IT TECHNOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURE AND SPACE … · IT TECHNOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURE AND SPACE REPRESENTATION.BRUNO ZEVI METHODS REVISED their inability to satisfy the needs of human

1. INTRODUCTIONIn 1948, Bruno Zevi in “Architecture as space” [1]raised the issue of spatial representation in the chap-ter of the same title. He described therein the issues ofpresenting architecture and imperfect tools used atthat time by architects and pedagogics. Today, seventyyears later, these theses are still valid, but the work canbe supplemented with new achievements, that seem toconfirm Zevi assumptions that there is still a lot toachieve in the field of architecture representation.Architecture understood as the separation of spaceusing various means requires presentation by methodsshowing these divisions in the fullest possible way.Spatial representation is also closely related to cogni-tive abilities of man and these depend on our sensesand body. We sense the space with vision, hearing,smell, touch [2, 3] and taste. While being present phys-ically in the space as observers we are dependent onthe environment and we impact it. The observer and

the environment is a coupled system in which ele-ments influence each other. The ideal spatial repre-sentation method would have to provide all the senseswith necessary data, include the scale and mutualimpact of the observer and the presented structure.The history of the development of the representationof space indicates the pursuit of a man to achieve thegoal which is to imitate the real experience of space.

2. SPACE REPRESENTATION METHODSBY BRUNO ZEVI [1]2.1. Drawing methodsPlans and elevations belong to the group of drawingmethods originally executed by hand. They both havea flat figure in common, but they differ in content andform – while the former are a record of primarily theinterior structure, the latter show an external shape.Technical drawing is still a basic tool to represent spa-

IT TECHNOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURE AND SPACE REPRESENTATION.BRUNO ZEVI METHODS REVISED

Aleksandra ŚLIWA *

*MSc Eng. Arch.; Faculty of Architecture, The Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 7, 44-100 Gliwice, PolandE-mail address: [email protected]

Received: 2.01.2019; Revised: 22.03.2019; Accepted: 27.08.2019

A b s t r a c tSpace representation methods as described by Bruno Zevi in “Architecture as space” are still valid today. Projections, ele-vations, models, photos and films are commonly used and all of them define the space in a specific way, yet none defines itcompletely. The development of IT technologies caused emergence of new methods which shape the picture of today’s archi-tecture. Originally, a conventional technical drawing was adapted to the computer environment, but it was the 3D technol-ogy that revolutionized spatial representation, by restoring priority to the three-dimensional aspect of reality. Models allowus to explore the virtual reality, which is a huge progress in spatial representation. Thanks to advanced software, buildingsof complex structure are formed, bearing testimony of their times – times of IT technologies. A flawless spatial representa-tion method that perhaps will be known in the future should satisfy multi-plane needs of the observer, who experiences therepresented space with all senses and impacts it as well.

K e y w o r d s : IT technologies in architecture; Perception of space; Space representation methods; Three-dimensional tech-nologies.

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tial structures and acts as a basis of design documen-tation. A hand drawing is used by designers to recordconcepts and ideas, by which a final picture of theproject is defined [4]. An objection made by BrunoZevi against plans and elevations is their inability tocapture the third dimension, which is the basic prop-erty of space. The technique of recording spatialstructures to projections, sections or elevations baseson schematic record of information in the system-atized language of design, deprived of plasticity pre-sent in space and architecture. This language is read-able for few and understood depending on the indi-vidual sensitivity of the recipient. The 2D representa-tion is a type of code describing the reality, whoseinterpretation largely differs from the real experi-ence. The common method of recording data aboutspace, the three-dimensional by nature, consists inconversion to the flat diagram, which result in a lossof essential data. On the other hand, as MariaMisiągiewicz notes, drawing by synthesis brings outwhat is most important [5]. The perspective discov-ered in the 15th century was the first technicalattempt to depict three-dimensional space in a draw-ing, which was oriented on the target picture of rep-resented spaces more than schematic projections orsections [6]. Three centuries later, Gaspard Mongeinvented a descriptive geometry allowing for precisemapping of spatial figures on a plane that has foundits application in many technical fields, includingarchitecture. Neither the perspective drawing nor thedescriptive geometry was included in the work ofBruno Zevi, but their form and characteristics placethem between flat projections and photography.

