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Japanese language
Not to be confused with Javanese language.
Japanese ( Nihongo, [nihoo] ( )) is an EastAsian language spoken
by about 125 million speakers,primarily in Japan, where it is the
national language. Itis a member of the Japonic language family,
whose rela-tion to other language groups, particularly to Korean
andthe suggested Altaic language family, is debated.Little is known
of the language's prehistory, or when itfirst appeared in Japan.
Chinese documents from the 3rdcentury record a few Japanese words,
but substantial textsdid not appear until the 8th century. During
the Heian pe-riod (7941185), Chinese had a considerable influence
onthe vocabulary and the phonology of Old Japanese. LateMiddle
Japanese (11851600) saw changes that broughtit closer to the modern
language and the first appear-ance of European loanwords. The
standard dialect movedfrom that of the Kansai region to that of the
Edo (modernTokyo) region in the EarlyModern Japanese period (17th
19th centuries). Following the end in 1853 of Japan'sself-imposed
isolation, the flow of loanwords from Eu-ropean languages increased
significantly. English loan-words in particular have become
frequent, and Japanesewords from English roots have
proliferated.Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language
withsimple phonotactics, a pure vowel system, phonemicvowel and
consonant length, and a lexically significantpitch accent. Sentence
structure is topiccomment andword order is normally
subjectobjectverb. Particlesmark the grammatical function of words,
and sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic
im-pact, or to make questions. Nouns have no grammaticalnumber or
gender, and there are no articles (such as En-glish a or the).
Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tenseand voice, but not person.
Japanese equivalents of adjec-tives are also conjugated. Japanese
has a complex systemof honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to
indicatethe relative status of speaker, listener, and persons
men-tioned.Japanese has no genetic relationship with Chinese, but
itmakes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, inits
writing system, and a large portion of its vocabulary isborrowed
from Chinese. Along with kanji, the Japanesewriting system
primarily uses two syllabic (or moraic)scripts, hiragana and
katakana. Latin script is used ina limited way, such as for
imported acronyms, and thenumeral system uses mostly Arabic
numerals, alongsidetraditional Chinese numerals. Latin script is
used in typ-
ing Japanese: for example, by typinghasoftware willprovide the
hiragana, katakana and kanji options.
1 History
1.1 Prehistory
A common ancestor of Japanese and Ryukyuan lan-guages or
dialects is thought to have come to Japan withsettlers from
continental Asia or nearby Pacific islandssometime in the early- to
mid-2nd century (the Yayoiperiod), replacing the languages of the
original Jmoninhabitants,*[3] including the ancestor of modern
Ainu.Very little is known about the Japanese of this periodthere is
no direct evidence, as writing had yet to be in-troduced from China
so what can be discerned must bebased on the reconstructions of Old
Japanese.
1.2 Old Japanese
A page fromNihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan), the
secondoldest book of classical Japanese history
Main article: Old Japanese
Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the
Japaneselanguage. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chi-nese
writing system was imported to Japan. The earli-est texts found in
Japan are written in Classical Chinese,but they may have been meant
to be read as Japanese bythe kanbun method. Some of these texts
show the influ-ence of Japanese grammar, such as word order. In
thesehybridtexts, Chinese characters are occasionally usedto
phonetically represent Japanese particles. The earli-est text, the
Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, andwas written entirely in
Chinese characters. The end ofOld Japanese coincides with the end
of the Nara periodin 794. Old Japanese uses the Man'ygana system
of
1
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2 1 HISTORY
writing, which uses kanji for both phonetic and seman-tic
values. From the Man'ygana system, Old Japanesehas been
reconstructed as having had 88 syllables. Textswritten with
Man'ygana use two different kanji for eachof the syllables now
pronounced ki, hi, mi,ke, he, me, ko, so, to, no, mo, yo and
ro.*[4] The set of syllables shrank to 67 inEarly Middle Japanese,
though some were added throughChinese influence.Due to these extra
syllables, it has been hypothesized thatOld Japanese's vowel system
was larger than that of Mod-ern Japanese and perhaps had up to
eight vowels. Ac-cording to Shinkichi Hashimoto, the extra
syllables inMan'ygana derive from differences between the vowelsof
the syllables in question.*[5] The vowel system wouldhave to have
shrunk sometime between these texts and theinvention of the kana
syllabaries (hiragana and katakana)in the early 9th century.
According to this view, the eight-vowel system of ancient Japanese
would resemble that ofthe Uralic and Altaic language families.*[6]
However, itis not fully certain that the alternation between
syllablesnecessarily reflects a difference in the vowels rather
thanthe consonantsthe only undisputed fact is that they
aredifferent syllables.Old Japanese does not have /h/, but rather
// (preservedin modern fu, //), which has been reconstructed to
anearlier */p/. Man'ygana also has a symbol for /je/, whichmerges
with /e/ before the end of the period.Several fossilizations of Old
Japanese grammatical ele-ments remain in the modern languagethe
genitive par-ticle tsu (superseded by modern no) is preserved in
wordssuch asmatsuge (eyelash, lit.hair of the eye); mod-ernmieru
(to be visible) and kikoeru (to be audible)retain what may have
been a mediopassive suffix -yu(ru)(kikoyu kikoyuru (the attributive
form, which slowlyreplaced the plain form starting in the late
Heian period)> kikoeru (as all shimo-nidan verbs in modern
Japanesedid)); and the genitive particle ga remains in
intentionallyarchaic speech.
1.3 Early Middle Japanese
Two pages from a 12th-century emaki scroll ofThe Tale
ofGenjifrom the 11th century
Main article: Early Middle Japanese
Early Middle Japanese is the Japanese of the Heian pe-riod, from
794 to 1185. Early Middle Japanese seesa significant amount of
Chinese influence on the lan-guage's phonology length distinctions
become phone-mic for both consonants and vowels, and series of
bothlabialised (e.g. kwa) and palatalised (kya) consonantsare
added. Intervocalic // merges with /w/ by the 11thcentury. The end
of Early Middle Japanese sees the be-ginning of a shift where the
attributive form (Japaneserentaikei) slowly replaces the
uninflected form (shshikei)for those verb classes where the two
were distinct.
1.4 Late Middle Japanese
Main article: Late Middle Japanese
Late Middle Japanese covers the years from 1185 to1600, and is
normally divided into two sections, roughlyequivalent to the
Kamakura period and the Muromachiperiod, respectively. The later
forms of Late Mid-dle Japanese are the first to be described by
non-nativesources, in this case the Jesuit and Franciscan
missionar-ies; and thus there is better documentation of Late
Mid-dle Japanese phonology than for previous forms (for in-stance,
the Arte da Lingoa de Iapam). Among othersound changes, the
sequence /au/ merges to //, in con-trast with /o/; /p/ is
reintroduced from Chinese; and /we/merges with /je/. Some forms
rather more familiar toModern Japanese speakers begin to appear the
con-tinuative ending -te begins to reduce onto the verb (e.g.yonde
for earlier yomite), the -k- in the final syllable ofadjectives
drops out (shiroi for earlier shiroki); and someforms exist where
modern standard Japanese has retainedthe earlier form (e.g. hayaku
> hayau > hay, wheremodern Japanese just has hayaku, though
the alternativeform is preserved in the standard greeting o-hay
goza-imasu good morning"; this ending is also seen in
o-medetcongratulations, from medetaku).Late Middle Japanese has the
first loanwords from Eu-ropean languagesnow-common words borrowed
intoJapanese in this period include panbreadand tabakotobaccofrom
Portuguese,*[7] andponpupumpandpurachinaplatinumfrom Dutch.*[8]
1.5 Modern Japanese
See also: Early Modern Japanese
Modern Japanese traces to the beginning of the Edoperiod around
1600. Until then the de facto standardJapanese had been the Kansai
dialectespecially thatof Kyoto. During the Edo period, the military
govern-ment established an administrative capital in Edo (mod-ern
Tokyo). Edo soon developed into the largest city inJapan, and the
Edo-area dialect became standard. Since
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2.1 Official status 3
the end of Japan's self-imposed isolation in 1853, the flowof
loanwords from European languages has increased sig-nificantly. The
period since 1945 has seen a large numberof words borrowed from
English,*[9] especially relatingto technologykameracamera,
intnettointernet,roketto,rocket, and many others. Due to the
quantityof English loanwords, modern Japanese has developed
adistinction between /ti/ and /ti/, and between /di/ and/di/, the
latter in each pair found only in loanwords suchas remon t lemon
teaand disukudisk.
