This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
INTELLECTUAL HISTORY
General Editor
AJ. V A N D E R JA G T , University of
Groningen
Editorial Board
J.I. I S R A E L , University College, London
J .D. N O R T H , University
o f
Groningen
H.A. O B E R M A N , University of Arizona,
Tucson
R . H . P O P K I N , Washington University,
S t.
and Historical Change 3
ANTIQUITY TO THE LATE MIDDLE AGES
2. Present Perspectives: Antiquity to the Late
Middle A g e s
[Prologue to chapters 3-11]
of
analysis
34
ii Alexandrian allegorization of Jewish
Scripture
[chapter 4] 37
[chapter 5] 40
[chapter 7] 46
writing [chapter 10] 52
in Christian Scripture [chapter 11]
54
Exegesis 73
Robert Lamberton
4. Plato's Soul and the Body of the
Text in Philo
and Origen 89
Midrashic Literature 109
on the Destiny of Israel 125
Paula Fredriksen
Alfred L.
The Crisis in Languedoc (1304-6) 189
G r e g g
Stern
in
A.J.
Minnis
PART TWO
12.
Modern Period [Prologue to chapters
13~20] 259
'grammars' of
ii Mythographic programs
iv
'temporalities' of
[chapter 17] 28 3
'symbol,' and mythology [chapter 18]
289
vii Early twentieth-century reassessments
[chapter 20] 299
M o s h e Idel
14. Boccaccio: The Mythographer of the City 349
Giuseppe F . Mazzotta
Charles Dempsey
of
Allegory
1 7. V e r a Narratio: Vice's N ew
Science of Mythology 423
Joseph Mal i
of Cultural
Azade Seyhan
1 9 Constructions of Allegory /
Allegories of Construction:
Rethinking History through B e n j a m i n and
Freud 451
Rainer
Nagele
Tobin Siebers
Contributors 487
Index 493
PREFACE
The act of interpretation has a way of turning into the
subject of
interpretation itself. A telling case in point is the
the ory and prac-
tice of allegorical interpretation in the West.
D u r i n g
th e
from
to
topics ranging from
the explication of a specific scriptural term to the
reading of ancient
mythology at large. Such investigations have been complemented
by
a multitude of analyses of compositional allegory, ranging
from brief
figures of speech to elaborately codified stories. T he
con tem pora ry
effort to characterize allegorical
of the formative
ing
critical history.
Yet for all the variety and value of
this history, th e effort to engage
interpretive allegory at large has recurrently entailed severe
prob-
lems. Its theoretical and practical
expressions are scattered in a for-
m idable nu m be r of texts, situated in an imposing array of
places
and periods, composed in a host of idioms and
forms.
cussions of it are themselves frequently
dispersed in an extraordinary
range
of
specific
peri-
ods such as antiquity, or particular approaches such as typology,
or
disparate episodes
in the
general movement
of
allegory.
In the op ening ch apter of this v olum e, I discuss some of
the
difficulties
in any attem pt to develop a composite view of such a
variegated subject. A t least in
this
life, to imagine a
'definitive'
account
of the theory and practice of allegorical interpretation in
the West
would require something of an allegorical vision in its own
right.
B ut perhaps the intensive research of past years has
nonetheless pro-
moted the possibility of a more accessible
order, a coordinate frame-
work with which to assess th e
subject in its very diversity.
T o m y
broad
dimensions—
specific format is a practical , 'working'
design, arranged to encour-
age reinterpretation in
turn.
I n chronological scope, th e study explores
interpretive activity dur-
ing a period of over two thousand years,
from
antique glosses and
exegetical treatises to m o d e r n an d
'postmodern' critical theories.
D emarcating some
principal interpretive movements during
this period, it provides detailed analyses of those
movements at crit-
ical
points
in
se s of
C hristian, and Islamic communities, along with more
eclectic ones.
While
it
cerning the conditions and problems of interpretive
transfer, it indi-
cates
in
different
of disciplines—the study of literature, religion, art,
philosophy, and
social
essays in te rms of
important changes in scholarly perspective during
the past century,
the introductory chapters assess some of the far-reaching
implications
of con tem pora ry research for the significance of allegory
at large.
B ut if it may be useful to suggest
in advance what th e design of
th e study is, it is also important
to stress what it is not.
First,
it
does
of all
cases of allegorical theory and practice, whether in
the form of a
systematic
opening chap-
te r
to
such
an
enterprise.
In any case, it is scarcely feasible in a single
volume even to men-
tion all the important versions of allegorical interpretation in
the
West. Some of the scholarly treatments of
its manifold expressions
can be
found
in the variety of w orks cited in the detailed an no
ta-
tion of chapters 1, 2, and 12; the numerous
references in other chap-
ters;
and the extensive research specified in the list
of contributors
near the end of the volume.
Second,
of
allegory an d to align its discussions w ith such a de finition. A
s the
introductory chapters indicate, the definition of
'allegory' fluctuates
radically in both historical and conceptual
terms. The study delib-
erately
includes
forms
with such modulating terms of reference. Similarly, while
interpre-
tive allegory is a vast topic in its
own right, it is not possible to
sep-
arate it austerely from compositional
allegory itself. Though th e study
is designed to concentrate on
interpretive developments, it pointedly
calls attention
to a
of
compositional
Finally,
of its own
design as fixed in form or privileged
in status. A s t h e introductory
chapters emphasize,
structures ,
supplement the categories, or revise the analysis in a multitude
of
ways. T he
aims not to close options
for f u r t h e r invest igation, but to
open opportunit ies for changing
perspectives.
is the
interdisciplinary research pro-
ject designed conducted under auspices
C e n t e r
Literary Studies of the Hebrew University
of Jerusalem. T he early
stages
nized in 1994-1995 on the subject,
'A llegory and Cultural Change'
from
antiquity
period. T h e
by
Those
detailed analyses,
with their intersecting lines of inquiry, comprise all but the
intro-
ductory
chapters
of
in
chap-
ters 1, 2 , and 12 reflect on these
investigations and related subjects
in
the context of shifting critical attitudes
toward allegory as a whole.
T he list of contributors near the end of the volume
notes the vari-
ety of academic
research
of the authors of essays on
specific topics in this study. In
editing
their essays, I have allowed some
differences in convention and style,
including approaches to capitalization and
punctuat ion , norms of
B ritish and A m erican spelling, m ethods of
transliteration, and forms
of annotat ion. I hope that th
e broader diversity of perspective
and
the variegated range of outlook displayed by these authors will
con-
tribute to a dialogue among readers w ho
seek to extend their acquain-
tance w ith scholarship on in terpretation beyond their ow n fields
of
concentrat ion.
authors
I
express
at the original colloquia, their cooperation
and patience dur-
ing the intricate process of preparing a study of this complexity
for
publication,
and
moderating sessions or by sharing their research
in thoughtful remarks
of
G oldwasser, Ju liette
H assine, B oaz H uss, Berel D ov Lerner,
Shulamit Levy, Doron N arkiss,
Avigdor W.G.