2.2. Recording methodsIn the 19th century came mechanized photography,which allowed to capture real figure of photographedobjects. A disadvantage of both methods, perspectivedrawings and photography, was the limitation to asingle frame – “no number of photographs can everconstitute a complete pictorial rendition of a build-ing” as claimed by Bruno Zevi [1]. The discovery ofperspective and photography contributed in architec-ture to a more perfect presentation of spatial struc-tures. The continuation of photography’s achieve-ments was the discovery of video, allowing to recordsound and dynamics where changes in the cameralocation in the space imitate an observer’s movement.The whole process of changes between the plasticarts, photography and video was depicted by AndréBazin in a short citation: “Objectivism of photogra-phy gives the picture a force of credibility that does

not exist in other plastic works (…) the videobecomes something that annexes time for photo-graphic objectivism” [7]. Photography and cine-matography as new technologies and recording meth-ods contributed to the development of visual arts andthus the spatial representation by eliminating similar-ity in visual forms of transmission and replacing themwith realism. Important seems to be the fact that themechanism of photography and film in technicalterms is based on recording lights and shadows. Oneof the operating definitions of architecture is thestatement by Le Corbusier, that it is the “game (…)of forms assembled in the light” [6], which pointsdirectly to the dependence of methodic on theessence of spatial structures. The movie industry con-tributed to the development of spatial representationalso by using models that give impression of space ofnatural size. The pioneer work using this method wasthe picture “A Trip to the Moon” by George Mélièsfrom 1902, but the actual display of potential was pre-sented 25 years later in the futurist “Metropolis” byFritz Lang. It is an example of synthesis two spatialrepresentation methods to achieve better effects. Theinvention of cinematography as a phenomenon itselfhad many interpretations, which today may serve astheoretical basis for meditations on the nature of spa-tial representation. The realism and creativity of cin-ematography underlie the cinema analyzing theories,which relate to: recording the reality – reproductionand abstract creation – arts [7].

2.3. Cubature methodsModels are a method which can be called cubature,that is the one that maintains three-dimmentionalproperties of the space it represents but impairs oneof the main characteristics of space – the scale.Producing fragments or the whole structure in thetarget scale to verify an intended effect is rarely donein architecture due to the high costs. This practice isapplied for example in the aircraft industry. InToulouse, at the main office of Airbus, the so-calledmock-up center, models of interior of aircrafts A321,A-340-600, A380 and Airbus Corporate Jet were con-structed. The last but one, A380, is currently thebiggest passenger aircraft in the world and its modelcovers 550 m2 of interiors located on two boards. JanGehl points to the fact that the perspective of a stand-ing or moving man changes completely the percep-tion of space, giving the example of the capital ofBrazil: „Brasilia as viewed from the height is a beau-tiful composition (…). But the city is a disaster fromthe human perspective” [8]. A drawback of models is

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their inability to satisfy the needs of human sensesand demands of human scale. The dependence ofhuman perception is an element directly determiningthe quality of space representation, therefore despitemany similarities to the represented original, it is nota fully satisfying method.

3. IT TECHNOLOGIES IN SPACE REP-RESENTATIONS3.1. Two- and three-dimensional representations ofspace in a computer environmentIn the 20th century, IT technologies revolutionized allbranches of industry, including the architectural.CAD (Computer Aided Design) software enableddigital record of data replacing the hand drawing as abasic method of developing technical documenta-tion [9]. The individual sensitivity was replaced by aneutral precision and since that time, designs are cre-ated with a computer technology allowing for changeof scale, multiple print and unlimited adjustments. Atfirst, IT technologies only transferred already knownmechanisms from a drawing board onto monitorscreen, but the discovery of three-dimensional graph-ics has completely transformed the spatial represen-tation by restoring priority of the three-dimensionalaspect of reality [10]. 3D modelling is creating dataon the space in the virtual environment with a spe-cialist software, allowing to represent data of any spa-tial structures. What differentiate this method fromthe others, is that in fact it is not the spatial repre-sentation, but creation of equivalent space. Model indigital environment is not a representation, but analternative space, which can then be represented byconventional plans, sections, elevations, perspectives,visualizations and animations. The three-dimension-al technology also affected the process of developingdocumentation, which resembles the mechanism oferecting a building, whereas preparing two-dimen-sional drawings was an attempt to transpose abstractdata onto paper. Three-dimensional model is “both adesign and communications medium” as described byChris Abel presenting the main assumptions of theBio-Tech architecture, which is not characterized bythe form of buildings, their style or technology, but adesign process based on a model in a digital environ-ment. According to his interpretation, the virtual pro-totype allows “simulating visual, functional, structur-al, environmental and even economic properties (...),modifying them until such point as the requiredresult is achieved” [11]. Elizabeth Grosz calls virtualreality a parallel world and notes that it always exist-

