Jean Paul Marat

Jean-Paul MaratAndrew Heffernan

2010089769/16/2014

Dr. R. K. L. Panjabi

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Introduction

Jean-Paul Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday in his

bathtub on July 13th, 1793. He was born the second of nine

children on May 24, 1743 in the town of Boudry in Neuchâtel,

Switzerland.1,2,3 Marat stated that he “was bitten by a passionate

desire for glory which changed course at different stages of

[his] life but has never for a single instant abandoned [him].”4

Marat never achieved glory and fame during his lifetime however,

after his assassination Marat finally attained the social

influence he had attempted to gain throughout his life.5 In both

life and death, Marat attempted to push French Revolutionary

ideals “particularly the concepts of popular sovereignty and

inalienable rights.”6 Marat’s martyrdom represents the emergence

of the intelligentsia during the French Revolution, modernizing

the idea of the intellectual as revolutionary that has its roots

in the execution-suicide of Socrates.7

This paper uses primary and secondary sources, such as

monographs, online journals, and source documents to examine

Marat's life and career, and that of his assassin, Charlotte

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Corday to understand the motivation for Marat’s assassination and

how he was perceived in the public eye during his life and after

his assassination. The thesis for this paper is that the

excessive radicalism expressed in Jean-Paul Marat’s work was

successful in rallying the lower classes in rising against the

government in a movement later known as the French Revolution.

Additionally, this paper will show that without Marat’s

assassination, it would have been impossible for Marat to achieve

social martyrdom which is why his ideas became so successful.

Historical Context

During the mid-eighteenth century, Paris was the heart of

the Enlightenment movement  “was mankind's final coming of age,

the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature

state of ignorance.”8 Fueling this drive to social change was a

stark social class divide between the upper and lower classes.9

The upper estates were living in opulence and justifying their

absolute rule through a doctrine known as divine right.10

Within the French political system, there were a variety of

groups however, for this essay the two most important political

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parties are the Jacobins and the Girondists.11 The Jacobins

controlled the government from June 1793 to July of 1794 with

total membership totaling approximately 500,000.12 The Jacobins

were a radical far left political group headed by Maximilien

Robespierre13 and were most well known for executing their

opponents during the Reign of Terror.14 The Girondists were the

far right political countermovement to the Jacobins.15

Eventually, the Jacobin’s ended the Girondist movement on October

24, 1793 by beheading 22 Girondist members in 36 minutes.16

French society during this time was compartmentalized into

three social classes referred to as the Estates General.17 The

highest estate level known as the First Estate was comprised of

of 1789 which was a general assembly intended to represent the

three French social classes, the clergy;18 the Second Estate was

the ruling noble class which controlled 20 percent of the land.19

The final estate was known as the Third Estate and constituted of

the common people who owned none of the land but made up 80 per

cent of the population.20 During this era philosophers such as

Jean-Paul Marat, Maximilien Robespierre, and others were

revolutionizing the way in which individuals viewed themselves

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and society and were in the process of establishing a new Fourth

Estate for intellectuals.21 A few of the ways Marat and

Robespierre were changing the perception of the masses through

provocative new ideas such as “The peaceful enjoyment of liberty

and equality; the reign of that eternal justice whose laws are

written, not on marble or stone, but in the hearts of all men,

even in that of the slave who forgets them and of the tyrant who

denies them.”22 Burke further states in Reflections of the Revolution in

France that

Where trade and manufactures are wanting to a people, the spirit of nobility and religion remains, sentiment supplies,and not always ill supplies their place; but if commerce andthe arts should be lost in an experiment to try how well a state may stand without these old fundamental principles, what sort of a thing must be a nation of gross, stupid, ferocious, and at the same time, poor and sordid barbarians,destitute of religion, honor, or manly pride, possessing nothing at present, and hoping for nothing hereafter?23

In addition to the significant gap in social stratification, the

early 18th century was an age of scientific and technological

achievement.24

With the Estates General in place, the burden of the taxes

fell on the Second Estate and the upper Third Estate, because

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members of the First Estate were largely exempt from taxes.25