2 Geographic distribution
Din Tai Fung at South Coast Plaza in Costa Mesa, Californiaon
its opening day (August 18, 2014). The parking garage nextto the
restaurant has Din Tai Fung signs and markings in threelanguages
(traditional Chinese, English and Japanese).
Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, thoughthere has
been use outside the country. Before andduring World War II,
through Japanese annexation ofTaiwan and Korea, and occupation of
parts of China,the Philippines, and various Pacific islands,*[10]
localsin those countries learned Japanese as the language of
theempire. As a result, many elderly people in these coun-tries
could still speak Japanese into the 21st century.Japanese emigrant
communities, the largest of which arefound in Brazil,*[11] with up
to 1.5 million Japanese im-migrants and descendants, according to
Brazilian IBGEdata, and more than the 1.2 million of the
UnitedStates,*[12] sometimes employ Japanese as their pri-mary
language. Approximately 12% of Hawaii residentsspeak Japanese,*[13]
with an estimated 12.6% of thepopulation of Japanese ancestry in
2008. Japanese em-igrants can also be found in Peru, Argentina,
Australia(especially in the eastern states), Canada (especially
inVancouver where 1.4% of the population has
Japaneseancestry),*[14] the United States (notably California,where
1.2% of the population has Japanese ancestry, andHawaii), and the
Philippines (particularly in Davao andLaguna).*[15]
2.1 Official status
Multilingual subway sign in Roppongi Hills, Roppongi,
Minato,Japan. Languages consist of Japanese, Chinese, English and
Ko-rean.
Japanese has no official status,*[16] but is the de
factonational language of Japan. There is a form consid-ered
standard: hyjungo (), meaning standardJapanese, or kytsgo (),common
language.The meanings of the two terms are almost the same.
Thestandard language is a counterpart to the dialects.
Thisnormative language was born after the Meiji Restorationof 1868
from the language spoken in the higher-class ar-eas of Tokyo. The
standard language is taught in schoolsand used on television and in
official communications,and is the version discussed in this
article.Formerly, standard Japanese in writing ( bungo,lit-erary
language) was different from colloquial language( kgo). The two
systems have different rules ofgrammar and some variance in
vocabulary. Bungo wasthe main method of writing Japanese until
about 1900;since then the use of kgo grew; both used in writing
un-til the 1940s. Aside from historians and literary schol-ars,
bungo still has some relevance for lawyers as manylaws from before
World War II are still written in bungo,although there are ongoing
efforts to modernize them.Kgo has otherwise replaced bungo in
spoken and writ-ten Japanese.
2.2 Dialects
Main article: Japanese dialectsSee also: Japanese
ArchipelagoMany dialects are spoken in Japan. This is due tomany
factors, including the length of time the archipelagohas been
inhabited, its mountainous island terrain, andJapan's long history
of both external and internal iso-lation. Dialects typically differ
in terms of pitch ac-cent, inflectional morphology, vocabulary, and
particleusage. Though uncommon, some even differ in voweland
consonant inventories.
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4 3 CLASSIFICATION
Map of Japanese dialects and Japonic languages
The main distinction in Japanese accents is betweenTokyo-type (
Tky-shiki) and Kyoto-Osaka-type( Keihan-shiki). Within each type
are several sub-divisions. Kyoto-Osaka-type dialects are in the
centralregion, roughly formed by Kansai, Shikoku, and
westernHokuriku regions.Dialects from peripheral regions, such as
Thoku orKagoshima, may be unintelligible to speakers from theother
parts of the country. There are some languageislands in mountain
villages or isolated islands such asHachij-jima island whose
dialects descend from theEastern dialect of Old Japanese. Dialects
of the Kansairegion are spoken or known by many Japanese, and
theOsaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy (seeKansai
dialect). Dialects of Thoku and North Kant areassociated with
typical farmers.The Rykyan languages, spoken in Okinawa and
theAmami Islands in Kagoshima Prefecture are considereda separate
branch of the Japonic family; not only is eachlanguage
unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most areunintelligible to
those who speak other Rykyan lan-guages. Nevertheless, many
ordinary Japanese peopleconsider the Rykyan languages dialects of
Japanese,resulting from the official language policy of the
Japanesegovernment, which has declared those languages dialectsand
prohibited their use in schools.Education, mass media, increased
mobility within Japan,and economic integration has made Standard
Japaneseprevalent nationwide, including on the Ryky islands.
3 Classification
See also: Classification of Japonic
Japanese is a member of the Japonic family of lan-
guages, which includes the languages spoken throughoutthe Ryky
Islands. As these closely related languagesare commonly treated as
dialects of the same language,Japanese is often called a language
isolate.According to Martine Irma Robbeets, Japanese has
beensubject to more attempts to show its relation to other
lan-guages than any other language in the world.*[17] SinceJapanese
first gained the consideration of linguists in thelate 19th
century, attempts have been made to show itsgenealogical relation
to languages or language familiessuch as Ainu, Korean, Chinese,
Tibeto-Burman, UralAltaic, Altaic, Uralian, MonKhmer,
Malayo-Polynesianand Ryukyuan. At the fringe, some linguists have
sug-gested a link to Indo-European languages such as Greek,and to
Lepcha. As it stands, only the link to Ryukyuan haswide support,
though linguist Kurakichi Shiratori main-tained that Japanese was a
language isolate.*[18]
3.1 Korean hypothesis
Similarities between Korean and Japanese were noted byArai
Hakuseki in 1717,*[19] and the idea that the twomight be related
was first proposed in 1781 by Japanesescholar Teikan Fujii.*[20]
The idea received little at-tention until William George Aston
proposed it againin 1879. Japanese scholar Shsabur Kanazawa took
itup in 1910, as did Shinpei Ogura in 1934. Shir Hat-tori was
nearly alone when he criticised these theoriesin 1959.*[21] Samuel
Martin furthered the idea in 1966with hisLexical evidence relating
Korean to Japanese,as did John Whitman with his dissertation on the
subjectin 1985.*[20] Despite this, definitive proof of the
rela-tion has yet to be provided. Historical linguists study-ing
Japanese and Korean tend to accept the genealog-ical relation,
while general linguists and historical lin-guists in Japan and
Korea have remained skeptical.*[21]Alexander Vovin suggests that,
while typologically mod-ern Korean and Japanese share similarities
that some-times allow word-to-word translations, studies of the
pre-modern languages show greater differences. Accordingto Vovin,
this suggests linguistic convergence rather thandivergence, which
he believes is amongst the evidence ofthe languages not having a
genealogical connection.*[22]
3.2 Altaic hypothesis
The proposedAltaic family of languages, whichwould in-clude
languages from far eastern Europe to northeasternAsia, has had its
supporters and detractors over its history.The most controversial
aspect of the hypothesis is theproposed inclusion of Korean and
Japanese, which evensome proponents of Altaic have rejected.*[23]
PhilippFranz von Siebold suggested the connection in 1832,*[17]but
the inclusion first attracted significant attention in theearly
1970s.*[24] Roy AndrewMiller published Japaneseand the Other Altaic
Languages, and dedicated much of
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5
Distribution of the proposed Altaic languages across Eurasia,
ten-tatively including Japanese and Korean.