ed, it is a place for potential possibilities and it is nodifferent from creation through writing, reading,drawing or thinking – it is an alternative reality forthings that do not exist yet [12]. From this point ofview, the computer environment is just another areafor the acts of creation, but it undoubtedly revealsnew paths of presentation of complex spatial ideas.What's more, this leads to the conclusion that themethods do not affect the creator’s ability to inventnew concepts, but they affect his ability to presentthem and as a consequence, they influence the imple-mentation.

3.2. Parametric designThe development of digital design tools has alsoresulted in the emergence of a new type of design –parametric design. Computer software based onmathematical calculations and algorithms, enabledthe growth of a new mechanism for creating informa-tion about spatial objects [13]. It consists in control-ling the designed form by defining principles (para-meters) that are subject to automated transforma-tions when changing selected data about related ele-ments. Space design has always consisted in inten-tional adjustment of its individual parts – parametri-cism in turn, often referred to as a new style in archi-tecture, transfers part of this procedure to specializedsoftware. Krystyna Januszkiewicz summarized thisphenomenon with the following words: “Parametricmodeling has changed the representation of the pro-ject from a readable geometric record into instru-mental geometrical relations” [13], which points to anew property of digital design tools – their ability togenerate possible scenarios for the development ofthe original idea, with vestigial involvement of thedesigner. Human participation is still necessary, but itis limited to determining parameters, bypassing thetedious process of calculation and redrawing, whichseems to bring the architect closer to the professionof a programmer.

3.3. Exploration of 3D model space3D model also enables space exploration, which hasnever been achieved before. By using a monitorscreen and a controller, an observer may explore thevirtual space by moving position and direction ofcamera – but still, the experience is far different fromactual exploration of space in reality, which dependson human perception and locomotion. A response tothis issue is the currently available VR (VirtualReality) technology, enabling exploration of 3D mod-

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els not only in the appropriate scale, but also fromthe realistic human perspective, including the naturalobserver’s movement. The commercial goggles candetect natural head movements in real time and emitsounds introduced to the model by earphones. Thismethod consists in the immersive separation of anobserver from the real surrounding, who nowbecomes subject to visual and auditory stimuli, repre-senting the space carved inside virtual reality. Theperception of space depends on properties of thehuman body and the time parameter due to theobserver's movement in the environment. The per-ception of space evolves with the change of perspec-tive, which Francis Ching described as “circulation” –a movement in space, as a natural element shapingarchitecture along with other properties like form,proportion, scale or organization [14]. An exampleuse-case for technology with three-dimensional mod-els dependent on time are video games, where play-ers explore the space created by authors within theimposed narrative structure [15]. FPP (First PersonPerspective) video games are characterized by obser-vation of space by the player from the perspective ofmain character/avatar, which gives an impression oftaking part in a simulated activity. It is important tonote, that some of the solutions used in video gamesare already known from cinematography, whereasthe new ones are based mainly on player’s interactionwith the virtual surroundings, which indicatesimprovement of new spatial representation methods.A spectacular achievement seems to be the overcom-ing of so far unattainable barrier of perceiving thecomputer created reality in atavistic and primary way,including observer’s movement and time parameterin this process.