Shalom Sabar, Shimon Sandbank, David
Satran,
D a n i e l R . Schwartz , El len Spolsky,
and Sarah Stroumsa. I would
like
to include a word of collective acknowledgment
to the student
assistants from the D epartme nt of E nglish of the H
ebrew U niversity
who provided practical help with
the
colloquia.
T he support of the C enter for L iterary S tudies was
indispensable
to
thanks
to
S h l o m i t h R i m m o n -
K e n a n , who presided over the C e n t e
r at the t ime I proposed and
began
to
prepare
the
project,
and to
S a n f o r d B u d i c k ,
th e
Center ' s
founding an d curre nt D irector , w ho
presided over the C e n t e r d u r -
ing the
t ime
of the
colloquia themselves.
O n
C e n t e r ,
I a lso wish to than k E liyahu H onig, A ssociate V ice-P resident
of the
H ebrew Universi ty ,
th e
C enter's
activities. The volume and the project
underlying it were made pos-
sible by the generous support of the Shirley Palmer Collier
Endowment
Fund for Literary Studies. With sadness I
record the recent passing
of Shirley Palmer Coll ier .
D uring the course of m y wo rk I received support from
the R esearch
C om m ittee of the Faculty of H um anities of the H ebrew U
niversity.
A host of l ibrarians in
Israel and abroad
helped to make requested
scholarly assistance
during a late period of my work,
I express m y appreciation to
Piero
Boitani and E tan K ohlberg.
With respect to the process leading to publication of the
volume
itself, I wish to acknowledge
the support of AJ. V anderjagt ,
general
editor
of
and Theo Joppe and
J ob Lisman, editors at Bril l at
early stages in that process. I o w e
special thanks to Ivo Romein, th e
editor at Brill w ho graciously
and
patiently facilitated
benefit
artistic sensitivity.
I am
indebted beyond
m y
l imits of expression. A lthough no w ords of m ine can
adequately
convey m y love fo r m e m b e r s
of my family, by far my deepest per-
sonal debts
PREFACE X V
upo n the lasting guidance, encourag em ent , and inspirat ion of
my
parents. Though the life of my
mother did not extend to the time
of this project, th e length of
years granted to my father remains a
source
of special blessing for me. My wife,
A huva , helped to sustain
me throughout the years of the project with her devoted care
and
her
project,
from
plans
for
th e colloquia to work on the v o l u
m e , w as e n h a n c e d by her
keen
powers of
and her
abiding warmth
of spirit. M y daughter , N aom i E liora,
only a few years old w h e n
the colloquia beg an, w elcome d guests to our hom e in J erusalem
w ith
gifts of her wondrous imagination.
T he cherished gift
of her life daily
enriches m y ow n. A t times I think that conditions of und erstand
ing
in the world she explores may be
broadened, at least in some mea-
sure, by
some contribution
know that
sustained forms of loving understanding long given to
me by both
m y wife and my daughter made possible th
e very conditions of
life
in which I wrote. I hope th
e dedication of this book to A h u v
a and
to N aomi E liora will help me to suggest, however
inadequately, how
indebted
Jerusalem, Israel
i. Interpreting the history of
interpretation
ii. Perceptions of the past o v e r
a generation ago
H i . Passages
A n 'insane' activity,
Protestant scholar, commenting in the seventeenth
century, described
allegorical interpretation
of its
m o s t p r o m i n e n t
forms.
1
disenchantment.
A century earlier
L u t h e r h ad called allegory a
'beautiful harlot w o fondles men in
such a wa y that it is impossible
for her not to be loved.' B u t h e
a n n o u n c e d t h a t he had escaped
her embrace: 'I hate allegories.'
2
in as a kind of
'weed' proliferating over the
life
1
For the principles of annotation
in this chapter , including references to t
imes
of publication and 'prior versions' of recent
studies, see the introductory note to
'Works
chapter.
For the P rotestant scholar (S ixtinus A ma ma), se
e Annotata ad librum psalmorum
in
Pearson
et
imperit iae. '
It is
of the
1698 edition, citing this discussion of allegory,
specifically uses the phrase
'asylum
ignorantiae. '
a 'med-
ical ' one); com pare the refere nce to 'm adn ess' in n. 3 below .
A n allusion to
A m a m a ' s
comment in a
loose translation appears
p.
to
the 1660 edition of Pearson et al., which as far
as I have been able to deter-
m i n e
does not include th e passage. A mam
a's ow n practice is less
hostile to
'alle-
gory' than his comment might suggest. See, e.g. , his C
hristological t rea tment of
Psalm
sixteenth-century
treatments of the ' literal' sense of psalms cited in
note 23 below.
2
of the
E m p i r e .
3
speech
by
which
critics describe allegorical interpr etatio n. B ut the rev erie
alway s ends
abruptly with someone protesting that it is
'unskillful,' if not 'insane,'
to subject the figurative language of such critics to
allegorical inter-
pretation in turn.
N ot ev eryone, of course , has been so critical of allegorical
inter-
pretation. Many of the most important
commentators in antiquity
and the Middle
A ges regularly practiced it , and even
during th e past
century, som e have argued that i t is quite a norm al thing for
inter-
preters
of the
twentieth century,
it was rare to find any expression of this attitude, even in
the loose
use of the term by G . K . C h e s t e r t
o n : 'There can be no doubt among
sane m en that th e critic should be
allegorical.'
4
of the century, however, an increasing number of scholars
suggest
that allegorical interpretation is a
form
which
individual interpreters and whole communities
seek to 'make
sense' of old or strange texts in new or
familiar circumstances. From
this
from
the Middle
East to western Europe and beyond it have made allegorical
inter-
pretation inseparable from their very sense
of rationality itself.
Perhaps each of these positions has its point. For the turn to
alle-
gorical interpretation repeatedly marks civilizations trying to
keep—
or in
to
pre-
serve a form ative cultural idiom , the discourse of G reek m
ythology,
as
began to fail. By the Hellenistic
period,
it helped to provide a framework for G reco-R om
an philosophic ten-
dencies within
and at
a
revolutionary movement toward
a new religion, C hristianity. In the Middle A ges, it reoriented
crit-
ical approaches
within
Renais-
3
See Lamberton 1992, p. 133,
where the scholar is not named.
Compare the
earl ier comment of the nineteenth-century scholar A
ugust Friedrich G frorer on Philo
earl ier comment of the nineteenth-century scholar A
ugust Friedrich G frorer on Philo
of A lexandria's allegorical orientation: 'It
is m a d n e s s , but there's a
method in
it ';
cited by G inzberg 1955 (prior version 190 1),
p. 130.
4
S ee C h e s te r to n 1 9 0 7 , p .
xi.
Morton B loomfield.
