-
Add : D-108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301Email id :
[email protected]
Call : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265
ISSUES RELATEDISSUES RELATEDISSUES RELATEDISSUES RELATEDISSUES
RELATEDTO URBANIZATIONTO URBANIZATIONTO URBANIZATIONTO
URBANIZATIONTO URBANIZATION
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [1]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
Urbanization and economic developmenthave a strong positive
correlation which isindicated by the fact that a country with ahigh
per capita income is also likely to have ahigh degree of
urbanization. The economicadvantages provided by urban areas are
many.Generally, the industrial, commercial andservice sectors tend
to concentrate in andaround urban areas. These areas provide
alarger concentration of material, labour,infrastructure and
services related inputs onthe one hand and also the market in the
formof consumers, on the other. But the situation isdifferent for
India.
Urbanization in India: Brief Introduction
The population of India grew 2.8 timesbetween 1951 and 2001,
from 361 million to1027 million, while the urban populationexpanded
4.6 times, from 62 million to 285million. The pace of urbanization
has also beenslower in India as compared to other countriesof the
world. As per UN estimates, the degreeof urbanization in the world
in 1950 wasaround 30 per cent which increased to 47 percent in
2000. In India, it increased from 17.3per cent in 1951 to 27.8 per
cent in 2001. Chinaand Indonesia which had lower levels
ofurbanization in 1950, have now overtakenIndia with the percentage
of urban populationbeing 32.1 and 40.9 respectively. In the
decadeof the 1990s, there were nearly 68 million newurban Indians,
an increase larger than the entireThailand. Indias current urban
populationexceeds the whole population of the UnitedStates, the
worlds third largest country. By2050, over half of Indias
population is expectedto be urban dwellers.
Over the years there has been continuousconcentration of
population in class I towns.On the contrary the concentration of
populationin medium and small towns either fluctuatedor declined.
The graduation of number ofurban centres from lower population
sizecategories to class I cities has resulted top heavy
structure of urban population in Indiaindicating the tendency
towards concentrationin larger agglomerations. Urban
agglomerationis a continuous urban spread constituting atown and
its adjoining urban outgrowths (OGs)or two or more physical
contiguous towntogether and any adjoining urban outgrowthsof such
towns. Examples of outgrowths arerailway colonies, university
campus, port area,military campus, etc. that may come up near
astatutory town or city.
Therefore India's urbanization is oftentermed as
overurbanization, pseudourbanization. The large population size
isleading to virtual collapse in the urban servicesand followed by
basic problems in the field ofhousing, slum, water, infrastructure,
quality oflife, etc.
Basic Feature and Pattern of India'sUrbanization
Basic feature of urbanization in India can behighlighted as:
Lopsided urbanization induces growth ofclass I cities.
Urbanization occurs without industrializationand strong economic
base.
Urbanization is mainly a product ofdemographic explosion and
povertyinduced rural - urban migration.
Rapid urbanization leads to massive growthof slum followed by
misery, poverty,unemployment, exploitation,
inequalities,degradation in the quality of urban life.
Urbanization occurs not due to urban pullbut due to rural
push.
Poor quality of rural-urban migration leadsto poor quality of
urbanization.
Distress migration initiates urban decay.Urbanization in India
is a product of
demographic explosion and poverty inducedrural-urban migration.
Urbanization isoccurring not due to urban pull but due to
CHRONICLEIAS ACADEMYA CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
ISSUES RELATED
TO URBANIZATION
-
[2] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
rural push. Globalization, liberalization,privatization are
addressing negative processfor urbanization in India. Policy
relates toproper urban planning where city planningwill consist of
operational, developmental andrestorative planning. Redirection of
investmentis recommended to develop strong economicbase for small
and medium city neglected sofar so that migration flows are
redirected tosmall and medium cities.
Census Definition of Urban Area
In Census of India, 2001 two types of townwere identified:
a) Statutory towns: All places with amunicipality, corporation,
cantonment boardor notified town area committee, etc. sodeclared by
state law.
b) Census towns: Places which satisfy thefollowing
criteria:-
i) a minimum population of 5000;
ii) atleast 75% of male working populationengaged in non
agricultural pursuits; and
iii) a density of population of atleast 400persons per sq
km.