The historian David Thomson argues that the Second and upper

Third Estate had “something to lose, not merely something to

gain” 26 in their demands for fairer taxation. Fuel for the

revolutionary cause was the difficulty the lower estates had in

affording to feed themselves due to the strains of the unfair

taxation.27 Additional pressure was applied to the French

society because of the financial crisis of the government, which

reached its peak at approximately 1.3 billion livres due to the

loss of the Seven Years War and the financial backing of the

American War of Independence.28

The Eighteenth Century witnessed two profound, political

revolutions. The first was the American Revolution, grounded in

John Locke's understanding that human society was the result of

individuals granting government power to regulate affairs

avoiding a condition of constant warfare.29 The second was the

French Revolution, grounded in Jean Jacques Rousseau30 who argued

that the individual and state were bound to each other through a

social contract that could slave the individual to the authority

of the state and that the individual must “be forced to be

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free.”31 A participant in both revolutions was the American

egalitarian writer Thomas Paine, 32 known for his pamphlets the

Rights of Man, attacking monarchies and traditional social

institutions,33 and Common Sense, arguing that “government even in

its best state is but a necessary evil; in its worst state an

intolerable one.”34

Jean-Paul Marat

When Marat turned 18, in 1761 he moved to Paris to study

medicine but however, Maratdid not receive the an official

qualification to be a become a practicing physician until 1775.

As a student, Marat began attempting to move up in social class

in order to access the elite philosophical salons of Paris, which

were dominated by individuals such as Voltaire and Diderot. In

London’s fashionable Soho District Marat and started

interacteding with Italian artists and architects and published

his article and published the Enquiry into the Nature, Cause, and Cure of a

Singular Disease of the Eyes in 1769. . 35

, a district of Westminster located in the West End of

London. Although Marat still had not received qualifications or

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patronage to practice medicine, Marat moved to Newcastle in 1770.

where he he focused on learning philosophy and published his

first political paper, Essay on the Human Soul in 1771.36 Though

successful in reaching a wide audience, the Essay did not “seethe

with hatred of the literary 'aristocrats' who had taken over the

egalitarian 'republic of letters' and made it into a

'despotism.'” 37

Marat's philosophy transformed over the next five years,

where “in the depths of the intellectual underworld.”38 Marat,

Robespierre, and others “became revolutionaries and that

Jacobinical determination to wipe out the aristocracy of the mind

was born.”39 During this time Marat published another two works,

and published A Philosophical Essay on Man in 1773 which was translated

into French and published in Amsterdam in 1775-6 .40 And the

highly influential and Chains of Slavery in 1774, after three months

of “living on black coffee and two hours of sleep a night.” 41

Marat’s Chains of Slavery was initially published as a reaction

to the debates in the election of 1774. Marat uses this

publication to discuss the exchange of ideas between Britain and

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France during the late 18th century.42 Chains of Slavery’s impact

extended outside of France and caused a number of English social

movements such as the Wilkite movement. In addition to the

social movements, the publications of Chains of Slavery was one of

the methods English republican ideas crossed into France.43

Although it was still early in Marat’s writing career, Chains of

Slavery was still highly inflammatory.

Gentlemen, the present parliament, by law, must soon expire; and no dissolution was ever more earnestly wished for by an injured people. Your most sacred rights have been flagrantly violated by your representatives, your remonstrances to the throne artfully rejected, yourselves treated like a handful of disaffected persons, and your complaints silenced by pursuing the same conduct which raised them. Such is your condition, and if such it continues, the little liberty which is yet left you, must soon be extinguished: but the time for redress is now approaching, and it is in your power to obtain that justice you have so many times craved in vain.44

Marat’s publication of the Chains of Slavery was Marat’s first

big success and revealed Marat's radical philosophy. The

publication of Chains of Slavery earned him honorary membership in to

three patriotic societies located in, Berwick, CarlisleCarlisle,

and Newcastle.45 Chains of Slavery is heavily inspired by the

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questions of despotism raised by the affair of the Jesuits…when

Marat was first living in France.”46 Targeted at British voters,

Chains of Slavery was popular as an egalitarian attack on despotism,

a sentiment also shared in the American colonies.47

With the approach of the As the French Revolution, came

closer, in 1789Marat, Marat left his successful medical practice

and published the pamphlet Gift to the Fatherland and Supplements, in

which “he developed the idea of the need to unite all progressive

social forces for the struggle against absolutism.” 48 The

combination of an aggressive style in waging a campaign against

the Marquis de La Fayette, and his own disappointment resulted in

Marat being and was fforced to leave Paris for London in 1761.