C h. 1 (i) A R E T R O S P E C T I V E FO R W A R D
5
sance, it provided radical methods to
realign a range of texts and
signs from different t imes and
settings into systems of
'universal '
knowledge
the
E n l i g h t e n m e n t
to the
from
Y et despite the persistent importance of allegorical
interpretation,
no one has written a systematic history of it from
antiquity to the
modern period.
are reasons for this omission. O ne is the sheer
vastness of such a project. T o
at tempt a history of allegorical
inter-
pretation in the West would almost be to attempt a history of
West-
ern cultural change itself. I t would require close
acquaintance with
over two thousand years of interpretive theory and practice, a host
of
regions and peoples, and a variety
of genres and languages, including
H e b re w , G r ee k , L a ti n, A r ab ic , and the R
o m a n c e an d G ermanic lan-
guages. Even then there would be pressing practical
problems. From
antiquity, for example, some of the most
important writings of promi-
n e n t G r ee k and C hristian allegorists hav e been
lost. I t has been
remarked
by the prolific Christ ian
interpreter Origen alone, 275 have b een lost in their
original G reek
versions, with
Renaissance,
a n u m b e r o f significant interpretive works have
never received con-
temporary critical editions, with detailed notes, indices,
and
com-
mentary.
d e i d e l de gli antichi
has
acquired
7
N o single scholar could master more than
a small por-
tion
of
such
a
complex
and
Western culture, even histories of 'civilization' as a
whole, how-
ever dated in fashion and deficient
in conception, have been attempted.
The sheer expanse of allegorical interpretation is not the sole
rea-
son for the limits of its investigation.
There is another reason for the lack
of such a history, ' internal '
to the
is not
extensive
below.
b
Runia
See the assessment of J. Quasten,
cited by
Runia
1993, p. 1 7 2 , n. 78.
' See the edition of A u z z a s et
al. 1996; on early editions of
the Imagini (the title
of which varies in form), see pp. 6 0
1 - 1 8 , w i t h th e discussion
of Mulryan 1981 about
not
conceptual
'norms,' but a
series of critical negotiations. A cts of interpre tive
allegory are trans-
actions between fluctuating critical communities and formative
texts.
While these transactions regularly draw upon shared interpret
ive
m ethods, they are situated in times and places, m arked by
tensions
and
and its
developing canon. It thus produces very limited results to try to
out-
line
the allegorization of a single text (fo r exam
ple, Jewish Scripture—
which for Jews is the principal
'reading,' th e Mikra, but for Christ ians
,
only part principal reading, Moslems,
partial mis-
reading) or to try to isolate a
single ' form' of interpretation
(for
expressly
ently defend for themselves. When th
e classical philologist Johannes
Geffcken
the twentieth century on
almost exclusively to antiquity), he found
himself 'bewildered' by an
antique 'confusion of terms'; early C hristian A
pologists opposed
pagan
pagan
Celsus attacked C hristian allegory yet w as 'an
allegorist himself. ' For
Geffcken,
fusion about texts. B oth parties, he
complained,
' G r e e k s
as well as
path.'
8
This expression of displeasure suggests
a third reason limiting th e
study
of
turies, such interpretation has frequently been
approached with con-
spicuous unease. I n part this unease
is the result of R e fo rm a t io n
and
R omant ic arguments that 'allegory' violates
the historical particularity
and imaginative integrity of texts. By the nineteenth century,
when
philologists and other historians were applying to a host of
subjects
massive
allegorical interpretation w as
frequently conceived as a procedure alien to the principles
of proper
philology itself. A lternativ e app roach es to
historical recov ery in post-
R om antic 'hermen eutics , ' em phasizing the effort
to understand the
conditions under which a text was created, found
allegory scarcely
less alien a procedure. D ilthey considered
it an apologetic device,
9
'an art as indispensable as it is useless.'
B ut beyond its uneasy recep-
S ee
248.
C h . 1 (ii) A R E T R O S P E C T I V E F O R W
A R D 7
tion in recent centuries, the very notion of allegoria—
a disparity be-
tween
of
speaking (G reek a g o r e u e i r i ) and
some 'other'
sense (G reek alias]—has long implied
a certain dissonance, even for
those who
have endorsed
i t . The alieniloquium ('other-speaking'),
Isidore
of Seville called it in his seventh-century Latin, and long
afterwards,
th e
recurs explicitly
able again
it in
allegorical inter-
pretation remains somew hat jolt ing. Not everyone
will be p ers uad ed
by the H ellenistic Jewish exegete
Philo
biblical
injunction
not to eat the fruit of trees for
three years (Levit icus 19:23) suggests
that the fruit of instruction remains
intact throu ghou t the threefold
division of t ime into past , present, and future.
1 1
early m edieval C hristian mythographer
Fulgentius
that the shipwreck at the opening of the Aeneid
signifies the dangers
of childbirth.
1 2
Su ch r ead ers m ay sympathize with
a r e m a r k m a d e
already in antiquity by Basil
the Great while interpreting G enesis, a
text that by his t ime had been extensively
allegorized. 'I kn ow the
laws
of
allegory,'
he
sighed,
but
'for
me,
grass
is
grass.'
13
Part
difficulty of assessing allegorical
interpretation is that such an
assess-
m ent is i tself an interp retive act , inescapably situated— com
fortably
or uncomfortably—in the
generation
ago
implici t commentary on the critic's own
interpretive positions. To
put those positions in perspective, i t might be
helpful to compare
at t i tudes toward the
subject over a generat ion ago
with more recent
points of view. I f someone wri t ing
prior to one of the conspicuous
turning points in the development of much recent cr i t icism, the
late
10
For Isidore, see Whitman 1987,
p. 266. Compare the twelf th-century
inter-
preter
of
Christian
alieniloquium (cited
on the
cited
in A l le n 1 9 7 0 , p. 2 1 7 ; and
the s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Reformation
theologian
William Tyndale on 'strange speaking,'
cited
in A l l e n , p. 2 4 2 . More generally,
see
Whitman
1981,
and Whitaker
13
See
Horbury
1960s, had tried to construct an outline of allegorical
interpretation
from antiquity
to the
tell,
Though an
1967)
would have been able to draw upon a number of detailed
studies
exploring diverse aspects
difficult to
suggested
by a
select list
of some of the principal works then available, grouped
according to
broad categories and arranged within those categories
according to
the successive historical periods (for example,
antiquity, the Middle
Ages) on
several cases only brief forms
of the original titles with their initial publication dates
are given here.
The
list
of 'Works Cited' at the end of this
chapter provides
infor-
mation about dates and titles (for example, English translations)
of
some later versions.