Thus the issues related to urbanization inIndia are discussed as
follows:
A. RURAL URBAN MIGRATION
Migration and urbanization are directmanifestations of the
process of economicdevelopment in space, particularly in
thecontemporary phase of globalization.
A large part of migration and urbanizationin India have been
linked to stagnation andvolatility of agriculture and lack of
sectoraldiversification within agrarian economy. Thegrowth rates in
agricultural production andincome has been noted to be low,
unstable anddisparate across regions over the past severaldecades,
resulting in lack of livelihoodopportunities in rural areas. A low
rate ofinfrastructural investment in public sector inthe period of
structural adjustment - necessaryfor keeping budgetary deficits low
also haveaffected agriculture adversely. This has led
toout-migration from several backward ruralareas, most of the
migrants being absorbedwithin urban informal economy.
But the capacity of the cities and towns toassimilate the
migrants by providingemployment, access to land, basic amenities
etc.are limited. The problem have acquired severityas migrants have
shown high selectivity inchoosing their destinations
(understandablylinked with availability of employment andother
opportunities), leading to regionallyunbalanced urbanization as
also distortions inurban hierarchy.
Rural urban migration has often beenconsidered the major factor
for growth of slumsin urban areas. United Nations has warned
thatrapid urbanization and migration would leadto tripling of slum
population by 2050,hindering the attainment of the MDG targets.
B. SLUM DEVELOPMENT
The most important problem in all cities hasbeen housing the
sudden and large scale influxof migrants from rural areas to urban
areasespecially the metropolises and state capitals.Due to lack of
housing, in every city almostfifty per cent population lives in
slums. Slumsknown as bustees in India, favelas in Brazil,katchi
abadis in Pakistan and focos insalubresin Cuba, all have few
characteristics incommon:
Poor structural quality and durability ofhousing;
Insufficient living areas (more than threepeople sharing a
room);
Lack of secure tenure; Poor access to water; Lack of sanitation
facilities.
The Pranab Sen Committee has given a newdefinition for slums in
India. It has defined aslum as a compact settlement of at least
20households with a collection of poorly builttenements, mostly of
temporary nature,crowded together usually with inadequatesanitary
and drinking water facilities inunhygienic conditions.
The new definition of slum is different fromthe definition
adopted by the 2001 Census ofIndia. Accordingly to 2001 Census,
slum areasbroadly constitute of:
1. All specified areas in a town or city notifiedas Slum by
State/Local Government andUT Administration under any Act,including
a Slum Act.
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [3]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
2. All areas recognized as Slum by State/Local Government and UT
Administrationwhich may have been formally notified asslum under
any Act;
3. A compact area of at least 300 people orabout 60-70
households of poorly builtcongested tenements in
unhygienicenvironment usually with inadequateinfrastructure and
lacking in propersanitary and drinking water facilities.
There are various reasons for creation ofslums of which the most
important are asfollows:
Increased urbanization leading to pressureon the available land
and infrastructure,especially for the poor.
Natural increase in the population of urbanpoor and migration
from rural areas andsmall towns to larger cities.
Inappropriate system of urban planningwhich does not provide
adequate space forthe urban poor in `the City Master Plans.
Sky-rocketing land prices due to increasingdemand for land and
constraints on supplyof land.
Absence of programmes of affordablehousing for the urban poor in
most States.
Lack of availability of credit for low incomehousing.
Increasing cost of construction.
Although Land, Colonization and Slums areState subjects, the
Central government hascome up with the following schemes:
a) Jawaharlal Nehru National UrbanRenewal Mission (JNNURM)
waslaunched on 3rd December, 2005 with theobjectives of augmenting
infrastructurefacilities in cities and towns along withprovision of
shelter and basic civic servicesto slum dwellers/urban poor.