On September 12, 1789 Marat Marat began his paper, which

was originally called Publiciste Parisien but however he renamed it

four days later to was renamed to L’Ami du Peuple. According to

historian Jeremy D. Popkin, L’Ami du Peuple was “the most celebrated

radical paper of the Revolution.”49 L’Ami du Peuple was a short,

daily publication usually between eight and sixteen pages.50,51

Using the influence of his newspaper , Marat scrutinized several

Heffernan || 201008976 || 11

high- level groups in France through a number of methods as seen

above in the first few lines of Chains of Slavery. He continuously

called for the downfall of various groups including such as tthe

Corps Municipal which was the military, and the National

ConstituentConstituent Assembly which was later dissolved and

reformed as the French Legislative Assembly .52,53,54 it

However, Marat only remained in . After being forced to

leave London for a few years before ,returning to Paris in 1790

to where he continued continue his political writing. career.

Although he did not belonging to any political party, in

September of 1792 Although Marat did not belong to any political

party, he Marat was elected to the National Convention. With the

declaration of the French Republic on 22 September 1792, Marat

decided to rename his journal again, this time as Le Journal de la

Republique Francaise.

Charlotte Corday

within minutes.

Corday was a Girondin sympathizer who came from a poor

royalist family from the community of Orne in Normandy.55 During

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Corday’s formative years both her older sister and her mother

died. Corday’s father, Jacques Fracois de Corday was devastated

and became unable to properly take care of Charlotte and her

sister and sent them both to the Holy Trinity monastery in

Caengeneral area of ,. It was here at the monastery where Corday

first encountered the highly influential writings of, Rousseau,

Voltaire, and various other intellectuals.56 In 1791, Corday

moved from the monastery and moved to Caen to live with her

cousin Madame Le Coustellier de Bretteville-Gouville and

eventually Corday became the sole heir to her cousin’s estate.57

On July 9 1793, Corday left the estate and went to Paris after

writing the Addresse aux Francais amis des lois et de la paix, which

translates into English as the ‘address to the French people,

friends of the law and peace’ in order to explain her reasons for

assassinating Marat.

There were several main players during the early throws of

the French Revolution such as Marat and the leader of the Jacobin

party, Robespierre during the Reign of Terror. The assassination

directly fueled the increasing social suspicions which lead to

the execution of many supposed traitors of both royalists and

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remaining Girondins. On July 17, 1793 Corday was guillotined

after a four day trial after testifying that she had

singlehandedly carried out the assassination.

After her beheading, a man named Legros lifted her head

from the basket and slapped it on the cheek. Although it was

initially believed that Legros was the executioner’s assistant,

the executioner Charles-Henri Sanson stated in his diary that

Legros was a carpenter who had been hired to make repairs to the

guillotine.58 Although Corday was a controversial person, the

slap on the cheek was considered inappropriate and was imprisoned

for three months for his actions.59 The disrespect shown to

Corday by Legros after her beheading brought into light a number

of social issues going on during that time regarding the unequal

social status of women in France. Her beheading brought

attention to lower class women, such as housewives and domestic

servants who wanted to change the patriarchical system.60,61,62

However, the main conspiracy which developed was that Corday

could not have planned this assassination by herself because she

was a woman.63 Upon Charlotte Corday’s beheading, the Jacobin

leaders autopsied her body because they believed her accomplice

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was also Corday’s lover.64 However, these accusations were

disproved at the conclusion of her autopsy which proved that she

had acted alone.65

Another conspiracy arose in regards to the color of Corday’s

hair. On her official passport Corday’s hair color was listed as

chestnut brown however, in the painting by Jean-Jacques Hauer,

Corday is portrayed as a blonde.66 This painting started the

rumor that Corday hired a local hairstylist to bleach and

straighten her hair erroneously believing that the portrayal of

the assassination was an artist’s interpretation.67 During this

time the powdering of hair was only for the nobility and anti-

royalist sentiment, which allowed for the questioning of some of

Corday’s motives an association which could be extremely

effective in the influencing of popular opinion.68

Corday’s corpse was then disposed of in the Madeleine

Cemetery located on the intersection of Rue d’Anjou and Grand

Égout in Paris. Unfortunately, there were many decapitated

guillotine victims buried in this area without grave markers

which makes locating Charlotte Corday’s body impossible.