his later career to the subject. Sergei Starostin pub-lished a
1991 monograph which was another significantstepping stone in
JapaneseAltaic research. A team ofscholars made a database of
Altaic etymologies availableover the internet, from which the
three-volume Etymo-logical Dictionary of the Altaic Languages was
publishedin 2003.*[25] Scholars such as Yevgeny Polivanov
andYoshizo Itabashi, on the other hand, have proposed a hy-brid
origin of Japanese, in which Austronesian and Altaicelements became
mixed.*[26]Skepticism over the Japanese relation to Altaic
iswidespread amongst both amateurs and professionals, inpart
because of the large number of unsuccessful attemptsto genealogical
relationships with Japanese and other lan-guages.*[17] Opinions are
polarized, with many stronglyconvinced of the Altaic relation, and
others strongly con-vinced of the lack of one. While some sources
are un-decided, often strong proponents of either view will noteven
acknowledge the claims of the other side.*[27]
4 Phonology
Main article: Japanese phonology
Japanese has five vowels, all of which are monophthongsthere are
no diphthongs. Vowel length is phonemic,and each can be short or
long. Long vowels can be de-noted in Roman script with a line
called a macron overthe vowel.Some consonants have several
allophones, which maygive the impression of a larger inventory of
sounds. Someof these allophones have since become phonemic.
Forexample, in the Japanese language up to and includingthe first
half of the 20th century, the phonemic sequence/ti/ was palatalized
and realized phonetically as [ti], ap-proximately chi listen ;
however, now /ti/ and /ti/ aredistinct, as evidenced by words like
t [ti]Western styleteaand chii [tii]social status.Therof Japanese
is a lateral apical postalveolar flap,sounding to most English
speakers like something be-tween an land a retroflex r. The gis
alsonotable; unless it starts a sentence, it is pronounced //,
like the ng insing,in the Kanto prestige dialect andin other
eastern dialects.The syllabic structure and the phonotactics are
simple:the only consonant clusters allowed within a syllable
con-sist of one of a subset of the consonants plus /j/. This typeof
cluster only occurs in onsets. Consonant clusters acrosssyllables
are allowed as long as the two consonants are anasal followed by a
homorganic consonant. Consonantlength (gemination) is also
phonemic.
5 Grammar
Main article: Japanese grammar
5.1 Sentence structure
Japanese word order is classified as subjectobjectverb.Unlike
many Indo-European languages, the only strictrule of word order is
that the verb must be placed atthe end of a sentence (possibly
followed by sentence-endparticles). This is because Japanese
sentence elementsare marked with particles that identify their
grammaticalfunctions.The basic sentence structure is topiccomment.
For ex-ample, Kochira wa Tanaka-san desu (). kochira (this) is the
topic of the sen-tence, indicated by the particle wa. The verb de
aru(desu is a contraction of its polite form de arimasu) is
acopula, commonly translated asto beorit is(thoughthere are other
verbs that can be translated asto be),though technically it holds
no meaning and is used to givea sentence 'politeness'. As a phrase,
Tanaka-san desu isthe comment. This sentence literally translates
to Asfor this person, (it) is Mr./Ms. Tanaka.Thus Japanese,like
many other Asian languages, is often called a topic-prominent
language, whichmeans it has a strong tendencyto indicate the topic
separately from the subject, and thatthe two do not always
coincide. The sentence Z wa hanaga nagai () literally means,As for
ele-phant(s), (the) nose(s) (is/are) long. The topic is zelephant,
and the subject is hananose.In Japanese, the subject or object of a
sentence need notbe stated if it is obvious from context. As a
result ofthis grammatical permissiveness, there is a tendency
togravitate towards brevity; Japanese speakers tend to omitpronouns
on the theory they are inferred from the previ-ous sentence, and
are therefore understood. In the con-text of the above example,
hana-ga nagai would mean"[their] noses are long,while nagai by
itself would mean"[they] are long.A single verb can be a complete
sen-tence: Yatta! (!)"[I / we / they / etc] did [it]!".In addition,
since adjectives can form the predicate ina Japanese sentence
(below), a single adjective can be
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6 5 GRAMMAR
a complete sentence: Urayamashii! (!)"[I'm]jealous [of
it]!".While the language has some words that are
typicallytranslated as pronouns, these are not used as frequentlyas
pronouns in some Indo-European languages, and func-tion
differently. In some cases Japanese relies on specialverb forms and
auxiliary verbs to indicate the direction ofbenefit of an action:
downto indicate the out-groupgives a benefit to the in-group;
andupto indicate thein-group gives a benefit to the out-group.
Here, the in-group includes the speaker and the out-group does
not,and their boundary depends on context. For example, os-hiete
moratta () (literally,explainedwith a benefit from the out-group to
the in-group) means"[he/she/they] explained [it] to [me/us]".
Similarly, oshi-ete ageta () (literally,explainedwith abenefit from
the in-group to the out-group) means "[I/we]explained [it] to
[him/her/them]". Such beneficiary aux-iliary verbs thus serve a
function comparable to that ofpronouns and prepositions in
Indo-European languages toindicate the actor and the recipient of
an action.Japanesepronounsalso function differently frommostmodern
Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns)in that they can
takemodifiers as any other nounmay. Forinstance, one does not say
in English:
*The amazed he ran down the street. (gram-matically incorrect
insertion of a pronoun)
But one can grammatically say essentially the same thingin
Japanese:
Odoroita kare wa michi o hashitte itta. (gram-matically
correct)
This is partly because these words evolved from regularnouns,
such as kimiyou(lord), anatayou(that side, yonder), and
bokuI(servant). This is why some linguists do not classify
Japanesepronounsas pronouns, but rather as referential nouns,much
like Spanish usted (contracted from vuestra merced,your
[(flattering majestic) plural] grace) or Portugueseo senhor.
Japanese personal pronouns are generally usedonly in situations
requiring special emphasis as to who isdoing what to whom.The
choice of words used as pronouns is correlated withthe sex of the
speaker and the social situation in whichthey are spoken: men and
women alike in a formal situa-tion generally refer to themselves
aswatashi (private) orwatakushi (also), while men in rougher or
intimateconversation are muchmore likely to use the word ore
(oneself,myself) or boku. Similarly, different wordssuch as anata,
kimi, and omae (, more formallythe one before me) may be used to
refer to a lis-tener depending on the listener's relative social
position
and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and
thelistener. When used in different social relationships, thesame
word may have positive (intimate or respectful) ornegative (distant
or disrespectful) connotations.Japanese often use titles of the
person referred to wherepronouns would be used in English. For
example, whenspeaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use
sensei(, teacher), but inappropriate to use anata. This isbecause
anata is used to refer to people of equal or lowerstatus, and one's
teacher has higher status.