JNNURMaims at creating economically productive,efficient, equitable
and responsive Cities bya strategy of upgrading the social
andeconomic infrastructure in cities, provisionof Basic Services to
Urban Poor (BSUP) andwide-ranging urban sector reforms tostrengthen
municipal governance inaccordance with the 74th
ConstitutionalAmendment Act, 1992.
b) Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing theUrban Poor (ISHUP) has
been conceivedfor providing interest subsidy on housingurban poor
to make the housing affordableand within the repaying capacity
ofEconomically Weaker Section. The schemeencourages poor sections
to avail of loanfacilities through Commercial Banks/HUDCO for the
purposes of constructionof houses and avail 5% subsidy in
interestpayment for loans upto Rs. 1 lakh.
c) Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) has beenlaunched in 2009, for the
slum dwellers andthe urban poor. This scheme would aim toprovide
support for shelter & basic civicand social services for slum
redevelopmentand for creation of new affordable housingstock to
States that are willing to assignproperty rights to slum dwellers.
The SlumFree City/State Plan is envisaged tocomprise of two parts--
Part I- Strategy toredevelop existing slums and Part II Strategy
for prevention of creation of slums,delineating the development of
affordablehousing for the urban poor and revision toexisting urban
policy and programmes forthe prevention of slums. This plan
wouldform the basis for providing assistance tothe States, after
the scheme is approved.
d) National Slum Development Programme(NSDP), Night Shelters,
Two MillionHousing Scheme, Accelerated UrbanWater Supply Programme
(AUWSP), andLow-Cost Sanitation provide for a widerange of services
to the urban poor,including slumdwellers. They
includeidentification of the urban poor, formationof community
groups, involvement ofNGOs, self-help/thrift and credit
activities,training for livelihood, credit and subsidyfor economic
activities, housing andsanitation, environmental
improvement,community assets, wage employment andconvergence of
services.
e) Valmiki-Ambedkar Awas Yojana(VAMBAY) was introduced in
2001-02 toprovide a shelter or upgrading the existingshelter to BPL
people in urban slums.Twenty per cent of the total allocationunder
VAMBAY is provided for sanitationand community toilets to be built
for theurban poor and slum dwellers.
-
[4] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
C. URBAN TRANSPORT
India is transiting from a developing todeveloped country with
high pace of economicdevelopment. Urbanization too is increasing
ata high pace as mega cities, cities and towns areproviding better
economic opportunities. Fast-growing cities have nurtured business
andindustry and have provided jobs and higherincomes to many
migrants from rural areas.Thus, it is important that cities
functionefficiently that their resources are used tomaximize the
cities contribution to nationalincome.
City efficiency largely depends upon theeffectiveness of its
transport systems, i.e.,efficacy with which people and goods
aremoved throughout the city. Poor transportsystems hampers
economic growth anddevelopment, and the net effect may be a lossof
competitiveness in both domestic as well asinternational
markets.
Thus proper development of urbantransport to meet the needs of
growingpopulation is urgently needed in a country likeIndia. The
public transport system helps inimproving urban-rural linkage and
improvesaccess of the rural/semi-urban population inthe periphery
to city centres for the purpose oflabour supply without
proliferation of slumswithin and around cities.
The major objective of urban transportinitiative is to provide
efficient and affordablepublic transport. A National Urban
TransportPolicy (NUTP) was laid down in 2006, withthe objective of
ensuring easy, accessible, safe,affordable, quick, comfortable,
reliable, andsustainable mobility for all. In order to
providebetter transport, proposals for bus rapid transitsystem
(BRTS) were approved.
The quality and quantity of roads had beenimproved by providing
better signaling system,foot over bridges for pedestrians, over
bridgesand flyovers to decrease travelling time,diverging heavy
vehicles directly to highwayswithout accessibility to city roads,
etc.The newconcept of low floor buses has been introducedin capital
cities to control pollution as well asfor improving the conditions
of localgovernment buses.
Metro rail projects as already present inDelhi/NCR has been
further sanctioned for newcities as Chennai, Bangalore, Mumbai
as
(monorail) to decrease the travelling time andenvironmental
effects of vehicular emissions.
Urban Transport Problems:
Traffic injuries and fatalities pose aserious threat to the
urban population. Thecauses can be poor conditions of
roads,burgeoning fleet of motor vehicles, unsafedrinking behaviour,
overcrowding of buses,autos, etc.
Environmental pollution as noise, air bothare contributed by
vehicles. BHARATSTAGE EMISSION NORMS have beenlaunched by
government to decrease airpollution from vehicles. Switching
publictransport to CNG has reduced the pollutioncontent
drastically.