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Marat’s Extremist Policies leading to his assassination

On July 14th, 1789 at the Storming of the Bastille,69 Marat

declared that five to six hundred heads would have to be cut in

order to install a new regime. His goal was to eliminate anyone

related to the king.70 The outcome of the French Revolution was

an inversion of the established social order, with elites of the

Old Regime, and the replacement of academies and salons. As a

result, Marat, and many old literary proletariats could now lead

lives as respected journalists and bureaucrats. These changes in

French culture were a result of Industrial Revolution occurring

in England at this time.71 The Industrial Revolution is one of

the major turning points in history. Modern economists such as

Robert E. Lucas argue that the real impact of the Industrial

Revolution was that “for the first time in history, the living

standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo

sustained growth.”72

This French Cultural Revolution was not without

consequences. In 1792, Marat talked about his wish to see a new

dictatorship installed to implement the true values of the

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Revolution. When Louis XVI was guillotined on January 21 1793,

Marat was an ally of Maximilien de Robespierre, the revolutionary

leader of the Jacobin. The Jacobins supported the radical

National Convention, which promoted the event known as the Reign

of Terror, which lasted from September 5, 1793 to July 1794 with

the execution of Robespierre.73,74,75

Marat's extremist views made him a bitter enemy of the

Girdondins, who in June 1792, attempted to flush Marat out of

hiding and have him arrested.76 However, Marat continued

advocating his revolutionary agenda which was directly connected

to the outbreak of the September Massacres of 1792.77 The

September Massacres of 1792 were a wave of killings in Paris

which lasted from September 2–778,79 and is sometimes referred to

as “the ‘First Terror’ of the French Revolution.”80 During this

time Jean-Paul Marat and other radicals called for the execution

of prison inmates due to a fear that they would rise and revolt

against the people of Paris.81 Due to the volatile social

situation in France at the time, people followed Marat’s

suggestion and by 6 September, roughly half the prison population

Heffernan || 201008976 || 17

of Paris had been summarily executed. Estimates vary however

most datasets range between 1,200 and 1,400 total deaths.82

Although the majority of the roughly 1,300 executed were

prisoners, over 200 Catholic priests were also killed by

September 6th 1792.83 Despite all the deaths that occurred within

those five days, no single person or party was ever prosecuted

for the murders.84

Marat explained that he decided to found L’Ami du Peuple as a

method of transmitting his ideas through popular society and

acknowledged that Marat published at first in a moderate tone.85

Marat quickly became frustrated that “it did not produce the

entire effect that [he] had expected.”86 He saw fit to “renounce

moderation and to substitute satire and irony for simple

censure,”87 the ‘bitterness’ of which steadily increased over

time.88 Marat also explained that he did not believe that the

revolutionaries could achieve anything through the existing royal

family and government except by force, and he was upset by the

continuation of “laws serving only to tyrannize over the innocent

whom they ought to have protected.”89

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Marat’s illegal publication of L’Ami du Peuple was so

inflammatory that on multiple occasions he was forced to hide in

the sewers to avoid being caught.90 While hiding in the Parisian

sewers, Marat contracted what dermatologists today believe was

derematitis herpetiformis which created the opening for Corday to

assassinate Marat.91 Additionally, Marat’s press was destroyed

on at least two separate occasions because of the incessant

attacks on the National Constituent Assembly, the Legislative and

King Louis XVI amongst others.92 Despite the interruptions

Marat’s publication of L’Ami du Peuple ran seven hundred and fifty

issues, not including the other smaller publications Marat was

also publishing.

Assassination

Corday herself stated that she had been inspired by the

Girondin speeches which had fueled her in the assassination of

Marat.93 Corday additionally justified her assassination of

Jean-Paul Marat using two main points. The first aspect of her

justification was that Marat was a member of the radical Jacobin

faction, a group which helped fuel the Reign of Terror through a

Heffernan || 201008976 || 19

number of venues such as Marat’s publications in his newspaper

L’Ami du Peuple. The second reason Corday assassinated Marat

because she held Marat personally responsible for the September

Massacres, in addition to Corday’s fear of a French civil war.94

Because of these two reasons, Charlotte Corday believed that the

murder of Jean-Paul Marat should end the violence and turmoil in

France.