4. SPATIAL REPRESENTATION METH-ODS AND ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTS4.1. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao – a designphenomenonAdvancement in spatial representation methodologyallowed, or at least facilitated the architectural con-cepts previously considered as unattainable or unjusti-fied economically. An example of that kind of struc-ture can be the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao byFrank Gehry, spectacular building erected in 1997.This building became an architectural and economicphenomenon, reviving the local economy immersed incrisis, basically through its sophisticated form [16].This unusual event was later referred to as “the Bilbaoeffect”, which was attempted to be reproduced by

many cities but with no such brilliant results. The pro-ject of the New York’s museum branch refers subtly tothe original of Frank Lloyd Wright being literally itsvariation. The harmonious and stable spiral from 1959was transformed into the unpredictable series of shellsand splinters forming a whole and giving an impres-sion of constant change and movement. On that exam-ple we can notice a breakthrough between the archi-tecture created with traditional representation meth-ods and the architecture created with IT technologies.The branch in Bilbao was designed and implementedusing digital three-dimensional technology, whichallowed the use of complex non-Euclidean geometryin building practice.

4.2. The impact of IT technologies on design possi-bilitiesConcepts with such a complex body as theGuggenheim Bilbao Museum could probably arise inthe intention of architects also in times before the ITtechnology revolution – but developing design docu-mentation and implementation of the investment inthe form known today was a challenge that could onlybe coped with thanks to IT technologies. Withoutthem, the investment would be one of many unful-filled bold concepts, abandoned due to the economicsituation. The project of Bilbao Museum was createdwith CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensionalInteractive Application) used mainly in the aircraftand automobile industries. The technology enabledthe fulfilment of the project through the data of 3Dmodel, that allowed for fine design of a complex bodyand cost estimation. The architects from Frank O.Gehry and Associates (currently Gehry Partners,LLP) used the software which was not created forbuildings purposely, but virtual models proved to bean answer to architectural design requirements. Thistechnology made it possible to control the multi-threaded, complex building structure and to shareinformation about it with other participants of theimplementation process.

4.3. Space representation methods on the example ofthe Guggenheim Museum in BilbaoThe original concept was shown as hand-madeauthor’s drafts and surprisingly, they are relativelyconvergent with the final form of the object(Figure 1). In the movie “Sketches Of Frank Gehry”[17] Sidney Pollack illustrated the workshop of archi-tect from a hand-made drawing, through forming andtransforming models, to the processing of pre-deter-

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mined bodies in the virtual reality of computer envi-ronment. The three-dimensional model was createdon the basis of a physical model, through a laser toolstoring information about points in space, then thedata was processed by the computer to obtain infor-mation about individual surfaces in a virtual environ-ment, where the model was refined and supplement-ed with further data. At the last stage, it enabled thebuilding elements to be made by machines and robotsusing data from the complete model [18]. Each rep-resentation method used in designing process carriesa baggage of experiences and conclusions, whichshapes the creator’s vision, while specifics of eachmethod defines the represented space in a differentway. Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao with a decon-structivism, quasi-accidental external body can beconsidered as a specific finial of architecturalachievements of the twentieth century which is repre-sented with all available methods: hand-made drafts,technical drawings, models, 3D models, photographsand films (Figure 1, 2, 3, 4, 5).

5. CONCLUSIONBruno Zevi undertook the subject of space represen-tation, which is extremely important for architecture,referring to both practice and theory. The methodol-ogy results from the nature of space itself and how weexperience it, thus the nature of human cognition.Each of the available methods describes the space ina specific way, emphasizing its selected features.Through centuries, methods were sought for themost complete representation of space. This processhas evolved along with technical and cultural devel-opment, manifesting itself in architecture and alsomany other fields, such as painting, mathematics,machine construction, photography, film or comput-er games. During this progress, distinct periods ofrapid development can be observed, accompanying

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Figure 1.Diagram showing the comparison of a freehand drawing(dashed line) and the outline of a façade (solid line).Author's elaboration based on Drawing of the GuggenheimMuseum in Bilbao by Frank Gehry (1991) and contour of thenorthern facade of the building

Figure 2.Model of Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao – photographyfrom Public Collections of Arstor Digital Library within theImages for Academic Publishing (IAP)

Figure 4.Photography of Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao sharedbased on the Licence of CC0 Creative Commons within theplatform Pixabay.com

Figure 5.Frame from movie Guggenheim Museum Bilbao – “catch thelight” by Carlos Silveira [19], shared under the License ofCreative Commons