Roadway congestion is probably the mostvisible, most pervasive,
and most immediatetransport problem plaguing Indias cities ona
daily basis. It affects all modes oftransportation and all
socioeconomicgroups.
Vast improvements are needed in Indiaspublic transport systems,
but the necessaryfunding is not available. Most buses andtrains in
small and medium size Indian citiesare old and poorly designed,
inadequatelymaintained, dangerously overcrowded,undependable, and
slow.
Steps taken by GOI to improve urban transportare as follows:
I. Launch of Sustainable Urban TransportProject
The objective of the Sustainable UrbanTransport Project is to
promote environmentallysustainable urban transport in India and
toimprove the usage of environment friendlytransport modes through
demonstrationprojects in selected cities.
The project includes the followingcomponents:
a) COMPONENT ONE provides technicalassistance to the Ministry of
UrbanDevelopment (MoUD) to improve thenational, state and local
capacity toimplement the capacity building elementsand the public
and non-motorized transportrelated aspects of national urban
transportpolicy; and
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [5]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
b) COMPONENT TWO supports design andimplementation of
demonstration projectsin six participating cities (in five
states),which will create models of sustainabletransport solutions
for other Indian citiesto replicate.The six cities, selected by
Government of
India (GOI) through a competitive selectionprocess, include Pune
and Pimpri-Chinchwad(in Maharashtra), Naya Raipur (inChhattisgarh),
Jalandhar (in Punjab), Indore (inMadhya Pradesh), and Mysore (in
Karnataka).
The global environment facility (GEF) grantwill finance
technical assistance activities underthe component one and
component two. Therecipient and participating stated cities
willfinance other project activities (including civilworks) by
utilizing Jawharlal Nehru NationalUrban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)
grant andother sources of funds (including anInternational Bank for
Reconstruction andDevelopment (IBRD) loan being processedunder a
parallel loan project for three cities:Pune, Pimpri-Chinwad, and
Naya Raipur).
II. National Urban Transport Policy
The National Urban Transport Policy(NUTP) was formulated in
2006, to integrateland use and transport planning in cities, andto
bring about comprehensive improvements inurban infrastructure.
While urban transport is a State responsibilityunder the
Constitution, there is a need to guideState-level action plans,
particularly linked toland use planning, in order for transport
plansto best support the key social and economicactivities of its
residents.
Key Objectives:
Incorporate urban transport as animportant parameter in urban
planning.
Bring about more equitable allocation ofroad space with people
rather than vehiclesas the main focus.
Encourage greater use of public transportand non-motorized modes
of transport.Under the NUTP, each city with a
population of over four million will beencouraged by the central
government to startplanning for a mass transit system adopting
atechnology that would best suit the cityrequirements in the next
30 years. The policy
also highlights the need for linking the transportplans with the
geographical constraints of itslocation, increased priority to
public transport,non-motorised transport, and improvingparking
facilities. The policy encourages the setup of Unified Metro
Transport Authorities(UMTA)s in cities with a
million-pluspopulation.
The Jawaharlal Nehru National UrbanRenewal Mission (JNNURM),
which is linkedto the rules and regulations under the NUTP,will
invest in infrastructure projects in 63 citiesin India.
III. Adoption of PPP Policy
The Government of India is activelypromoting the expansion of
Public PrivatePartnership (PPP) activities across all
keyinfrastructure sectors including highways,ports, power and
telecoms. Implementation ofprojects under Public Private
Partnership (PPP)has the following advantages-
a. Better quality since the concessionaire(private sector) is to
maintain the road forthe period of concession.
b. Early completion of the project, since theconcessionaire
could save interest and earnearly toll (in the case of BOT project)
/additional annuity installments (in the caseof Annuity
project).
c. No costs overrun (price escalation).d. The Client
(Government/NHAI) does not
have the burden of maintaining thehighways.
e. Involving the private sector leads to greaterefficiency.
f. The private sector has more flexibleprocurement and
decision-makingprocedures and therefore, it can speed
upimplementation efforts.
IV. RFID Technology Based Electronic TollPlaza
Countrys first RFID Technology BasedElectronic Toll collection
Plaza was launchedat Chandimandir, Punchkula (Haryana).
