arroyos. fall occurs in its watershed. Upslope of the intersection
point, flow is generally confined to the channel, withGullies and Arroyos floodwaters rarely overflowing the channel banks. During
Gullies and arroyos are entrenched channels that are dry times of flow, gravel and sand are transported and accu-
most of the year and flow for only a few hours or days mulated in the channel bed. Downslope of the intersection
after heavy tainfall occurs within their associated drainage point, shallow braided channels radiate across the proxi-
basins. As a result, fluvial activity is sporadic, with erosion mal fan surface. Because the channels are shallow, uncon-
and deposition occurring rapidly during catastrophic flash fined sheetflow is generated. Sheetflows transport a com-
flood events. Gullies and arroyos are characterized by sim- bination of sand and gravel bedload and a suspended load
ilar processes and deposits, differing only in scale: gullies of silt and clay. Vegetation on the fan slows the movement
are smaller than arroyos. of the water and deposition occurs. Coarse sedunent ac-
G d e s begin upslope at a headcut or series of headcuts cumulates in the braided channels and finer sediments on
Figure 1. Ma p of SE Arizona show ing the locations mentioned in the text. Study areas: 1 ) Marana area; 2)Schuk Toak area shown in Figure 11; 3) Sierrita Mountain bajada area shown in Figure 8; 4) San Xavier reach
shown in Figure 10; 5) Corona de Tucson; 6 )Whitewater Draw alluvial sections. Inset map of Arizona shows
boundary of H ohoka m culture area. Mountains are hatched, blank areas are Qu aternary alluvium. Note that
scale and symbols apply to the large base map.
the adjacent surfaces. These shallow channels frequently
shifi position on the fan surface as they become choked
with sedment. The resultant fan deposits are laterally ex-
tensive layers of sand and silt interbedded with shallow,
sand- and gravel-filled channels. The sand and silt layers
are commonly mixed into a massive deposit of silty sand
as a result of bioturbation. Sedment-laden water traveling
over the proximal fan surface continues to spread down-slope over the distal fan. Because vegetation on the prox-
imal fan filters the coarser sediments, only the very fine
sand, silt, and clay that remain in suspension reach the
distal fan, where they accumulate into massive and lami-
nated deposits.
Gullies occur along the axis of a valley, but are most
common on the alluvial piedmonts or bajadas that extend
from the base of the mountains (FIG. 2) . Bajadas have a
stratigraphy of superimposed channel and fan sedments,
because gullies are continually shif'ting position as one
gully pirates the flow away from another.
Arroyos are large gullies, created by the deepening and
expansion of a single gully or by the merger of a series of
gullies into an uninterrupted channel (Leopold, Wolman,
and Miller 1964).This occurs when the headcut of the
gully immediately downslope erodes upslope and connects
with the gully lying upstream. Once the gullies are con-nected, the newly formed arroyo will deepen and widen
its channel. Arroyos are commonly found along the axis
of most valleys in the American Southwest.
Arroyos are characterized by steep vertical channel
banks, usually several meters high, in unconsolidated sed-
iments (e.g., FIGS. 1, 2: Altar Wash, Santa Cruz fiver).
Most flows are confined to the channel, but during un-
usually heavy floods, water will overflow the arroyo banks
and spread laterally over the valley floor. Because of the
Figure 4. Aerial photograph of a section of the bajada emanating from the Tortolita Mountains. Dis-continuous @es and gully-mouth fans radiate over the lower late Holocene bajada. Features identifiedare entrenched channels (C), intersection point (IP), proximal fan (PF), distal fan (DF), Pleistocenepiedmont (PP). Hohokarn settlements occur on the lower bajada.
1 1 , 3 00 - 1 0 8 0 0 B P 1 0 . 2 00 - 1 0 , 0 0 0 8 P 9 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 B P 7 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 B P 4 5 0 0 - 5 O O B P
GENERALIZED COMPOSITEGEOLOGICAL SECTION I GEOLOGICAL SECTION 2 GEOLOGICAL SECTION 3 G E O L O G I C A L S E Q U E N C E
T IM E INTE RV A L S O F
M A T E R I A L M A T E R I A L M A TE RIA L M A TE RIA L
S TRA TIG RA P HIC S TRA TIG RA P HIC S TRA TIG RA P HIC S TRA TIG RA P HIC
U N I T S L N I T S U N I T S U N I T S
CULTURE S
2 0 0 0 I-W
3 0 0 0
n
4 0 0 0
IL 5 0 0 0 2
M I D D L E m
Figure 5. Sequence o f landscape changes in a hy pothetical valley shows how an alluvial sequence is
created and interpreted in terms of time (i.e., periods of deposition, erosion, and stability). Also shown
is how the archaeological record is shaped within an alluvial environment. T he three-dimensional block
diagrams in the upper portion of the figure illustrate landscape changes over the last 11,500 years. Sites
located on the landscape during these intervals are shown by various symbols. Some of these sitesbecome buried and eroded within the dynamic floodplain environment. Evidence of all periods of
occupation will be fou nd o n the surface of the stable Pleistocene terrace ov e rl o o h g the floodplain.