Initially Corday planned to assassinate Marat in front of

the French National Convention in an attempt to make Marat into

an example. However, because Marat no longer attended the

National Convention meetings due to his rapidly deteriorating

health, Corday was forced to revise her plan. On Corday’s first

attempt to assassinate Marat in his home, she was turned away by

Marat’s wife Simonne Evrard earlier that day. Corday then made a

second attempt to assassinate Marat, this time she said that she

had information regarding Marat’s political rivals, the

Girondists. On this second attempt, later that day she tried

again and this time successfully completed the assassination.95

Marat agreed to see Corday while he was soaking in his bathtub to

treat the skin condition he had contracted in the sewers.96

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After Marat agreed to see her while he was in the bathtub

attempting to treat his skin condition. Marat only had time for

a a brief conversation with Charlotte Corday stabbed Marat in

the chest with a five-inch knife . Within minutes, with a five

inch knife a wound which killed Marat was dead.

she The dramatic assassination of Marat in his bathtub

resonated artistically with the revolutionary, romantic era in

the heroic painting of the artist of the era, Jacques-Louis David

(1748-1825). David was a friend of Marat and later became well

known for his paintings of Napoleon, presented Marat as a

political martyr of the Jacobin cause. The martyrdom of Marat in

the painting was accomplished through mirroring the style of the

dead Christ in the arms of his mother, creating a visual framing

of the revolutionary ideas.

Charlotte Corday’s motives were made known after her death

because of a letter she left behind, some folklore developed

surrounding the time of Jean-Paul Marat’s assassination and her

beheading. In 1847 almost 100 years after Charlotte Corday’s

beheading, the author Alphonse de Lamartine gave Corday the

Heffernan || 201008976 || 21

nickname l’ange de l’assassinat, or in English ‘the Angel of

AssasinationAssassination.’97

Assassination Consequences

After the trial and the dust had time to settle, Marat’s

funeral was attended by the entire National Convention as he was

first buried in the Club des Cordeliers, with the epitaph of

“Here rests Marat, the friend of the people: assassinated by the

enemies of the people.”98 Within the following months after

Marat’s burial, the artist Jacques-Louis David created the most

famous image of the French Revolution, and the most famous

painting of the assassination of the Marat. Without David’s

painting, the influence of Marat’s work would have been

substantially less after his assassination.

As the glory and almost obsessive nature of the French

people with Marat, his ideals in works such as Chains of Slavery, and

assassination began to fade from the public mind, Marat’s

popularity also began to diminish. His body was moved to the

cemetery of the church of Saint Etienne-du-Mont within a decade

of his death and the painter Jacques-Louis David was exiled to

Heffernan || 201008976 || 22

Belgium to avoid prosecution for the glorification of Marat by

the newly reestablished French government.

The assassination of Marat had a number of consequences, the

most important was his elevation to a social martyr which

occurred because the people saw him as someone who had been

representing the ideas of the French Revolution. With the

combined work of Maximilien Robespierre, Jean-Paul Marat, and

other influential writers of the time helped create the needed

Fourth Estate for intellectuals in French society through the

dynamic French Revolution era.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat in his

bathtub by Charlotte Corday on July 13th, 1793 was due to Marat’s

large political influence through his publication of L’Ami du Peuple

and his role in the September Massacres. Although Marat was a

highly controversial member of French political scene, without

the contributions of Jean-Paul Marat and the Jacobin leader

Maximilien Robespierre the French Revolution and the changes it

brought would have not been possible. This essay has

Heffernan || 201008976 || 23

demonstrated that without the excessive radicalism expressed in

Jean-Paul Marat’s work, in combination with the social martyrdom

he achieved because of his assassination was how Marat was able

to successfully rally the lower classes in rising against the

government in a movement.