Thistechnology will help users to make paymentwithout stopping at
toll plazas and will reducetraffic congestion and commuting time.
TollStatements can be made or made available online to the road
users and they need not haveto stop for receipt.
-
[6] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
RFID, besides satisfying functionalrequirements, is the cheapest
solution available.It is extremely simple to use and
administer,requiring no actions on the part of the user(the sticker
itself can be stuck on the vehicle bythe user).
For updating toll data two tier databasestructure will be
deployed, one at the Plazalevel and other at the National level
(CentralClearing House). The entire transaction detailsof all the
Tag accounts will be stored in theCentral Database.
Before issuance of RFID Tags, the road usersneed to register
with the agency with the basicdetails like Name, Address, Vehicle
type,Vehicle registration no. etc. The information willbe stored in
the central database along withthe unique identification code of
Tag.
A centralized back office operation orCentral Toll Clearing
House is mandatory forthe operation of nation-wide ETC systems.
TheCentral Clearing House concept is a transactionmanagement system
which will enable multipleToll Collection Agencies to share toll
transactiondata and revenue reconciliation.
V. High Security Registration Plates
On the basis of the recommendations madeby the Technical
Standing Committee onCentral Motor Vehicles Rules, the
CentralGovernment had amended rule 50 of theCentral Motor Vehicles
Rules, 1989, mandatingintroduction of new High Security
RegistrationPlates, both in respect of new and in-use motorvehicles
throughout the country.
A High Security Registration Plate (HSRP)is a highly secure
number plate aimed to bringabout a uniform pattern of
displayingregistration marks across the country.
The regular registration plates can be easilytampered with,
making car thefts easy. Fancynumber plates also make it difficult
to trackdown lawbreakers on the run. HSRPs aretamper-proof and
non-replaceable, which couldprove to be a deterrent to car thieves.
It willalso aid in creating a computerised, nationaldata of motor
vehicles which currently is notthe case as the records are created
andmaintained manually.
VI. Rapid Transit System
A rapid transit, underground, subway, elevatedrailway, metro or
metropolitan railway systemis an electric passenger railway in an
urbanarea with a high capacity and frequency,and grade separation
from other traffic. Rapidtransit systems are typically located
either inunderground tunnels or on elevated rails abovestreet
level. Outside urban centres, rapid transitlines may run on grade
separated ground leveltracks.
Service on rapid transit systems is providedon designated lines
between stations usingelectric multiple units on rail tracks,
althoughsome systems use guided rubber tyres, magneticlevitation,
or monorail. They are typicallyintegrated with other public
transport and oftenoperated by the same public
transportauthorities. Rapid transit is faster and has ahigher
capacity than trams or light rail (but doesnot exclude a fully
grade separated LRT), butis not as fast or as far-reaching as
commuterrail.
Major rapid systems in India are:
a) Kolkata Metro
The Kolkata Metro is a mass rapid transitsystem serving the city
of Kolkata and thedistricts of South 24 Parganas and North
24Parganas in the Indian state of West Bengal.The network consists
of one operational line(Line 1). It was the first such form
oftransportation in India, opening commercialservices in 1984.
Benefits:
Requires 1/5th energy per passenger kmcompared to road-based
transport system.
Causes less noise, no air pollution and ecofriendly transport
system.
Occupies no road space if underground andonly about 2.60 mtrs
width of the road ifelevated.
More reliable, comfortable and safer thanroad based systems.
Reduces journey time.
b) MONO RAIL in Mumbai
Considering the increase in population,increased travel demand
and narrow roadnetworks running through congested structures,
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [7]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
there is a need of a system which will occupyless space as well
as reduce travel time.
With the objective, to support public rapidtransit system such
as suburban rail system andmetro rail system and where public
rapidtransit system is not available or impossible toprovide such
system and where widening ofroads is not possible due to structures
on eithersides, Mono Rail system is proposed to beimplemented in
city of dreams MUMBAI.Once completed it will be the worlds
secondlongest Monorail corridor.