Buff iere , Les Mythes
d'Homere et la pensee
grecque (1956), Jean Pepin,
judeo-chretiennes (1958), a range
of works
from the 1930s to the 1960s by Pierre Courcelle, among them
'Les
peres
de
and La Consolation
Jeauneau (later collected in his
'Lectio
tegumentum a travers les gloses de
Guillaume de Conches' (1957),
Jean
The Eighteenth
Century C o n f r o n t s th e
Gods (1959).
overviews included Erich Auerbach,
Church Fathers (1956), Jean
Danielou,
Sacramentum futuri: Etudes sur les origines
de la t y p o l o g i e biblique
(1950), Henri
de Lubac, Exegese medievale (1959-64), Beryl
Smalley, The Study of the
Bible in the M iddle Ages (1940), M.-D.
Chenu,
La t h e o l o g i e au douzieme
siecle
(1957), A.C. Charity, Events a d Their
A f t e r l i f e
(1966), Gerhard Ebeling,
Luthers Hermeneutik'
1 (ii) A RETROSPECTIVE FORWARD
9
o f the B ible (1965), and James M.
Robinson and John B.
Cobb,
Jr.,
On allegory in
and Islamic interpretation, important studies
included Harry A u s tr y n Wolfson, Philo
(1947) , I s a a k Heinemann,
'Altjiidische
Hebrew), and 'Die
wissenschaftliche Allegoristik des jiidischen
Mittel-
alters' ( 1 9 5 0 — 1 ) , Ignaz Goldziher,
Die Richtungen der
islamischen Koran-
auslegung (1920), Henry Corbin, Avicenne
et l e r e c i t visionnaire (1952—4)
an d
Histoire d e la philosophic
islamique (1964), George F.
Hourani's intro-
duction to Averroes: On the Harmony
of Religion and Philosophy (1961),
Julius Guttmann,
D ie Philosophic des Judentums (1933)
, L eo Strauss,
'The Literary Character of the
Guide for the P erplexed' (1941),
Shlomo
Pines's introduction to his translation
of The Guide of the Perplexed
(1963), and Gershom G . Scholem,
Major Trends in
Jewish Mysticism
and 'The Meaning of the Torah in
Jewish Mysticism' (1956).
Finally, on critical theories of allegory, valuable discussions
included
Reinhart Hahn, Die Allegorie in der
antiken Rhetorik (1967) , Friedrich
Ohly, 'Vom geistigen Sinn des Wortes
im Mittelalter' (1958-9), Johan
Ghydenius, The Theory
gomery, Jr., 'Allegory and the Incredible
Fable: The Italian View
from Dante
Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels (1928)
, Rene Wellek, A History of
Modern Criticism: 1750-1950, vols. 1-2
(1955), Hans-Georg Gadamer,
Wahrheit
und M ethode (1960), Northrop Frye,
Anatomy of Criticism (1957),
an d Angus Fletcher, Allegory:
The
Theory
Symbolic Mode (1964).
It should be stressed that many other important studies of
these
subjects were available by 1967, including
works by J. Tate, Hugo
Rahner, Simone Viarre, Erwin P a n o f s k y , C.
Spicq, R.P.G. Hanson,
Herman Hailperin, Edmund Stein, Richard McKeon, Karl Giehlow,
and a host of others. The list above
only suggests some of the studies
that f r a m e d the study of
allegorical interpretation over a generation
ago. Drawing upon such studies, an outline in the
mid-1960s might
have proceeded along something like the following
lines.
1. Allegorical interpretation begins in Greek antiquity with
the
philosophic
interpretation
during the sixth
and fifth centuries B.C.E. Interpretation of this
kind aims to give a
'scientific' or 'ethical' rationale
to mythological stories. With Stoic
analysis of the
Hellenistic period, ranging
Chrysippus
cal interpretation develops into a sweeping t
ransformation of mytho-
logical
figures
moral principles.
B y
late antiquity,
N eoplatonic interpreters such as Porphyry
and Proclus are giving a
more 'spiritualized'
or 'mystical'
mythological texts, treat-
ing them as accounts of the passage of the soul through
different
levels
of the cosmos.
2. A lready in the H ellenistic period, G reek
allegorical m ethods
are adapted to the exegesis of Jewish
S cripture by philosophically
inclined, H ellenized Jews, especially
Philo
cen tury C .E .). More program m atically philosophic
than midrashic forms of interpretation
developing in the L a n d of
Israel,
are in
turn adapted
to the
C hristian
Bible, especially by the 'esoteric' comm entators C
lement and Origen
(second - third centuries C.E.) of the A
lexandrian school. In
more
diffused forms, such strategies are
employed by late an tique C hristians
at
large,
ical
techniques
of
literal
and
historical sense of texts or phe nom ena , C hristians as early as
P aul pro-
mote a kind of interpretive
transfer
that preserv es the literal sense in
the special case of sacred Scripture. In such
'figural' or 'typological'
interpretation, even
(a s well
Testament)
are
treated as historical and foundational. In contrast to the school
of
A lexandria, the late antique school of A
ntioch stresses this typolog-
ical
informs
opm ent of C hristian scriptural exegesis.
3. In late antiquity and the Middle A ges, such
overlapping strains
of interpretat ion are consolidated by C hrist ians such as C
assian,
Gregory
the
later interpreters into 'multilevel' meth-
ods of scriptural exegesis. In one of the most
popular of these sys-
tems, the
like
to the
Promised Land;
2) 'alle-
gorically' (with special reference to the
typological fulfillment of 'Old'
Testament
soul
to
even
pagan mythol-
ogy, arguing (along th e lines of the ant
ique in terpreter Euhemerus)
that imaginative
historical facts
about hu m an beings. More broadly, by adap ting N eoplatonic
notions
of cosmic hierarchy
from th e P seudo-D ionysius (turn
of the fifth and
sixth
natura l
level cosmos.
4. The movement toward mystical or philosophic
'levels' of inter-
pretation also develops, more controversially, in
medieval Islamic
t r e a t m e n t s of the
K o r a n
an d
of
H ebrew S cripture. In Islam, early efforts to
construe forms of ' inner
meaning' ( b a t i r i ) in
K oranic passages
tigation with the reader's inner
progression of consciousness em erge
in
several interpretive settings, including
'non-orthodox,' Shiite cir-
cles, and continue long after the
Middle Ages. More strictly 'philo-
sophic' interpretations
of the
in the
their
late
twelfth
A ristotelian comm entator A verroes. In Judaism,
allegorical exegesis,
promoted especia l ly
by the twelfth- an d
e a r ly t h i r te e n t h - c e n t u r y
philosopher Maimonides and his immediate followers,
circulates exten-
sively during the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries; among many
commentators during the same period, however, this
kind of analy-
sis
as an
of
K abbalistic exegesis. S uch K abbalistic systems
finally stress not the
expositions of philosophy, but the intuition of divine
life in the very
words and letters of the scriptural text.