5.2 Inflection and conjugation
Japanese nouns have no grammatical number, gender orarticle
aspect. The noun hon () may refer to a sin-gle book or several
books; hito () can meanpersonor people"; and ki () can be treeor
trees.Where number is important, it can be indicated by pro-viding
a quantity often with a counter word. In rare cases,a suffix (e.g.
the suffix tachi in kodomo-tachi indicateschildrenas opposed to
kodomochild/children)*[28] or duplication (e.g. , hito-bito,
usually written with an iteration mark as) maybe used to indicate a
plural. Words for people are usuallyunderstood as singular. Thus
Tanaka-san usually meansMr./Ms. Tanaka. Words that refer to people
and animalscan be made to indicate a group of individuals
throughthe addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that
in-dicates a group), such as -tachi, but this is not a true
plu-ral: the meaning is closer to the English phrase andcompany. A
group described as Tanaka-san-tachimayinclude people not named
Tanaka. Some Japanese nounsare effectively plural, such as
hitobitopeopleandware-warewe/us, while the word
tomodachifriendisconsidered singular, although plural in form.Verbs
are conjugated to show tenses, of which there aretwo: past and
present (or non-past) which is used for thepresent and the future.
For verbs that represent an on-going process, the -te iru form
indicates a continuous (orprogressive) aspect, similar to the
suffix ing in English.For others that represent a change of state,
the -te iru formindicates a perfect aspect. For example, kite iru
meansHe has come (and is still here)", but tabete iru meansHe is
eating.Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and
yes/noquestions) have the same structure as affirmative sen-tences,
but with intonation rising at the end. In the formalregister, the
question particle -ka is added. For exam-ple, ii desu () It is
OKbecomes ii desu-ka () Is it OK?". In a more informaltone
sometimes the particle -no () is added instead toshow a personal
interest of the speaker: Dshite konai-no? Why aren't (you)
coming?". Some simple queriesare formed simply by mentioning the
topic with an inter-rogative intonation to call for the hearer's
attention: Korewa? "(What about) this?"; O-namae wa? ()
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5.2 Inflection and conjugation 7
"(What's your) name?".Negatives are formed by inflecting the
verb. For example,Pan o taberu ()I will eat breadorI eat
breadbecomes Pan o tabenai ()I will not eat breadorI do not eat
bread. Plainnegative forms are actually i-adjectives (see below)
andinflect as such, e.g. Pan o tabenakatta ()I did not eat
bread.The so-called -te verb form is used for a variety of
pur-poses: either progressive or perfect aspect (see
above);combining verbs in a temporal sequence (Asagohan otabete
sugu dekakeruI'll eat breakfast and leave at once), simple
commands, conditional statements and permis-sions (Dekakete-mo ii?
May I go out?"), etc.The word da (plain), desu (polite) is the
copula verb. Itcorresponds approximately to the English be, but
oftentakes on other roles, including a marker for tense, whenthe
verb is conjugated into its past form datta (plain),deshita
(polite). This comes into use because only i-adjectives and verbs
can carry tense in Japanese. Twoadditional common verbs are used to
indicate existence (there is) or, in some contexts, property: aru
(negativenai) and iru (negative inai), for inanimate and
animatethings, respectively. For example, Neko ga iruThere'sa cat,
Ii kangae-ga nai "[I] haven't got a good idea.The verb to do(suru,
polite form shimasu) is oftenused to make verbs from nouns (ryri
suruto cook,benky suruto study, etc.) and has been productivein
creating modern slang words. Japanese also has a hugenumber of
compound verbs to express concepts that aredescribed in English
using a verb and an adverbial particle(e.g. tobidasuto fly out, to
flee,from tobuto fly, tojump+ dasuto put out, to emit).There are
three types of adjective (see Japanese adjec-tives):
1. keiyshi, or i adjectives, which have aconjugating ending i ()
(such as atsuito behot) which can become past ( atsukattait was
hot), or negative ( atsuku naiit is not hot). Note that nai is also
an i adjec-tive, which can become past ( atsukunakattait was not
hot).
atsui hia hot day.
2. keiydshi, or na adjectives, which arefollowed by a form of
the copula, usually na. Forexample hen (strange)
hen na hitoa strange person.
3. rentaishi, also called true adjectives, such asanothat
ano yamathat mountain.
Both keiyshi and keiydshi may predicate sentences.For
example,
Gohan ga atsui. The rice ishot.Kare wa hen da.He's strange.
Both inflect, though they do not show the full range
ofconjugation found in true verbs. The rentaishi in ModernJapanese
are few in number, and unlike the other words,are limited to
directly modifying nouns. They never pred-icate sentences. Examples
include ookinabig, konothis, iwayuruso-calledand
taishitaamazing.Both keiydshi and keiyshi form adverbs, by
followingwith ni in the case of keiydshi:
hen ni narubecome strange,
and by changing i to ku in the case of keiyshi:
atsuku narubecome hot.
The grammatical function of nouns is indicated bypostpositions,
also called particles. These include for ex-ample:
ga is a type of topic-marker.
Kare ga yatta. He did it.
ni indicates the receiver of something.
Tanaka-sanni agete kudasai Please give it to Mrs./Mr.Tanaka.
It is also used to indicate a motion to a location.
Nihon ni ikitaiI want togo to Japan. pt e ikanai ka?Won't you go
to the party?"
nomarks possession and can be used when nom-inalizing
phrases.
watashi no kameramy cameraSuk-ni iku noga suki desu "(I) like
going skiing.
o is used as a type object marker.
Nani o tabemasu ka?What will (you) eat?"
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8 6 VOCABULARY
wa for the topic. It can co-exist with the casemarkers listed
above, and it overrides ga and (inmost cases) o.
Watashi wa sushi gaii desu.I like sushi.(literally)As for
me,sushi is good.
Note: The subtle difference between wa and ga inJapanese cannot
be derived from the English language assuch, because the
distinction between sentence topic andsubject is not made there.
While wa indicates the topic,which the rest of the sentence
describes or acts upon, itcarries the implication that the subject
indicated by wa isnot unique, or may be part of a larger group.
Ikeda-san wa yonj-ni sai da. As for Mr.Ikeda, he is forty-two
years old.Others in thegroup may also be of that age.
Absence of wa often means the subject is the focus of
thesentence.
Ikeda-san ga yonj-ni sai da.It is Mr. Ikedawho is forty-two
years old.This is a reply toan implicit or explicit question, such
aswhoin this group is forty-two years old?"
5.3 Politeness
Main article: Honorific speech in Japanese
Japanese has an extensive grammatical system to
expresspoliteness and formality.The Japanese language can express
differing levels in so-cial status. The differences in social
position are deter-mined by a variety of factors including job,
age, expe-rience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person
ask-ing a favour tends to do so politely). The person inthe lower
position is expected to use a polite form ofspeech, whereas the
other person might use a plainerform. Strangers will also speak to
each other politely.Japanese children rarely use polite speech
until they areteens, at which point they are expected to begin
speakingin a more adult manner. See uchi-soto.Whereas teineigo ()
(polite language) is com-monly an inflectional system, sonkeigo ()
(respect-ful language) and kenjgo () (humble language)often employ
many special honorific and humble alter-nate verbs: iku gobecomes
ikimasu in polite form,but is replaced by irassharu in honorific
speech and uka-gau or mairu in humble speech.The difference between
honorific and humble speech isparticularly pronounced in the
Japanese language. Hum-ble language is used to talk about oneself
or one's own
group (company, family) whilst honorific language ismostly used
when describing the interlocutor and theirgroup. For example, the
-san suffix (MrMrs.orMiss) is an example of honorific language. It
is notused to talk about oneself or when talking about someonefrom
one's company to an external person, since the com-pany is the
speaker'sgroup. When speaking directlyto one's superior in one's
company or when speaking withother employees within one's company
about a superior,a Japanese person will use vocabulary and
inflections ofthe honorific register to refer to the in-group
superior andtheir speech and actions. When speaking to a person
fromanother company (i.e., a member of an out-group), how-ever, a
Japanese person will use the plain or the humbleregister to refer
to the speech and actions of their own in-group superiors. In
short, the register used in Japaneseto refer to the person, speech,
or actions of any particu-lar individual varies depending on the
relationship (eitherin-group or out-group) between the speaker and
listener,as well as depending on the relative status of the
speaker,listener, and third-person referents.Most nouns in the
Japanese language may be made politeby the addition of o- or go- as
a prefix. o- is generally usedfor words of native Japanese origin,
whereas go- is affixedto words of Chinese derivation. In some
cases, the pre-fix has become a fixed part of the word, and is
includedeven in regular speech, such as gohan 'cooked rice;
meal.'Such a construction often indicates deference to eitherthe
item's owner or to the object itself. For example,the word
tomodachi 'friend,' would become o-tomodachiwhen referring to the
friend of someone of higher status(though mothers often use this
form to refer to their chil-dren's friends). On the other hand, a
polite speaker maysometimes refer tomizu 'water' as o-mizu in order
to showpoliteness.Most Japanese people employ politeness to
indicate alack of familiarity. That is, they use polite forms for
newacquaintances, but if a relationship becomes more inti-mate,
they no longer use them. This occurs regardless ofage, social
class, or gender.