Heffernan || 201008976 || 24

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1 Robert Darton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1982) vi-vii.2 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Jean-Paul Marat", accessed November 1, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363841/Jean-Paul-Marat.3 Ernest Belfort Bax, Jean-Paul Marat: The People’s Friend, a Bibliographical Sketch (Vogt Press, 2008) 5.4 Jean-Paul Marat, “Autobiography, Collected Works,” in Voices of the Revolution, ed. Peter Vansittart (London: Collins, 1989), 230.5Graeme Fife, The Terror. The Shadow of the Guillotine: France 1792-1794 (New York, St. Martin’s Press, 2006) 42.6 History.com Staff, “French Revolution” A+E Networks, 2009, http://www.history.com/topics/french-revolution.7 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Socrates", accessed November 12, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551948/Socrates/233647/The-legacy-of-Socrates.8 Porter, Roy The Enlightenment. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) 1. 9 Leonard Krieger, Kings and Philosophers 1689-1789 (New York: W.W, Norton & Co. 1970) 86.10 Encyclopædia Britannica Online “Divine right of kings”, accessed December 30, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/166626/divine-right-of-kings.11 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "France", accessed November 23, 2014,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215768/France/40410/Girondins-and-Montagnards.12 Crane Brinton, The Jacobins: An Essay in the New History, (London: Transaction Publishers, 2011), xix.13 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Jacobin Club", accessed November 21, 2014,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299007/Jacobin-Club.14 Brown, Charles Brockden and Philip Barnard, (2009). Charles Brockden Brown's Wieland, Ormond, Arthur Mervyn, and Edgar Huntly. (London: Hackett Publishing, 2009), 360.15 Robert J. Alderson (2008). This Bright Era of Happy Revolutions: French Consul Michel-Ange-Bernard Mangourit and International Republicanism in Charleston, 1792-1794. (South Caroline: University of South Carolina Press, 2008), 9.16 Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (California: Scribners, 1989,) 803-517 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Estates-General", accessed November 24, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/193320/Estates-General.18 R.R. Palmer, A History of the Modern World (London: Knopf 1966) 334.19 “The Three Estates Information Sheet” University of College London, 11/23/14, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums/learning-resources/secondary-schools/downloadable-lessons/three-estates-student-sheets.pdf. 20 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Estates-General", accessed November 12, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/193320/Estates-General.21 Charles Dubray, “Encyclopedists,” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 12 Nov. 2014) http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05418a.htm.22 Maximilien Robespierre, “On Political Morality” (Speech to the French National Convention 1749).

23 Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France [1790] (Penguin Classics, 1986), 34.24 Lewis Hackett, “The Age of Enlightenment,” history-world, 1992, http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm.25 Thomson, David. Europe Since Napoleon, (London: Longmans, 1957), 25–26.26 Ibid, 25.27 Hibbert, Christopher (). The French Revolution. (London: Penguin, 1980,) 29.28 Stacy Schiff (). A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America. (USA: Macmillan, 2006,) 5.29 Alex Tuckness, “Locke’s Political Philosphy,” Stanford, 2012 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke-political/.30 Christopher Bertam, “Jean Jacques Rousseau,” Stanford, 2012 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rousseau/.31 Oeuvres complètes, III, 364; The Collected Writings of Rousseau, IV, 14132 Mark Philp, “Thomas Paine,”Stanford, 2013 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paine/.33 George Rudé, Revolutionary Europe: 1783 – 1815(Chicago: Blackwell Publishers, 1964), 183.34 Thomas Paine, Common Sense; Addressed to the Inhabitants of America, on the Following Interesting Subjects. Philadelphia: Robert Bell, 1776, 1.35 Clifford D. Connor, Jean Paul Marat: Tribune of the French Revolution (London: Pluto Press,2012) 19.36 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Jean-Paul Marat", accessed November 12, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363841/Jean-Paul-Marat.37 Robert Darton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1982) 20-21.38 Ibid, 20-21.39 Ibid, 20-21.40 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Jean-Paul Marat", accessed November 12, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363841/Jean-Paul-Marat.41 Les Chaines de l’Esclavage, 1793 (ed. Goetz et de Cock) p4167 (6). Numbers in brackets refer to the original version.42 Rachel Hammersley, The Historical Journal, Vol. 48, No. 3 (Sep., 2005), Cambridge University Press, 641-660.

43 Ibid, 641-660.

44 Jean-Paul Marat, Chains of Slavery, (Britain: 1774) 1. 45 Rachel Hammersley “Jean-Paul Marat’s the Chains of Slavery in Britain and France 1774-1833,”The Historical Journal 48, no. 03 (2005) : 641-660.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X05004607

46 Peter R. Campbell, Consipiracy in the French Revolution (Manchester: Manchester UniversityPress, 2010), 34.47 Patrick Henry, “Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death”(speech, Virginia, 1775). theamericanrevolution.org/DocumentDetail.aspx?document=18.48 The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition. s.v. "The Stabbing of Marat." Accessed November1, 2014 http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/The+Stabbing+of+Marat.49 Darnton and Roche, Revolution in Print: the Press in France, 1775-1800, (California: University of California Press,1989) 162.

50 Ernest Belfort Bax, Jean-Paul Marat: The People’s Friend, a Bibliographical Sketch (Vogt Press,

2008) 105.