5. By the
late Middle A ges, C hristians increasingly sense tha
t
despite their invocation of the scriptural
historia, their ow n multilevel
method tends to break the biblical
narrative into isolated passages of
schematic analysis. C oun tering this tendency are
a n u m b e r of C hristian
scholastics
from
to the fourteenth centuries, including
A n d r e w of S t . V ictor and N icholas of L yra. D
rawing upon Jewish
exegesis of
scriptural history
of
ambiva-
lent
language, this late medieval scholastic movement
gradually re-
directs interest to the historical continuities
of the literal sense. Within
the late m edieval Jewish com m unity, even the most w
ide-ranging
philosophic
or
a
denial
12 JON W H I T M A N
literal sense of biblical history or the legal specifications of
Scripture,
and during this period and long
after
it the study of Jewish law
( h a l a k h a K ) remains central to Jew ish
intellectual and institutional life.
6. Late medieval Christian concerns
about
the
allegorization
of
Scripture anticipate sixteenth- and seventeenth-century critiques
in the
P rotestant R eforma tion. R eformers such as L uther broadly
repudiate
'allegory' according to the fourfold
method and invoke a 'simple' or
'literal' sense of C hristian S cripture, the spiritual
dime nsions of w hich
become increasingly clear over time. From this
perspective, typo-
logical significance itself belongs to a single meaning
that develops
over the continuum of history.
7. A llegorical interpre tation co ntinue s to
flourish
century mythographic
displaying
and
th e
enigmatic pictograms
of
emblems. Even in the treatment of non-sacred texts and images,
how-
ever, counterstrains are developing. The
sixteenth-century hum anist
revival of A ristotle's Poetics
increasingly inclines critical theorists to
seek th e
not in 'allegory,'
but in 'credibility, ' and related concepts of the
conventions of rep-
resentation tend to
N eoplatonic em phases on iconic m ystery.
Efforts in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries to specify the ancient
origins of myths, either by Euhemerist methods or by the
argument
that H ebrew S cripture is the source of pagan stories,
gradually encour-
age an early 'historicist' approach to
mythology.
8. By the
is
increasingly
'historical-
critical' inv estigation of the text's origins and dev elopm
ent. A t times
such investigations tend to consign biblical stories to the
realm of
early mythological expression.
toricist' and
comparative analysis
in the
and later critics who seek to codify the
linguistic, anthropological,
and
social
literary theory , N eoclassical
norms of clarity and propriety tend to reduce mythological
allusions
and
'allegorical'
ornaments
Ch. 1 (ii) A R E T R O S P E C T I V E FO R W A R
D 1 3
9. The growing critique of allegory since
th e late medieval period
becomes particularly sharp
allegorical exposition
as the historical-critical method
expands in range and influence.
From a different perspective, a
more
general 'hermeneutics' promoted
others treats
unders tanding itself not as the specification of a
text's 'point' but as
th e
from
which the text emerges. In R om antic l iterary theory , critics
such as
G oethe and C oleridge devalue the very term
'allegory,' applying it
to a schem atic, even arbitrary techn ique of signification. B y
contrast ,
they
argue ,
a
that it
evokes; it is not displaced by w h a
t it reveals. Similar attitudes inform
th e
figure is itself
inseparable from its overall significance;
to allegorize it is to violate
its integrity.
10. Though such nineteenth-century views continue well
into th e
twentieth
and
practical designs. Shortly after the formulation of
one of the pro-
grams issuing from various 'historical' and
'hermeneutical ' investi-
gations of C hristian S cripture, B ultm ann's
proposal to 'demythologize'
scriptural narrat ive , some commentators are suggesting that
such
'demythologization' resembles ancien t A lexandrian
allegorization. In
critical theory, R om antic notions of the abiding spiritual value
of the
'symbol' come under forceful attack
by
w ho
counters that
'allegory' exposes the very historical process which disrupts
any such
effort to
un ite ephem eral objects w ith eternal ideas. B enjam in's
cri-
tique, however, does not circulate widely until considerably
after th e
middle of the twentieth century. More
broadly, drawing upon the
psychological and anthropological theories
of Freud,
Jung, and Frazer,
theorists frequently turn 'symbols'
and 'myths ' themselves into
hidden, explanatory structures underlying texts , a
tendency regarded
by som e critics as too close to allegorization. C ertain theorists
invo k-
ing such latent s tructures , including N orthrop Frye
(1957) and Angus
Fletcher (1964), argue that 'all'
commentary
is in
this composite overview),
it is unclear to what degree this claim
will be accepted. D espite th e
apparent devaluation of 'allegory' for centuries, by
this date the very
destiny of both the term and the
kinds of transfer
that are assigned
14 JON W H I T M A N
A dm ittedly, any effort to reduce 2500 years of
interpretive activ-
ity
enterprise
as
trying to reduce the regulations of the Bible to ten
commandments.
It would be possible of course to include other distinctions and
devel-
opments , to vary the emphases
and nuances, and, more broadly, to
reconceive the general structure of the analysis. My concern at
the
moment, however, is not that this outline, projected
'backward' to
1967, is too sketchy, but that it is
too 'developed, ' to o smoothly
au
courant, with too m uch of the prese nt projected into i t.
(A s one
'hermeneutic' claim has it, such is the
inevitable Tore-understand-
ing' by which contemporary
hard to find a study of allegorical
interpretation that concentrated
on more
historical
'periods'
antiquity
and
th e Middle Ages); that sustained a systematic
comp arison am ong dif-
ferent 'spheres'
graphic writing, and critical theory; that devoted
even one chapter
out of ten to medieval Jew ish and Islamic dev elopm ents
(unless th
study concentrated on one of those subjects, in which
case the prob-
lem would have been reversed);
or
ory of the 'symbol' as considerably less
revolutionary than 'evolutionary.'
The need to construct this general outline
'retrospectively' itself sug-
This
is not to say that these problems have been resolved in
the
current generat ion. O n t h e contrary, as
I have suggested, funda-
mental difficulties in coordinating and comparing the
diverse devel-
opments
of
allegorical interpretation still (perhaps
necessarily) mark
contem porary scholarship. N or is i t to say that the basic organ
iza-
tion of this retrospective outline has been largely
superseded. In fact,
a considerable part of its design remains
'normative'
explicit
ar rangement of previous in terpre t ive movements , but in i t s
own
implicit attitudes toward them. In most of the critical works on
alle-
gorical interpretation reflected in this
outline, allegory is an intrigu-
in g subject of historic importance and a fascinating
topic of scholarly
investigation, but a rather strained, even arbitrary
approach to tex-
tual understanding.
work of writers de Lubac committed to certain
institutional devel-
opments
to
argue
for
latent s truc ture s in texts at large (though ev en Frye, as I
suggest
below, is perhaps not as accommodating to
'allegory'
RETROSPECTIVE FORWARD
1 5
seem). B u t i n general scholarship several
decades ag o treats n ot just
allegorical composition, but allegorical
interpretation itself, as a kind
of alieniloquium, a somewhat 'alien'
form of discourse. A t times th
e
critical expression of this attitude is far
more conspicuous than it is
in this outline. Allegorical interpretation, it
is
often maintained or
'abstract'
in
conception; it tends to 'close' th
e range of interpretive possibilities;
it is 'ahistorical' in orientation. I
t may not be a 'harlot' or a
'weed,'
'skillful' state of scholarship,
how 'sane' would it be to
apply it to the present?
iii. Passages
to the
In the last few decades, however, something
of the 'alien'
seems to
have passed out of the alieniloquium. For
an increasing number of
critics theorizing about encounters with 'other'
texts and times, 'other-
speaking' seems to speak their language. To
try to 'explain'
this
change in attitude would be like
trying to 'explain' historical change
as a whole. B ut there are
ways to situate the change, which,
like
every development in the interpretation
of interpretation, is likely to
change in turn.