Larsen and Toubro along with Scomi hasreceived the contract to
build and operate themonorail.
c) Delhi Metro
The Delhi Metro is a rapid transit systemserving Delhi, Gurgaon,
Noida and Ghaziabad inthe National Capital Region of India. It
hasbecome the "life line" of Delhi as people aredependent on Delhi
Metro for commuting todifferent places within the city. Delhi
MetroProject has been recognized all over the worldfor its
speciality in terms of a hi-tech rail andbetter equipped transport
system. The projectis under the Delhi Metro Rail
Corporation,DMRC.
Planning for the metro started in 1984,when the Delhi
Development Authority and theUrban Arts Commission came up with
aproposal for developing a multi-modal transportsystem for the
city. The Government ofIndia and the Government of Delhi jointly
setup the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC)in 1995. Construction
started in 1998, and thefirst section, on the Red Line, opened in
2002,followed by the Yellow Line in 2004, the BlueLine in 2005, its
branch line in 2009,the Green and Violet Lines in 2010 andthe Delhi
Airport Metro Express in 2011.
Metro rail in the city has reduced the trafficto some extent and
the pollution level hascertainly declined. Because of this only
DelhiMetro has been certified by the United Nationsas the first
metro rail-based system in theworld to get carbon credits for
contributing tothe fight against climate change by helpreducing
pollution levels in the city by 6.3 lakhtons every year. It also
has earned carboncredits of worth 47 crores annually for thenext
seven years.
A carbon credit is a term for any tradablecertificate or permit
representing the right toemit one tonne of carbon dioxide.
Carboncredits and carbon markets are a componentof national and
international attempts tomitigate the growth in concentrationof
greenhouse gases.
Thus, the DMRC has helped in reductionin emission of harmful
gases into theatmosphere and the United Nations-bodyadministering
the Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocolhas
certified carbon credits to DMRC forreducing emissions.
d) Namma Metro
Namma Metro also known as BengaluruMetro is a rapid transit rail
system for the cityof Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The
agencyresponsible for its implementation is theBangalore Metro Rail
Corporation Ltd(BMRCL). The first stretch betweenB a i y y a p p a
n a h a l l i a n d M . G . R o a d w a sinaugurated on October 20,
2011.
Salient Features:
All the Metro trains are Wi-Fi enabled (thefirst metro in India
to have this feature), sopassengers can use laptops, tablets as
well asmobile internet. Passengers also haveemergency voice
communication with train staffthrough a speaker system. Passengers
areprovided with a call button to communicateanything to the driver
or control centre duringan emergency.
Metro stations will have Powerheart Automated external
defibrillator (AED) toprotect its commuters against death
fromsudden cardiac arrest. Powerheart AED is usedfor emergency
treatment of victims exhibitingsymptoms of sudden cardiac arrest.
Theinstallation of AEDs will be followed by acertified training for
a group of staff membersof BMRC. The devices are manufactured
byOpto Circuits (India) Ltd.
e) Proposed Rapid Transit Systems
Urban Development Minister Mr. KamalNath has approved
in-principle the proposalof implementing Regional Rapid Transit
System(RRTS) in three important corridors in the NCRviz.
Delhi-Gurgaon-Alwar, Delhi-Sonepat-
-
[8] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
Panipat and Delhi-Ghaziabad-Meerut. TheRRTS is a rail based mass
transit system thatwould connect distant areas of National
CapitalRegion (NCR) to the Capital.
The high speed connectivity between theregional centres of NCR
and Delhi will makethe physical distance shorter and allow
theseregional towns to capture the economic impulseand density
generated by Delhi. This fasterconnectivity will reduce pressure on
theNational Capitals infrastructure by opening upthe region,
including regional housing market.
The Minister stressed that in order to achievethe objective of
creation of NCR in 1985, itwould be necessary to focus on the
sub-urbanization process and infrastructuredevelopment outside
Delhi to enable other areasof NCR to absorb the load on the
capitalsresources.
D. WASTE DISPOSAL
Removing garbage, cleaning drains andunclogging sewers are the
main jobs ofmunicipalities and municipal corporations inIndian
cities. In most cities, the municipalservice for the collection and
transportation ofurban solid wastes comprises three
separatefunctions as follows:
Sweeping, curbside and domestic wastecollection from garbage
bins.
Transportation by handcarts to large orroad collection points,
which may be opendumps.