51 Louis R Gottschalk, Jean-Paul Marat: A Study in Radicalism (New York: Greenberg Press,

1966) 49.52 Ibid, 62.53 Robert Darton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime, (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1982) ix.54 Leo Gershoy, The French Revolution and Napoleon(1964), 107-71.55 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Charlotte Corday", accessed November 11, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137301/Charlotte-Corday.56 John Whitham, Men and Women of the French Revolution, (Freeport, NY: Books for LibrariesPress, 1968), 154-5.57 Ibid, 154-5.58 La Révolution française vue par son bourreau : Journal de Charles-Henri Sanson, Documents (in French), Monique Lebailly, preface, Le Cherche Midi, 2007, p. 65 Griffures, Paris: Éditions de l'Instant, 198859 Mignet, François (1824), History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 181460 Corazzo, Nina; Montfort, Catherine R (1994), "Charlotte Corday: femme-homme", inMontfort, Catherine R, Literate Women and the French Revolution of 1789, Birmingham, AL: Summa Publications, 45.61 Catherine Montfont, Literate Women and the French Revolution of 1789 (Birmingham: Summa Publications, 1995), 47.62 Ibid, 45.

63 Corazzo, Literate Women and the French Revolution of 1789, Birmingham, AL: Summa Publications, 45.64 Ibid, 45.65 Ibid, 45.66 Stanley Loomis, Paris in the Terror, (New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1964), 12567 Ibid, 125.68 Nina Rattner Gelbart, The Blonding of Charlotte Corday, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2004), 73.69 “Bastille Day – July 14th, 1789” Bastille Day, July 1 2012, http://bastille-day.com/history/storming-of-the-bastille-july-14-178970 “Jean Paul Marat” Bastille Day, July 1 2012, http://bastille-day.com/biography/marat-biography.71 Robert Darton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime, (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1982,) 38.72 Lucas, Robert E., Jr. Lectures on Economic Growth. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 109–10.73 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. “Reign of Terror.” Accessed November 1 2014 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/588360/Reign-of-Terror. 74 Jones, Peter. The French Revolution 1787–1804. (Chicago: Pearson Education, 2003,) 57.75 “The Reign of Terror,” Bastille Day, 7/1/2012, http://bastille-day.com/history/the-terror.

76 Ibid, 49.77 “Jean Paul Marat” Bastille Day, July 1 2012, http://bastille-day.com/biography/marat-biography.78 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. “September Massacres.” Accessed November 1 2014 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/535103/September-Massacres79 Samuel F. Scott and Barry Rothaus, eds. “Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution 1789-1799,” Vol. 2 (1985): 891-97.80 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. “September Massacres.” Accessed November 1 2014 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/535103/September-Massacres81 Clifford D. Connor, Jean Paul Marat: Tribune of the French Revolution (London: Pluto Press,2012) 194.82 Gwynne Lewis, The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate, (United States: Taylor & Francis, 2002) 38.83 Ibid, 38.84 Georges Lefebvre, “The French Revolution: From its Origins to 1793” Science & Society28, vol 1 (1964) : 241-44.85 Louis R Gottschalk, Jean-Paul Marat: A Study in Radicalism (New York: Greenberg Press, 1966) 52-53.

86 Ibid, 53.

87 Ibid, 53.

88 Ibid, 53.

89 Ibid, 53.90 Jelinek, J.E. (1979). "Jean-Paul Marat: The differential diagnosis of his skin disease". American Journal of Dermatopathology 1 (3): 251–2.91 Ibid, 251–2.92 Gottschalk, Jean-Paul Marat: A Study in Radicalism, Benjamin Bloom, 1966.

93 David Andress, The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France, (New York: SFGBooks, 2005), 189.94 Whitham, John Mills (1968), Men and Women of the French Revolution, (Freeport, NY: Booksfor Libraries Press), 161.95 Britannica Online for Kids, s.v. "Corday, Charlotte," accessed November 23, 2014,http://kids.britannica.com/comptons/article-9273807/Charlotte-Corday.96 Jelinek, J.E. (1979). "Jean-Paul Marat: The differential diagnosis of his skin disease". American Journal of Dermatopathology 1 (3): 251–2.97 “Charlotte Corday,” Reference.com , 2008, http://www.reference.com/browse/charlotte+corday. 98 J. PONS “Jean Paul Marat: His Life,” jpmarat.de, 4/3/2001, http://jpmarat.de/english/senie.html.