It can be argued, for example, that general
notions about alle-
gorical interpretation like those just
indicated—the notions of alle-
gory
as 'imposed,' 'abstract,' 'closed,' and
'ahistorical'—have changed
with the transformation of critical
attitudes at large since th e late
1960s.
1 4
T o many, allegory no longer seems
so peculiar a form of
'imposition' when
'hermeneutics' to 'reader response '
criticism argue that readers at
large regularly 'intervene' in the texts
they engage.
1 5
common to associate allegory with
'abstraction,' the association has
been complicated by the argument that every
form of discourse is
'figured'
features
1 6
If for some allegory remains
a means of interpretive 'closure, '
for others it is a way of opening
14
Compare
below.
15
For examples of how such movements
have affected attitudes toward allegory,
see Crossan
Copeland
Lang
are a major inf luence upon such
studies.
1 7
While it is still
often argued that allegory is a form of
'dehistoricization,' some have
suggested that 'historicization' has its own allegorical
tendencies, cor-
relating texts with
ideology
alien than interpretation
at
large.
A t ti tudes toward allegory over a generation
ago, however, have
changed not only with
intensive from
parts
of this v o l u m e — ' P r e s e n t P
erspectives: A ntiquity to the L ate Middle
A ges' (chapter
Period' (chapter 1 2 ) — I discuss some of
the implica-
tions of
recent research
of
m ythology to contem pora ry theories of signification. T he
distinct sec-
tions of
to the
subjects treated
individually by the contributors to this volume. For the moment,
in
closing
some of the questions implied by one particularly prominent
expres-
sion of
at
large.
This
is the view that 'all' com m entary or
interpretation is basi-
cally 'allegorical.'
appeared among scholars belonging to an array of
different 'schools'
and working on a range of different periods and
fields—antiquity
(e.g., A .A . L ong); the M iddle A ges
(e.g., Morton W . Bloomfield); th e
R enaissance (e.g., A ngus Fletcher
and
and
con-
temporary theory (e.g., Fredric Jameson and G e r
a l d L . B r u n s )
1 9
— to
give only a partial list of
influential writers. This broad application
of the term 'allegorical' still does not
dominate scholarly practice as
a
pretive procedures, from grammatical notes on an
ancient text to
historical background for a modern novel .
For some (like myself),
1 7
S ee Bloomfield 1972; B runs 1987, pp.
640-2; and B runs 1992, pp. 85-6.
18
Fo r suggestions of this kind
from different perspectives about diverse acts
of
'historicization, '
1 9
S ee L o n g 1 9 9 2 , p. 43;
Bloomfield 1 9 7 2 , p. 3 0 1 , n.
1; Fletcher 1964, p. 8;
Quilligan 1979, pp.
15-16; Jameson 1981 , pp. 10 , 58; B
r u n s 1 9 9 2 , pp. 15, 85-6,
C h . 1 (iii) A R E T R O S P E C T I V E FO R W A R D
17
the recent expansive use of the term 'allegorical' is
deeply ques-
tionable
position has its own history, and that his-
tory displays some of the deepest ironies in the interpretation
of
interpretation.
T he
m o s t p r o m i n e n t
and
that
a
seemed strange to allegorists as diverse in intellectual and
spiritual
orientation as Philo, H eraclitus the A llegorizer, C
lement of A lexandria,
Origen,
Gregory the
G r ea t, B e de , Raban M a u r , A r n u l f
of O r le an s, H u g h of St . V ictor ,
William of C onches, and P ierre B ersuire in the M iddle A ges;
and
B occaccio, L andino, P etrus L avinius , N atale C onti, G
iovanni Fabrini,
and John Harington
in the Renaissance.
th e
apparent sense is
called 'literal,' 'historical, '
'external , ' or something else. This is not to say that the
character
of this
sense is identical fo r such
writers; on the contrary,
there
sense.
22
In fact, one of the most revealing aspects
of the history of
allegory
so that what is considered
'other'
than it changes in t u r n .
But for
most of that history interpreters agree that it is one thing to
explain
th e 'apparent' sense of a text, another to
explain its 'allegorical' one.
While complications
of
20
1993a,
21
Allen
notion
and
1986; Childs 1 9 7 7 ; Burrow
1984; Kermode 1986;
Tanner
and
1986; Childs 1 9 7 7 ; Burrow
1984; Kermode 1986;
Tanner
1987; Copeland 1993; Greene-McCreight
1999; my remarks and references below
in chapter 2 (viii); and AJ.
Minnis's essay with bibliography in
chapter 1 1 of this
volume.
Scripture.
increasingly tends to include senses once called
'allegorical' within the
'literal' sense itself, treated as the
'basic,' 'normative' Christian sense
of the text. Thus, for Nicholas of Lyra in the fourteenth
century, a
passage in Chronicles is said
'literally'
(ad litterani) of Christ.
For James
Perez of Valencia in the f if teenth century, a psalm
is explained 'alle-
gorically' ( a l l e g o r i c e ] about Christ,
or to
litteraliter}. For Martin Luther in
the sixteenth century, the
complaint in a psalm is 'literally'
(ad litterani) a complaint
of Christ.
23
For William Perkins in the seventeenth century, expressing what
by
his time
is a
of 'every
place of
24
To
movements of this kind increase
interpretive sensitivity to the 'literal'
sense
dis-
place the term 'allegory' while assigning
the 'literal' sense a limitless
'spiritual'
scope.
significance
'language,
as a mere thing of the
letter, binds up the spirit' as well. A variety of Romantic
theorists
tend to apply the term
'symbol'
self-contained quality, while relegating the term
'allegorical' to works
that
signify
selves. For
'symbol'
not
but
tautegorical,
2 3
expression, the significance attributed to the
'symbol' tends
to shift from spiritual to more general notions
of 'meaning,' and the-
2 3
See Preus 1969, pp. 68-9, 105, 146.
Compare the essay of AJ. Minnis
in this
volume. Preus's argument that Luther gradually develops a
stronger association
between the 'literal' or 'historical' sense
and the 'Old Testament situation'
(p. 170)
does
historical point here that
'Christ' remains
the reference point of e v e n
this 'situated' 'literal' sense; see Preus,
pp. 179-80.
24
S e e L e w a l s k i 1977, p. 81.
S e e L e w a l s k i 1977, p. 81.