6 Vocabulary
Further information: Yamato kotoba and Gairaigo
The original language of Japan, or at least the originallanguage
of a certain population that was ancestral to asignificant portion
of the historical and present Japanesenation, was the so-called
yamato kotoba ( orinfrequently , i.e. "Yamato words), which
inscholarly contexts is sometimes referred to as wago ( or rarely,
i.e. the "Wa words). In addition towords from this original
language, present-day Japaneseincludes a number of words that were
either borrowedfrom Chinese or constructed from Chinese roots
follow-
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9
ing Chinese patterns. These words, known as kango (), entered
the language from the 5th century onwardsvia contact with Chinese
culture. According to the Shin-sen Kokugo Jiten () Japanese
dictionary,kangomake up 49.1% of the total vocabulary,wagomakeup
33.8%, other foreign words or gairaigo () ac-count for 8.8%, and
the remaining 8.3% constitute hy-bridized words or konshugo () that
draw elementsfrom more than one language.*[29]There are also a
great number of words of mimeticorigin in Japanese, with Japanese
having a rich collec-tion of sound symbolism, both onomatopoeia for
phys-ical sounds, and more abstract words. A small num-ber of words
have come into Japanese from the Ainulanguage. Tonakai (reindeer),
rakko (sea otter) andshishamo (smelt, a type of fish) are
well-known examplesof words of Ainu origin.Words of different
origins occupy different registers inJapanese. Like Latin-derived
words in English, kangowords are typically perceived as somewhat
formal or aca-demic compared to equivalent Yamato words. Indeed,it
is generally fair to say that an English word derivedfrom
Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in
Japanese, whereas a simpler Anglo-Saxon word would best be
translated by a Yamato equiv-alent.Incorporating vocabulary from
European languages be-gan with borrowings from Portuguese in the
16th century,followed by words from Dutch during Japan's long
isola-tion of the Edo period. With the Meiji Restoration andthe
reopening of Japan in the 19th century, borrowing oc-curred from
German, French, and English. Today mostborrowings are from
English.In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neol-ogisms
using Chinese roots and morphology to trans-late European concepts;
these are known as wasei kango(Japanese-made Chinese words). Many
of these werethen imported into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese
viatheir kanji in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Forexample, seiji (politics), and kagaku (chemistry) are words
derived from Chinese roots thatwere first created and used by the
Japanese, and only laterborrowed into Chinese and other East Asian
languages.As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and
Vietnameseshare a large common corpus of vocabulary in the sameway
a large number of Greek- and Latin-derived words both inherited or
borrowed into European languages, ormodern coinages from Greek or
Latin roots are sharedamong modern European languages see classical
com-pound.In the past few decades, wasei-eigo (made-in-Japan
En-glish) has become a prominent phenomenon. Wordssuch as wanpatn
(< one + pattern,tobe in a rut,to have a one-trackmind) and
sukinshippu (< skin + -ship, physical contact),although coined
by compounding English roots, are non-
sensical in most non-Japanese contexts; exceptions existin
nearby languages such as Korean however, which oftenuse words such
as skinship and rimokon (remote control)in the same way as in
Japanese.The popularity of many Japanese cultural exports hasmade
some native Japanese words familiar in English,including futon,
haiku, judo, kamikaze, karaoke, karate,ninja, origami, rickshaw
(from jinrikisha),samurai, sayonara, sudoku, sumo, sushi, tsunami,
tycoon.See list of English words of Japanese origin for more.
7 Writing system
Main articles: Japanese writing system and Japanesebraille
Literacy was introduced to Japan in the form of theChinese
writing system, by way of Baekje before the 5thcentury.*[30] Using
this language, the Japanese king Bupresented a petition to Emperor
Shun of Liu Song inAD 478.*[lower-alpha 1] After the ruin of
Baekje, Japaninvited scholars from China to learn more of the
Chi-nese writing system. Japanese emperors gave an officialrank to
Chinese scholars (//*[lower-alpha2]*[lower-alpha 3] *[lower-alpha
4]) and spreadthe use of Chinese characters from the 7th century to
the8th century.
Table of Kana: Hiragana top, Katakana in the center and
Ro-manized equivalents at the bottom
At first, the Japanese wrote in Classical Chinese, withJapanese
names represented by characters used for theirmeanings and not
their sounds. Later, during the 7th cen-tury AD, the
Chinese-sounding phoneme principle was
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10 8 STUDY BY NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS
used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose, but someJapanese
words were still written with characters for theirmeaning and not
the original Chinese sound. This is whenthe history of Japanese as
a written language begins in itsown right. By this time, the
Japanese language was al-ready very distinct from the Ryukyuan
languages.*[31]An example of this mixed style is the Kojiki,
whichwas written in AD 712. They then started to use Chi-nese
characters to write Japanese in a style known asman'ygana, a
syllabic script which used Chinese char-acters for their sounds in
order to transcribe the words ofJapanese speech syllable by
syllable.Over time, a writing system evolved. Chinese charac-ters
(kanji) were used to write either words borrowedfrom Chinese, or
Japanese words with the same or simi-lar meanings. Chinese
characters were also used to writegrammatical elements, were
simplified, and eventuallybecame two syllabic scripts: hiragana and
katakana whichwere developed based on Manyogana from
Baekje.*[32]However this hypothesisManyogana from Baekjeisdenied by
other scholars.*[33]*[34]Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of
three mainsystems: kanji, characters of Chinese origin used to
rep-resent both Chinese loanwords into Japanese and a num-ber of
native Japanese morphemes; and two syllabaries:hiragana and
katakana. The Latin script is also some-times used, mostly in
acronyms and other abbreviations.Arabic numerals are much more
common than the kanjiwhen used in counting, but kanji numerals are
still usedin compounds, such as titsu (unification).Hiragana are
used for words without kanji representation,for words no longer
written in kanji, and also followingkanji to show conjugational
endings. Because of the wayverbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are
conjugated, kanjialone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood,
askanji cannot be subject to variation when written withoutlosing
its meaning. For this reason, hiragana are suffixedto the ends of
kanji to show verb and adjective conjuga-tions. Hiragana used in
this way are called okurigana. Hi-ragana can also be written in a
superscript called furiganaabove or beside a kanji to show the
proper reading. Thisis done to facilitate learning, as well as to
clarify particu-larly old or obscure (or sometimes invented)
readings.Katakana, like hiragana, are a syllabary; katakana
areprimarily used to write foreign words, plant and animalnames,
and for emphasis. For exampleAustraliahasbeen adapted assutoraria
(), andsu-permarkethas been adapted and shortened into
sp().Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in
usecommenced in the mid-19th century, but did not becomea matter of
government intervention until after Japan'sdefeat in the Second
World War. During the period ofpost-war occupation (and influenced
by the views of someU.S. officials), various schemes including the
completeabolition of kanji and exclusive use of rmaji were con-
sidered. The jy kanji (common use kanji, originallycalled ty
kanji [kanji for general use]) scheme arose asa compromise
solution.Japanese students begin to learn kanji from their first
yearat elementary school. A guideline created by the
JapaneseMinistry of Education, the list of kyiku kanji
(educationkanji, a subset of jy kanji), specifies the 1,006
simplecharacters a child is to learn by the end of sixth
grade.Children continue to study another 1,130 characters injunior
high school, covering in total 2,136 jy kanji. Theofficial list of
jy kanji was revised several times, but thetotal number of
officially sanctioned characters remainedlargely unchanged.As for
kanji for personal names, the circumstances aresomewhat
complicated. Jy kanji and jinmeiy kanji(an appendix of additional
characters for names) are ap-proved for registering personal names.