Th e lower p ortion of the figure illustrates the material stratigraphic record preserved at three localities
designated in block diagram 11. Next to these stratigraphic sections are diagrams that interpret the
stratigraphic section in terms of time. Each section records 11,500 years of time as a combination of
depositional, erosional, an d stability intervals. Th e preserved material units an d comb ination of time
represented will vary from section to section. The fourth diagram illustrates a composite section of the
alluvial stratigraphy. C omp arison of th e valley alluvial stratigraphy w ith the archaeological culture se-
qyence shows that Paleoindian and initial Early Archaic remains have been eroded from the valley;
transitional material between the Early and Middle Archaic and some later Middle Archaic remains
were either eroded or may be found on soil surfaces; Late Archaic and ceramic period sites will be
found compressed onto a common surface on the S3 soil and buried by a thin layer of historical
alluvium; the dep osits will contain only Early and M iddle Archaic, protohistorical, and historical re-
mains.
198 6; Waters 19 88a, 19 88b ). Each time the river down- older alluvial sediments. In general, the fewer episodes of
cut in to its floodplain and widened its channel, it eroded erosion and the shorter their duration, th e more complete
and reworked older alluvial sediments and their archaeo- the stratigraphic sequence of material units and the con-
logical contents. In this case, repeated channel entrench- tained archaeological record.
ment fragmented the record of older alluvial sediments No single alluvial stratigraphic sequence, however, has
and archaeological sites. The depth of channel cutting, a complete record of late Pleistocene and Holocene sedi-
degree of channel widenin g, pos ition of channel entrench- ments, let alone a representative sample of the archaeolog-
ment, and the volume o f preexisting sediments all help to ical record. Commoniy, different portions of the geolog-
determine the effect of repeated channel entrenchment o n ical and archaeological record are contained in a number
Q F a P le i s t o c e n e f a n s e d im e n t s H o h o k a m s e t t l e m e n t s
Q F b l E r o d e d P l e i st o ce n e f a n r e m n a n t s a n d H o l o c e n e g u l l y c h a n n e l s e d im e n t s H o h o k a m a c t l v l t y a r e a s
Q F b 2 H o l o c e ne g u l l y - m o u t h f a n s e d ~ m e n t s S u r v e y a r e a b o u n d a r y
p s P h a ne r oz o ic m e t a s e d i m e n t b e d r o c k - - - - - C o n t a c t b e t w e e n g e o m o r p h i c u n i t s- W a s h e s
Figure 8. Sierrita Mountains study area (see FIG. 1 for location) showing the distribution of H ohok am
settlements on the lower bajada where Ak-Chin farming could have been pursued. Generally, only
specialized activity sites occur in the area do minated by entrenched gullies; Ho hok am settlements clus-
ter in the lower bajada where proximal and distal fan environments occur at the mouths of these gullies
(after Waters 19 87a ).
emanating from the Tortolita Mountains (Marana sites; inated by gully-mouth fan environments on the lowerFish 1989; Rice 1987; Waters and Field 1986), Sierrita bajada (FIG. 4; Fish 1989; Waters and Field 1986). Hab-
Mountains (Waters 1987a; Dart 1987), Tucson Moun- itation sites are not present on the upper stable Pleistocenetains (Czapliclu and Ravesloot 1989), Picacho Mountains surfaces. Instead these areas were used for gathering wild(sites around Brady Wash and McClellan Wash; Ciolek- plant resources and growing agave (a plant with low mois-Torrello 1987; Field and Lombard 1987), and Santa f i t a ture and minimal soil requirements; Fish et al. 1985; Fish
Mountains (Huckell et al. 1987; Phillips 1984; Waters 1989). A regional archaeological survey of 1650 sq krn
198%). north of Marana to the Picacho Mountains and comple-The correspondence between the position of Hohokam mentary geomorphic mapping show that the lower bajada
agricultural settlements and gully-mouth fans becomes alluvial surfaces conducive to floodwater farming make upclearer when the bajada environment is placed within the only 23.5% of the total alluvial landscape (all Pleistocene
context of other landscape elements. Near Marana, Ari- and Holocene alluvial surfaces), but were the loci ofzona, large habitation sites are concentrated in areas dom- 56.3% of the Hohokam sites (Field and Lombard 1987).
bility, pre-kllito settlement patterns are poorly known.)