23
For these
developments, see Todorov 1982 (prior
version 1 9 7 7 ) , pp. 147-221,
e s p .
pp. 190 and 209, and Whitman 1 9 9 1
, p. 168, w i t h the
bibliography on pp.
175-6, nn. 24-5.
Ch. 1 (iii) A R E T R O S P E C T I V E F
O R W A R D 1 9
orists
develop an expansive vocabulary to describe how works of
art
evoke such meaning, from th e
'sensuous
like G assirer
26
By contrast , the term 'allegory'
refers to the language of designation w
hereby images are translated
into concepts.
T he m u c h - c i t e d c o m m e n t by N o r
th r o p Frye in his Anatomy
o f
Criticism that 'a l l commentary is allegorical
interpretation, an attach-
ing of ideas to the structure of
poetic
imagery, '
2 7
N ea r the start of this dis-
cussion, he writes that the principle that a l i terary work
contains
'a
variety or sequence of meanings'
has seldom been 'squarely faced'
in criticism since th e Middle A ges, with
its fourfold 'scheme' of mean-
ings (p. 7 2). B ut certain aspects of the m edieval
approach need to
be
revised
for
th e 'con-
ception of l i teral meaning as simple descriptive meaning will not
do
at all for literary
(p. 76). A poem 'cannot
be literally any-
thing but a poem' (p. 7 7 ) ;
its m e a n i n g is 'literally' its
'pattern or
integrity
state
or point to anything, but , by
pointing to each other, they suggest
or evoke th e mood
which informs th e poem' (p. 81).
Explicitly invok-
in g
the 'new criticism,' he argues
that he has now 'established a
new
sense
and
Frye's
note to 1 . 2). C o m m e n t a r y ,
he continues, is
'the
process
of translating into explicit or discursive
language w hat is implicit in
th e poem' (p. 86). A t last com es the influential
statem en t: it is 'not
often
realized tha t all com m en tary is allegorical in terpre
tation . . . '
(p . 89). T o
it was
written, in the context not only of
Frye's larger discussion, but of
hundreds of years of shifting approaches to the
'literal' and 'alle-
gorical' senses, is perhaps to
suggest somewhat different considera-
tions that may be 'not often
realized.'
of the term
'literal m e a n i n g ' is not quite
as new as it
more develop-
m e n t in the radical fluctuation of the
'literal'
sense since th e Middle
2 (
S e e , e.g., C assirer 19 71 (prior version
1944) and, among a host
of'New Critical'
S e e , e.g., C assirer 19 71 (prior version
1944) and, among a host
of'New Critical'
discussions,
'
2
' S ee Frye 1957, p. 89; see pp. 71-128 for
the larger discussion. Compare Frye
20 JON W H I T M A N
Ages. In the R eformation, an interpreter t reating w hat was
once
considered allegorical as a condition of
the 'literal' sense might claim
that there is nothing
that normative sense. In the R om antic
period, a theorist treating the idea as a dimension of the image
might
claim
Frye's argu-
he
R om antic theory that underl ies such criticism.
Y et Frye's 'literal' sense is at
once more constricted to words
than
the Romant ic 'symbol' and at the same time more open
to inter-
pretation.
to
treat
th e 'allegorical' as a kind of
literature contrasted with 'symbolic' writ-
ing, Frye treats
c o m m e n t a r y
on
litera-
ture,
T he 'allegorical'
act that had once been secondary to works of
'imagination' devel-
ops into the primary source of the
autonomy of 'criticism.' It is no
wonder that for Frye 'all' commentary
is 'allegorical'; the only 'appar-
ent' sense is as it were a
transcript of the text. A poem
'cannot be
literally
anything
the
'literal' sense to the words of the poem, he treats the
'allegorical' as
anything else that
speaking 'otherwise' that had developed
from the late Middle Ages
and the Reformation to the Romant ic
period turns into a popular-
ization of speaking 'otherw ise' in the m ode rn p eriod. A nd the
m ore
th e 'integrity' of 'verbal
structure '
to
itself chal-
lenged in this period, the more 'allegory'
turns into a way not only
to com m ent u po n the text, but to cons truct i t.
T h e s e reflections about a contemporary cri t ical
argument do not
'prove' or 'disprove' the
argument. They rather suggest
critical
importance of situating the very definitions of terms like
'literal' and
'allegorical' in the
polemical con-
ditions. T o analyze such con ditions systematically it wou
ld be nec -
essary
to
antiquity to the modern period. Such
an analy-
sis would need to assess th e
far-reaching historical changes—linguistic,
imaginative, ideological, institutional—that promote or
constrain the
realignment of specific texts with
shifting interpretive communities.
Questions central to such an investigation
would include the follow-
ing:
B y
w ha t criteria (for exam ple, gram m atical, generic,
doctrinal ,
social)
A RETROSPECTIVE F O R W A R D 21
given text? Insofar as a community accepts the
'literal' sense, what
forms (for example, intellectual assent,
ritual
ation) does its acceptance take? In the process of
'allegorization,'
which dimensions of a text are
selected or rejected, foregrounded or
backgrounded,
and
text resist such allegoriza-
tion? At what point does an allegorization become so radical that
it
breaks down
pretive community? Given the tendency
for allegorized texts to remain
canonical while allegorical interpretations pass
out of currency, what
continuities
of
idiom
and
ning
of
recent years, like the festschrift for Friedrich
Ohly edited by Hans
Fromm, Wolfgang Harms,
and Uwe Ruberg, Verbum
et Signum ( 1 9 7 5 ) ,
the collection of essays edited
by Walter Haug in Formen und F
unktionen
der Allegorie (1979) , the conceptual
and bibliographical survey in Hennig
Brinkmann's Mittelalterliche Hermeneutik (1980),
and Jean
Pepin's ret-
anthology in La tradition de
I'allegorie de Philon d'Alexandrie a
Dante ( 1 9 8 7 ) , at
times tend less to
this kind than
to provide rich scholarly resources with which to conduct such
an
investigation.
28
Nor would the investigation itself be likely to yield
a
semiotic 'model' of
differences not only in the historical settings in which
interpretation
takes place,
In any
a
model, much less a 'history' of
interpretation and allegory during a
period of over two thousand years. Investigating major
interpretive
turning points in differing but overlapping cultures,
it aims rather to
provide a set of case studies of interacting critical drives and
their
relation
to
ments it examines include primal f o r m s
of mythology, conceived in
texts sacred respectively to Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam; and crit-
ical categories of visual and verbal art, among them the
hieroglyph,
the emblem, the symbol, and irony. The tensions discussed in
the
See, e.g.,
th e
nent interpretive schools, among them
Philo and Origen,
R .