Names contain-ing unapproved characters are denied registration.
How-ever, as with the list of jy kanji, criteria for inclusionwere
often arbitrary and led to many common and popu-lar characters
being disapproved for use. Under popularpressure and following a
court decision holding the exclu-sion of common characters
unlawful, the list of jinmeiykanjiwas substantially extended from
92 in 1951 (the yearit was first decreed) to 983 in 2004.
Furthermore, fami-lies whose names are not on these lists were
permitted tocontinue using the older forms.
8 Study by non-native speakers
Japanese Language Training at CASA
Many major universities throughout the world provideJapanese
language courses, and a number of secondaryand even primary schools
worldwide offer courses inthe language. This is much changed from
before WorldWar II; in 1940, only 65 Americans not of Japanese
de-scent were able to read, write and understand the
lan-guage.*[35]International interest in the Japanese language
dates fromthe 19th century but has become more prevalent follow-ing
Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the globalpopularity of
Japanese popular culture (such as anime
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryukyuan_languageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojikihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_charactershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_charactershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraganahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakanahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manyoganahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanwordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphemehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraganahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakanahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_scripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraganahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_verb_conjugationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okuriganahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furiganahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakanahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%8Diku_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinmeiy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinmeiy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinmeiy%C5%8D_kanjihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Americanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Americanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_popular_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime
-
11
Japanese High school Language Lab
and video games) since the 1990s. Near of 4 millionpeople
studied the language worldwide in 2012: morethan 1million Chinese,
872,000 Indonesians and 840,000South Koreans studied Japanese in
lower and higher ed-ucational institutions. In the last three years
the numberof students studying Japanese in China increased by
26.5percent/three years, and by 21.8 percent Indonesia, butdropped
12.8 percent in South Korea.*[36]In Japan, more than 90,000 foreign
students studied atJapanese universities and Japanese language
schools, in-cluding 77,000 Chinese and 15,000 South Koreans in2003.
In addition, local governments and some NPOgroups provide free
Japanese language classes for foreignresidents, including Japanese
Brazilians and foreignersmarried to Japanese nationals. In the
United Kingdom,study of the Japanese language is supported by the
BritishAssociation for Japanese Studies. In Ireland, Japanese
isoffered as a language in the Leaving Certificate in
someschools.The Japanese government provides standardized tests
tomeasure spoken and written comprehension of Japanesefor second
language learners; the most prominent is theJapanese Language
Proficiency Test (JLPT), which fea-tures five levels of exams
(changed from four levels in2010), ranging from elementary (N5) to
advanced (N1).The JLPT is offered twice a year. The Japanese
Ex-ternal Trade Organization JETRO organizes the BusinessJapanese
Proficiency Test which tests the learner's abilityto understand
Japanese in a business setting. The JapanKanji Aptitude Testing
Foundation, which took over theBJT from JETRO in 2009, announced in
August 2010that the test would be discontinued in 2011 due to
finan-cial pressures on the Foundation. However, it has sinceissued
a statement to the effect that the test will continueto be
available as a result of support from the
Japanesegovernment.*[37]*[38]
9 See also Aizuchi
Culture of Japan
Henohenomoheji
Japanese dictionaries
Japanese language and computers
Japanese literature
Japanese name
Japanese orthography issues
Japanese Sign Language family
Japanese words and words derived from Japanese inother languages
at Wiktionary, Wikipedia's siblingproject
Rendaku
Romanization of Japanese
Hepburn romanization
Shogakukan Progressive JapaneseEnglish Dictio-nary (book)
Yojijukugo
10 Notes
[1] Book of Song
[2] Nihon shoki Chapter 30:
[3] Nihon shoki Chapter 30:
[4] Shoku Nihongi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_gamehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Koreahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Japanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_schoolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit_organisationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Brazilianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Association_for_Japanese_Studieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Association_for_Japanese_Studieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Irelandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Leaving_Certificatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Language_Proficiency_Testhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JETROhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aizuchihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Japanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henohenomohejihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_dictionarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language_and_computershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_literaturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_namehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_orthography_issueshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_familyhttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Japanese%2520languagehttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Japanese%2520derivationshttps://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Japanese%2520derivationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktionaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendakuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanesehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogakukan_Progressive_Japanese-English_Dictionaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogakukan_Progressive_Japanese-English_Dictionaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yojijukugohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Songhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_shokihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_shokihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoku_Nihongi
-
12 12 WORKS CITED
11 References[1] Vrldens 100 strsta sprk 2010[The world's
100
largest languages in 2010]. Nationalencyklopedin (inSwedish).
2010. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
[2] Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel,Robert;
Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). NuclearJapanese. Glottolog 2.2.
Leipzig: Max Planck Institutefor Evolutionary Anthropology.
[3] Wade, Nicholas (May 4, 2011). Finding on DialectsCasts New
Light on the Origins of the Japanese People.The New York Times.
Retrieved May 7, 2011.
[4] Shinkichi Hashimoto (February 3, 1918)2611(1949) ( 3)()
[5] (1953)()p.126
[6] (1931) 4 (1957()
[7] Irwin 2011, pp. 32, 34.
[8] Irwin 2011, pp. 3940.
[9] Miura, Akira, English in Japanese, Weatherhill, 1998.
[10] Japanese is listed as one of the official languages
ofAngaur state, Palau (Ethnologe, CIA World Factbook).However, very
few Japanese speakers were recorded inthe 2005 census.
[11] IBGE traa perfil dos imigrantes Imigrao Madein Japan.
Madeinjapan.uol.com.br. 2008-06-21. Re-trieved 2012-11-20.
[12] American FactFinder. Factfinder.census.gov. Re-trieved
2013-02-01.
[13] Japanese Source Census 2000, Summary File 3, STP258.
Mla.org. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
[14] Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Data table. 2.stat-can.ca.
2010-06-10. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
[15] The Japanese in Colonial Southeast Asia - Google
Books.Books.google.com. Retrieved on 2014-06-07.
[16] (inJapanese). Legislative Bureau of the House of
Council-lors. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
[17] Robbeets 2005, p. 20.
[18] Kindaichi & Hirano 1978, pp. 3031.
[19] Robbeets 2005, p. 25.
[20] Robbeets 2005, p. 25; Vovin 2010, p. 3.
[21] Vovin 2010, p. 3.