The geomorphic history of the San Xavier reach, especially
for the period between A.C.800 and 1450, is well estab-
lished through stratigraphic and geochronologic studies
(Haynes and Huckell1986; Waters 1988a, 1988b).Whenthe settlement patterns are superimposed over the corre-
sponding landscape reconstructions, it becomes clear that
the varying distribution of processes and landforms on the
floodplain influenced prehistoric Hohokam utilization of
the riverine environment, and changes to the floodplain
affected the regional stability, dsruption, and reorgani-
zation of settlement patterns (FIG.lo).
The channel of the Santa Cruz kv e r was entrenched
around 50 B.c., prior to the kllito phase. Over the next
1000 years, the channel filled with alluvium, then the
floodplain aggraded and eventually stabilized by A.C.950.
The last 150 years of aggradation, from A.C. 800 to 950,
coincided with the kl li to phase when settlement was char-
acterized by occupation at five primary villages and a num-
ber of hamlets on the western side of the floodplain (FIG.
lo). Floodplain stability continued into the early Rincon
(A.c. 950-1000; FIG. 10) and the settlement pattern
closely resembles that during the Rillito phase, but the
number of hamlets and the intensity of occupation at
primary villages increased.The floodplain during both the
kllito and early Rincon was characterized by a broad,
sandy surface that was probably traversed by a shallow
channel or draw. Discharge across most of the floodplain
would have been ephemeral; however, small localized
seeps may have been present. This environment was well
suited for floodwater farming. Crops could have beenplanted on the floodplain, where they would have been
watered during overbank flows. Crops could also have
been planted along the margin of the floodplain, where
gullies from the bajada intersected the floodplain and in-
termittent runoff would have provided water to the crops
planted there. Villages were located immediately adjacent
to the floodplain, next to major washes entering it, but
above areas of active flooding. Additional floodwater Ak-
Chin farming could have been pursued on the gully-
mouth fans on the bajada to the west.
At the beginning of the middle Rincon subphase (A.c.
1000-1100; FIG. lo), arroyo cutting occurred in the cen-
tral portion of the floodplain and extended southward.
Channel entrenchment led concurrently to the formation
of an arroyo-mouth fan and sand dunes to the north. The
arroyo destroyed arable land in the south, but in the
process created arable land to the north. Ak-Chin flood-
water farming was possible on the gully-mouth fan and
dry farming was possible on the sand dunes. These land-
scape changes appear to have triggered settlement reor-
ganization. During the middle kncon the number of
Figure 10. Landscape changes along the San Xavier reach of the SantaCruz
hver (see FIG. 1) fromA.C. 800 to 1450 and their effect on Hohokarn settlement patterns (modhed from Waters 1988a,
1988b).
1 4 5 0+Rtl l i to Phase -Ear ly R ~ n c onSubphase=k Middle Rtnco n Subpha seSc Late Rtnco n Subphase+Tanque Verde Phase+Tucson Phase*
I+----- Unen trenched F loodp la in Sou the rn Por t lon o f Floodplain E n t r e n ch e d "I, Arroyo Channel Ftl l ing- A r ro yo Channe l Ar ro yo M o u t h Fan C re a te d ::, wi th A l luv tum
In Nor th e rn Par t o f F loo dp la ln>- Z
wZ-7A.7,Sandy F loodp la in San ta Cruz Rlve r
,,,u". tsconttnuous arroyo Pr tmary village?U
= - A r r o yo - m o u th fa n . Hamle t -Dune Format io n and Stab i l i ty zwSand dunes a Seasona l camp c+
%? Spr tng /c tenega 0 Trtncheras si te LU 100 f t con tou r tn te rva l Diagnost ic she rd +----- Ctenega For rna t lon and Stab~ l t ty 4
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