Figure 3.View of 3D model of Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao sharedbased on the Licence of CC0 Creative Commons within theplatform Pixabay.com

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important scientific and technological discoveries.From the moment Bruno Zevi described the thenstate of knowledge on this subject, the IT technologyrevolution took place, which significantly influencedthe architectural industry by providing completelynew, digital design tools. In a computer environment,it is possible to create virtual, three-dimensionalspaces, which are not only simulations of reality butalso constitute new, alternative spaces with their owndevelopment possibilities. Specialized software madeit possible to build 3D models with complex geome-try, where a part of operations, especially computa-tional, was transferred from the designer to themachine. With the help of appropriate tools, virtualspace can be explored on the basis of natural, humancognitive mechanisms, which has never beenachieved before. New methods of space representa-tion did not change the designers’ ability to come upwith architectural concepts, but they significantlyexpanded the possibilities of their presentation, tothe extent software and hardware functionalityallows. In this indirect way, digital tools influencearchitectural realizations, making it possible todesign and build facilities such as the GuggenheimMuseum in Bilbao.

REFERENCES[1] Zevi B. (1957). Architecture as Space. How to Look

at Architecture. New York, Horizon Press.[2] Hall E. (1978). Ukryty wymiar. (The Hidden

Dimension). Warszawa, Państwowy InstytutWydawniczy.

[3] Pallasmaa J. (2012). Oczy skóry: Architekturai zmysły, (The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and theSenses). Kraków, Instytut Architektury.

[4] Białkiewicz A. (2006). O rysunku architektonicznym.(About architectural drawing). Teka KomisjiArchitektury, Urbanistyki I Studiów KrajobrazowychOL-PAN, 53–60.

[5] Misiągiewicz M. (2017). On the presentation of thearchitectural idea. Kraków, WydawnictwoPolitechniki Krakowskiej.

[6] Leśniakowska M. (2012). Przestrzeń w architekturze.(Space in architecture). Retrieved fromhttps://teoriaarchitektury.blogspot.com/2012/07/marta-lesniakowska-przestrzen-w.html

[7] Kwiatkowski A. (1978). Film i rzeczywistość albosztuka – technika – reprodukcja – film (Film and real-ity or art - technique - reproduction - film )(Rozdziałz historii teorii filmowych), Teksty: teoria literatury, kry-tyka, interpretacja 2(38), 132–151.

[8] Gehl J. (2017). Miasta dla ludzi. (Cities for People).Kraków, Wydawnictwo RAM.

[9] Świt-Jankowska B. (2010). Współczesne narzędziapracy architekta, a jakość nowo projektowanejprzestrzeni mieszkalnej. (Present day instruments ofarchitects work and quality of residential space).Architecturae et Artibus, 2, 79–85.

[10] Olszewski M., Wojtowicz J., Wrona S., Dąbrowska-Żółtak K. (2017). Mechatronika w architekturze –architektronika. (Architecture with Mechatronics –Architectronics). Pomiary Automatyka Robotyka, 3,11–26.

[11] Abel Ch. (2000). Architecture and Identity.Responses to cultural and technological change.London and New York, Routledge.

[12] Grosz E. (2001). Architecture from the Outside:Essays on Virtual and Real Space. MassachusettsInstitute of Technology.

[13] Januszkiewicz K. (2016). Projektowanie parame-tryczne oraz parametryczne narzędzia cyfrowe w pro-jektowaniu architektonicznym. (Parametric designand parametric digital tools in architectural design).Architecturae et Artibus 3, 43–60.

[14] Ching F. (2007) Architecture. Form, Space, & Order.New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

[15] Chojnacki M. (2016). Wirtualna kamera i jej zas-tosowanie w grach wideo. (Virtual camera and itsapplication in video games). Tekst z publikacjizbiorowej: Patrzenie i widzenie w kontekstach kultur-oznawczych. Historia i Teoria Kultury.

[16] Muschamp H. (1997). The Miracle In Bilbao. TheNew York Times Magazine.

[17] Pollack S. (2005). Sketches Of Frank Gehry[18] Abel Ch. (2004). Architecture, Technology and

Process. Oxford, Elsevier, Architectural Press[19] Silveira C. (2013). Guggenheim Museum Bilbao –

“catch the light”.

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