[22] Vovin 2010, p. 6.
[23] Robbeets 2005, p. 18.
[24] Robbeets 2005, p. 19.
[25] Robbeets 2005, p. 22.
[26] Robbeets 2005, pp. 21, 23.
[27] Robbeets 2005, pp. 2627.
[28] [Tachi] (in Japanese). Sanseido. Retrieved2014-08-18.
[29] , , , 2001, ISBN 4-09-501407-5
[30] "Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan,Asia Society Mu-seum;
"Kanji,JapanGuide.com; "Pottery,MSN En-carta; "History of
Japan,JapanVisitor.com. Archived2009-10-31.
[31] Heinrich, Patrick. What leaves a mark should nolonger
stain: Progressive erasure and reversing languageshift activities
in the Ryukyu Islands,First InternationalSmall Island Cultures
Conference at Kagoshima Univer-sity, Centre for the Pacific
Islands, February 710, 2005;citing Shiro Hattori. (1954)Gengo
nendaigaku sunawachigoi tokeigaku no hoho ni tsuite (Concerning the
Methodof Glottochronology and Lexicostatistics),Gengo
kenkyu(Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan), Vols.
26/27.
[32] John R. Bentley. ""The origin of Manyogana, Bulletinof the
School of Oriental and African Studies (2001), 64:5973. Cambridge
University Press. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
[33] Shunpei Mizuno, ed. (2002). ! (in Japanese). Shogakukan.
ISBN4-09-402716-5.
[34] Shunpei Mizuno, ed. (2007). vs (in Japanese). Shogakukan.
ISBN 4-09-387703-3.
[35] Beate Sirota Gordon commencement address atMills Col-lege,
May 14, 2011. Sotomayor, Denzel Washington,GE CEO Speak to
Graduates, C-SPAN (US). May 30,2011; retrieved 2011-05-30
[36] RI ranks No. 2 in learning Japanese language. July15,
2013.
[37]BJT Business Japanese Proficiency Test.
Kanken.or.jp.Retrieved 2012-11-20.
[38]Relaunching of the Business Japanese Proficiency Test inFY
2012 and Temporary Measures in FY 2011 (pdf).Japan Kanji Aptitude
Testing Foundation. 2010-11-25.Archived from the original on
2011-09-30. Retrieved2014-12-16.
12 Works cited Bloch, Bernard (1946). Studies in
colloquialJapanese I: Inflection. Journal of the American Ori-ental
Society, 66, pp. 97130.
Bloch, Bernard (1946). Studies in colloquialJapanese II: Syntax.
Language, 22, pp. 200248.
http://www.ne.se/spr%25C3%25A5k/v%25C3%25A4rldens-100-st%25C3%25B6rsta-spr%25C3%25A5k-2010http://www.ne.se/spr%25C3%25A5k/v%25C3%25A4rldens-100-st%25C3%25B6rsta-spr%25C3%25A5k-2010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalencyklopedinhttp://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nucl1643http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nucl1643http://glottolog.org/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/04/world/asia/04language.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/04/world/asia/04language.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Timeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFIrwin2011https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFIrwin2011https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angaurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palauhttp://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PWhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ps.htmlhttp://www.spc.int/prism/country/pw/stats/PalauStats/Publication/2005CENSUS.pdfhttp://madeinjapan.uol.com.br/2008/06/21/ibge-traca-perfil-dos-imigrantes/http://madeinjapan.uol.com.br/2008/06/21/ibge-traca-perfil-dos-imigrantes/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=enhttp://www.mla.org/map_data_results&mode=lang_tops&SRVY_YEAR=2000&lang_id=723http://www.mla.org/map_data_results&mode=lang_tops&SRVY_YEAR=2000&lang_id=723http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=CMA&Code=933&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000http://books.google.com/books?id=6mfCzrbOn80C&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=Japanese+immigrants+to+Davao&source=bl&ots=N7e-pwYl-X&sig=2V4hFvECX8L-l93szb6keD7nq68&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uidpUs_DEYivkAeK34Fo&ved=0CGIQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=Japanese%2520immigrants%2520to%2520Davao&f=falsehttp://houseikyoku.sangiin.go.jp/column/column068.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFKindaichiHirano1978https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFVovin2010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFVovin2010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFVovin2010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%2520language#CITEREFRobbeets2005http://www.sanseido.net/User/Dic/Index.aspx?TWords=%25E3%2581%259F%25E3%2581%25A1+%25E9%2581%2594&st=0&DORDER=151617&DailyJJ=checkbox&DailyEJ=checkbox&DailyJE=checkboxhttp://www.sanseido.net/User/Dic/Index.aspx?TWords=%25E3%2581%259F%25E3%2581%25A1+%25E9%2581%2594&st=0&DORDER=151617&DailyJJ=checkbox&DailyEJ=checkbox&DailyJE=checkboxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseidohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4095014075https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4095014075http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/koreajapan.htmlhttp://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2046.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568150_4/Pottery.htmlhttp://www.japanvisitor.com/index.php?cID=359&pID=334&cName=Japanesehttp://www.webcitation.org/5kwPni5fJhttp://www.sicri-network.org/ISIC1/j.%2520ISIC1P%2520Heinrich.pdfhttp://www.sicri-network.org/ISIC1/j.%2520ISIC1P%2520Heinrich.pdfhttp://www.sicri-network.org/ISIC1/j.%2520ISIC1P%2520Heinrich.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagoshima_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagoshima_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiro_Hattorihttp://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=70352http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=70352http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=70352https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Presshttp://books.google.com/?id=_MMbNwAACAAJ&dq=%25E6%2597%25A5%25E6%259C%25AC%25E5%2581%25BD%25E5%258F%25B2&cd=3http://books.google.com/?id=_MMbNwAACAAJ&dq=%25E6%2597%25A5%25E6%259C%25AC%25E5%2581%25BD%25E5%258F%25B2&cd=3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-09-402716-5http://books.google.com/?id=qwBgGQAACAAJ&dq=%25E6%2597%25A5%25E6%259C%25AC%25E5%2581%25BD%25E5%258F%25B2&cd=2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-09-387703-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beate_Sirota_Gordonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mills_Collegehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mills_Collegehttp://www.c-span.org/Events/Sotomayor-Denzel-Washington-GE-CEO-Speak-to-Graduates/10737421758-10/http://www.c-span.org/Events/Sotomayor-Denzel-Washington-GE-CEO-Speak-to-Graduates/10737421758-10/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/07/15/ri-ranks-no-2-learning-japanese-language.htmlhttp://www.kanken.or.jp/bjt/english/index.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20110930024008/http://www.kanken.or.jp/bjt/pdf/statement-e.pdfhttp://web.archive.org/web/20110930024008/http://www.kanken.or.jp/bjt/pdf/statement-e.pdfhttp://www.kanken.or.jp/bjt/pdf/statement-e.pdf
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13
Chafe, William L. (1976). Giveness, contrastive-ness,
definiteness, subjects, topics, and point ofview. In C. Li (Ed.),
Subject and topic (pp. 2556).New York: Academic Press. ISBN
0-12-447350-4.
Dalby, Andrew. (2004). Japanese, in Dic-tionary of Languages:
the Definitive Reference toMore than 400 Languages. New York:
ColumbiaUniversity Press. 10-ISBN 0231115687/13-ISBN9780231115681;
10-ISBN 0231115695/13-ISBN9780231115698; OCLC 474656178
Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). A history of the Japaneselanguage.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-65320-6.
Irwin, Mark (2011). Loanwords in Japanese. JohnBenjamins
Publishing. ISBN 90-272-0592-2.