Akiva
a n d R . Ishmael , Porphyry and P roclus
, A vicenna
an d
A verroes , Maimonides
and Rashba, N a h m a n id e s an d A
bulafia ,
A belard and William of C o n c h e s , B
o n a v e n t u r e and N icholas of Lyra
,
D a n t e and B occaccio, A lciato and V
aleriano, Bacon and V ico, G oethe
and S chlegel, B enjam in and Freud, de
Man and Jameson, and a
host of
the margins of individual texts; they concern the intellectual ,
com-
m un al, and spiritual com plexions of diverse civilizations.
T he volume has developed from
a cooperative project based n
Jerusalem
with contributions of scholars from
a n u m b e r of different
countries and disciplines. T he academic
specialties of these contrib-
utors range from ancient and m ode rn literatures
to com parative reli-
gion,
rt
history,
and overlap in their theoret ical
assumptions and practical attitudes. I t is hoped that
the differences,
no less than the agreements,
will
how earlier interpreters, from other places and times,
have under-
stood
the
works
and
of the
such comparisons and contrasts.
It is easy enough to imagine other analyses or alternative
struc-
tures for a
study might well devote greater
attention, for example, to a number of subjects of
allegorical inter-
pretation
in
gorical procedures (e.g.,
imaginative forms that overlap with interpretive
allegory (e.g., th e
parable);
31
More gen-
erally, such a study might include other categories of
inquiry, or
proceed along different theoretical lines,
or
continue
29
For overviews, see, e.g., Brinkmann
1980 and Ladner 1995 (prior version
1992).
30
1975.
1975.
31
See, e.g. , Klauck 1986 (prior
version 1978); Stern 1 9 9 1 ; Wailes
1987.
32
See, e.g. , Miner 1 9 7 7 ; L e w a l s k
i 1 9 7 9 ; Frei 1 9 7 4 ; P r i c k e t t 1 9 9
1 ; Bercovitch
1 9 7 2 .
C h . 1 (iii) A R E T R O S P E C T I V E FO R W
A R D 23
with the reflection—to adapt the phrase of another w
riter— that in
this work
thing more, there would not be any room for it.'
33
For the history of allegorical interpretation has a way of both
fas-
cinating and eluding its interpreters, whether they try to keep
their
distance
from
is it allegory?—
has taken i ts revenge upon the very L uther w ho proclaim ed his
inde-
p e n d e n c e from 'allegorical' interpretat
ion and his commitment to
one 'literal'
been observed that contemporary scholar-
ship seeking the meaning of Luther 's work has
found more than one
'Luther'—the figure
34
L u t h e r m ight hav e responded that he was not a
character in C hristian
Scripture ,
but
would
he
this apparent division
of his ' l iteral' sense? I t will
be protested, of course, that this is
not
'allegory,' not the
in a
golden shower
can be
interpreted
in
the R enaissance as the w inning of a wom an with
money.
35
of students that
Hamlet is a d r a m a of O edipal
frustrat ion and Paradise
Lost an epic of incipient capitalism.
A n ' insane' activity, th e ' refuge
of unskillfulness,' that Protestant
scholar in the seventeenth century called a range of allegorical
inter-
pretation, in a comment cited at the beginning of this
essay.
In ret-
rospect, perha ps he was not com pletely right. B ut even if he
was,
perhaps one way for future interpreters
to keep their san ity w ould
be to deepen the study of that activity. I t is hoped that the
present
study will be a
33
See the quotation from Macedonio Fernandez
in Eco 1992, p. 40; I have sub-
stituted the word 'work' for the original word
'world.'
34
33
b y Sinfield 1984,
1 2 7 ; c o m -
WORKS CITED
This is a list of works specifically
cited in the essay, not a general bibliography.
With regard to early sources, the
list includes only works cited in specific
printings
Philo's De Plantations in the translation
of Colson and Whitaker), not works
more broadly designated (e.g., Virgil's Aeneid}.
In this list and in the essay itself,
the citation of a 'prior version'
of a book or
an article is an attempt to indicate the date of its earliest (or
at least an important
earlier) edition or publication, despite differences
between initial and later f o r m s of
publication. If the work is
translated, such a citation refers to
the date of its ear-
liest
publication
the
date of the 'prior version' of Auerbach's
'"Figura"' in German is not 1944 (the
often-cited
date of its appearance in Neue
Dantestudien), but 1938 (the date of its
appearance in Archivum
Romanicum].
Since even the earliest 'edition' of
a work may include material previously pub-
lished in another form, the citation of a work (including a
'prior version'), of course,
does not necessarily indicate the date
when a particular argument 'originally'
appears.
Thus, though th e 'prior version' of
Chenu's Nature, M a n , and Society
in the Twelfth
Century
(1968) is the 1957 French work on
which th e English translation is
based,
the French work itself includes material from several
previous articles by Chenu.
To try to specify the 'original' form
of a scholarly argument leads potentially to a
nearly infinite regress; the publication dates in
this list only demarcate important
stages in the public presentation of such
arguments.
Normally, 'prior versions' are cited only for scholarly
studies of recent genera-
tions, n o t for
early primary sources that
cation by centuries.
In the designation of a study in a number of a series for which the
copyright
date differs by no more than one year from
the 'official' year of the series num-
ber, the only year cited is the
'official' one.
In the citation of multiple studies by a single author, each entry
is preceded by
a brief code with the last name of the author (or a line indicating
the repetition
of
that
of the work (in the most recent
'edition' specified in
the full citation); such entries are arranged according
to the order of those dates
(e.g., Scholem 1954; 1965).
Allen, D on Cameron.
Interpretation
Scenes
from th e Drama of European
Literature. Erich Auerbach. 1959. Gloucester, Mass.,
1973. 11-76.
A u z z a s , Ginetta, et al., eds/
Le imagini de i dei de gli
antichi. B y Vincenzo Cartari.
Vicenza,
1996.
The
Origin
of
des
deutschen Trauerspiels, 1928.] Trans. John
Osborne. London, 1977.
Bercovitch, Sacvan, ed. T y p o l o g y and
Early American Literature.
Amherst, Mass., 1972.
Bloomfield , Morton W . 'Allegory as
Interpretation.' N ew Literary History 3
(1972):
301-17.
Bruns, Gerald
WHITMAN
Questions and Prospects. E d . Gary
Shapiro and Alan Sica. Amherst, Mass., 1984.
147-64.
1987 = B r u n s , Gerald L.
'Midrash and Allegory: The
Beginnings of Scriptural
Interpretation.' T he Literary Guide to the B
ible. E d. Robert Alter and Frank
Kermode.
Cambridge, Mass., 1987. 625-46.
Hermeneutics Ancient and Modern.
N ew Haven, 1992.
Buff iere , Felix. Les
Burrow, J.A. 'Allegory: T he Literal Level.'
Essays
o n
192-212.
Cascardi, Anthony J., ed. Literature and the Q
uestion of Philosophy.
1987. Baltimore, 1989.
Cassirer, Ernst. 'Art.' [Prior version
in An Essay o n M a n , 1944.]
Critical Theory Since
Plato. Ed. Hazard Adams. San Di