Kindaichi, Haruhiko; Hirano, Umeyo (1978). TheJapanese Language.
Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-1579-6.
Kuno, Susumu (1973). The structure of the Japaneselanguage.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-11049-0.
Kuno, Susumu. (1976). Subject, theme, and thespeaker's empathy:
A re-examination of relativiza-tion phenomena,in Charles N. Li
(Ed.), Subject andtopic (pp. 417444). New York: Academic Press.ISBN
0-12-447350-4.
Martin, Samuel E. (1975). A reference grammar ofJapanese.
NewHaven: Yale University Press. ISBN0-300-01813-4.
McClain, Yoko Matsuoka. (1981). Handbook ofmodern Japanese
grammar: [Kgo Nihon bump]. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press.ISBN
4-590-00570-0; ISBN 0-89346-149-0.
Miller, Roy (1967). The Japanese language.Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Miller, Roy (1980). Origins of the Japanese lan-guage: Lectures
in Japan during the academic year,197778. Seattle: University of
Washington Press.ISBN 0-295-95766-2.
Mizutani, Osamu; & Mizutani, Nobuko (1987).How to be polite
in Japanese: [Ni-hongo no keigo]. Tokyo: The Japan Times.
ISBN4-7890-0338-8.
Robbeets, Martine Irma (2005). Is Japanese Relatedto Korean,
Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic?. OttoHarrassowitz Verlag. ISBN
978-3-447-05247-4.
Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). Japanese. In B. Com-rie (Ed.), The
major languages of east and south-eastAsia. London: Routledge. ISBN
0-415-04739-0.
Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). The languages ofJapan. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-36070-6 (hbk); ISBN
0-521-36918-5(pbk).
Shibamoto, Janet S. (1985). Japanese women's lan-guage. New
York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-640030-X. Graduate Level
Tsujimura, Natsuko (1996). An introduction toJapanese
linguistics. Cambridge, MA: BlackwellPublishers. ISBN 0-631-19855-5
(hbk); ISBN 0-631-19856-3 (pbk). Upper Level Textbooks
Tsujimura, Natsuko (Ed.) (1999). The hand-book of Japanese
linguistics. Malden, MA: Black-well Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20504-7.
Read-ings/Anthologies
Vovin, Alexander (2010). Korea-Japonica: A Re-Evaluation of a
Common Genetic Origin. Universityof Hawaii Press. ISBN
978-0-8248-3278-0.
13 Further reading Rudolf Lange (1907). Christopher Noss, ed. A
text-book of colloquial Japanese (revised English ed.).TOKYO:
Methodist publishing house. p. 588. Re-trieved 1March 2012.(All
rights reserved, copyright1903 by Christopher Noss; reprinted April
1907by the Methodist Publishing House, Tokyo, Japan)(Original from
the New York Public Library) (Dig-itized Apr 2, 2008)
Rudolf Lange (1907). Christopher Noss, ed. A text-book of
colloquial Japanese (revised English ed.).TOKYO: Methodist
publishing house. p. 588. Re-trieved 1March 2012.(All rights
reserved; copyright1903 by Christopher Noss; reprinted April 1907by
the Methodist Publishing House, Tokyo, Japan)(Original from Harvard
University) (Digitized Oct10, 2008)
Rudolf Lange, Christopher Noss (1903). AText-book of Colloquial
Japanese (English ed.).The Kaneko Press, North Japan College,
Sendai:Methodist Publishing House. p. 573. Retrieved1 March
2012.(Tokyo Methodist Publishing House1903)
Rudolf Lange (1903). Christopher Noss, ed. Atext-book of
colloquial Japanese: based on theLehrbuch der japanischen
umgangssprache by Dr.Rudolf Lange (revised English ed.).
TOKYO:Methodist publishing house. p. 588. Retrieved1 March
2012.(All rights reserved; copyright 1903by Christopher Noss;
reprinted April 1907 by theMethodist Publishing House, Tokyo,
Japan) (Origi-nal from the University of California) (Digitized
Oct10, 2007)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0124473504http://www.credoreference.com/entry/dictlang/japanesehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231115687https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231115681https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231115681https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231115695https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231115698https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231115698http://www.worldcat.org/title/dictionary-of-languages-the-definitive-reference-to-more-than-400-languages/oclc/474656178https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521653206http://books.google.com/books?id=iGFGIc06LE4Chttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Benjamins_Publishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Benjamins_Publishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-0592-2http://books.google.com/books?id=IZhFf3hlgNoChttp://books.google.com/books?id=IZhFf3hlgNoChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuttle_Publishinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-1579-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-1579-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262110490https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262110490https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0124473504https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300018134https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300018134https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4590005700https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0893461490https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0295957662https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Japan_Timeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4789003388https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4789003388http://books.google.com/books?id=7ysws67HZegChttp://books.google.com/books?id=7ysws67HZegChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05247-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415047390https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521360706https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521369185https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/012640030Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/012640030Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631198555https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631198563https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631198563https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631205047https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Vovinhttp://books.google.com/books?id=um8O1bp-86EChttp://books.google.com/books?id=um8O1bp-86EChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3278-0http://books.google.com/?id=6SkYAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=6SkYAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=Q2suAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=Q2suAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=BmwwAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=BmwwAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=PhVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=PhVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=PhVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=PhVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
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14 14 EXTERNAL LINKS
Shibatani, Masayoshi. (1990). The languages ofJapan. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
Hayakawa, Isamu. (2014). A Historical Dictionaryof Japanese
Words Used in English. Revised andCorrected Edition. Amazon (Tokyo:
Texnai).
Japanese Language. MIT. Retrieved 2009-05-13.
14 External links National Institute for Japanese Language and
Lin-
guistics
Japanese Language Student's Handbook
USA Foreign Service Institute Japanese course
http://web.mit.edu/jpnet/articles/JapaneseLanguage.htmlhttp://www.ninjal.ac.jp/english/http://www.ninjal.ac.jp/english/http://tangorin.com/handbook/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Service_Institutehttps://www.livelingua.com/fsi-japanese-course.php
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15
15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
15.1 Text Japanese language Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20language?oldid=643220803
Contributors: Brion VIBBER,
Archibald Fitzchesterfield, Taw, Ed Poor, Aidan Elliott-McCrea,
Eob, Kowloonese, Danny, Hannes Hirzel, Zoe, Fredb, Gogaku,
Heron,Vassili Nikolaev, Zimriel, Erwan, Olivier, Stevertigo,
Dhilvert, Steverapaport, Frecklefoot, Lorenzarius, Patrick, AdSR,
Tillwe, Paul Bar-low, Wshun, Kwertii, Euske, Laszlo, Gabbe, Chuck
SMITH, Menchi, Tannin, Ixfd64, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Davejenk1ns,
Stw, Looxix,Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Cyp, Synthetik, Kricxjo, Mac, Jpatokal,
Marumari, Angela, Den fjttrade ankan, Bueller 007, Bogdangiusca,
Junesun,Jiang, Grin, Rawr, David Stewart, Jordi Burguet Castell,
Mib, Atob, EdH, Ruhrjung, Eirik (usurped), Samuel, Tobias Conradi,
Mxn,MakiAEA, Emperorbma, Adam Bishop, Timwi, Nohat, Random832,
MattH, Jogloran, WhisperToMe, Invisible Friend, Rvalles,
Japman,Furrykef, Morwen, Chariot, Sabbut, Mdchachi, Christopher
Sundita, Topbanana, Joy, HarryHenryGebel, Jusjih, AdoNama, Nb,
BenRG,Denelson83, Robbot, Araisyohei, Zandperl, Korath, Chris 73,
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