Transportation by vehicles to the disposalsites.The weaknesses
of the existing system of
solid waste management are: (i) the professionaland managerial
capacities of the municipalbodies are limited and this is more
pronouncedin case of smaller cities; (ii) no charges are leviedfor
garbage collection or disposal, nor are thereany incentives for
reducing garbage generationor recycling waste;(iii) no separate
costing isdone for this function; (iv) indiscriminate useof plastic
bags and goods; (v) recourse tomodern technology is rare and; (vi)
segregationof garbage at the source is not enforced.
Thus Indian waste management system isstarved of resources to
tackle the increasingdemands associated with growing
urbanisation.Due to budgetary constraints, inadequate
equipment and poor planning, house-to-housecollection is very
rare in India, particularly incertain low-income areas where waste
is notcollected at all. It is estimated that upto 30-40per cent of
disposed solid wastes are leftuncollected. The areas, which are not
serviced,are left with clogged sewers and litter whichcreate
serious health problems for the residentpopulation.
Main objective of disposal options is to ensuremaximum safety to
the environment whichrequire administrative, technical,
political,social and economic support. But Most urbansolid waste in
Indian cities and towns islandfilled and dumped but there are
varioustreatment options also such as:
Recycling & ReuseThe processes, by which materials
otherwise
destined for disposal are collected, reprocessedor
remanufactured and are reused. Theseparation for recycling takes
place athouseholds, community bins, open dumps andeven in final
disposal yards. The recyclingbusiness is a complicated chain of
operationsand varies from place to place. The recyclingand reuse
(the use of a product more than oncein its same form for the same
or anotherpurpose) sector of waste management in citiesof Asian
developing countries is potentiallyhigh. Its economic assessment is
a difficult tasksince it is practiced in an informal manner.
BiogasBiogas contains approximately 60:40
mixture of methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide(CO2) produced by
the anaerobic fermentationof cellulose biomass materials -
simultaneouslygenerating an enriched sludge fertilizer - withan
energy content of 22.5 MJ/m3, cleangaseous fuel for cooking, for
running enginesfor shaft and electrical power generation withlittle
or no pollution. Many cellulose biomassmaterials are available in
urban solid wastesand may be utilized to produce
eco-friendlyrenewable energy, contributing to the cleanwaste
management. In India, biogas productionis currently practiced in
many places in ruralareas (with cattle dung) and few places inurban
areas (with sewage).
Sanitary landfillingSanitary landfill is a fully engineered
disposal option, which avoids harmful effectsof uncontrolled
dumping by spreading,
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [9]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
compacting and covering the wasteland thathas been carefully
engineered before use.Through proper site selection, preparation
andmanagement, operators can minimize the effectsof leachates
(polluted water which flows froma landfill) and gas production both
in thepresent and in the future. This option is suitablewhen the
land is available at an affordable price.Human and technical
resources available areto operate and manage the site.
Composting
Composting is a biological process ofdecomposition carried out
under controlledconditions of ventilation, temperature, moistureand
organisms in the waste themselves thatconvert waste into humus-like
material by actingon the organic portion of the solid waste.
Ifcarried out effectively, the final product isstable, odour-free,
does not attract flies and isa good soil conditioner. Composting
isconsidered when biodegradable waste isavailable in considerable
fraction in the wastestream and there is use or market for
compost.Centralised composting plant for sector mayonly be
undertaken if adequate skilledmanpower and equipment are available,
henceat household level and small level compostingpractices could
be effective which needs thepeople's awareness.
Incineration
Incineration is the controlled burning ofwaste in a purpose
built facility. The processsterilizes and stabilizes the waste. For
mostwastes, it will reduce its volume to less than aquarter of the
original. Most of the combustiblematerial is converted into carbon
dioxide andash. An extensive sample programme conductedin India
reveals that most of the waste had acalorific value of just 3350
joules/g comparedwith 9200 joules/g in high income
countries.Incineration may be used as a disposal option,only when
landfilling is not possible and thewaste composition is of high
combustible (i.e.self-sustaining combustible matter which savesthe
energy needed to maintain the combustion)paper or plastics. It
requires an appropriatetechnology, infrastructure, and
skilledmanpower to operate and maintain the plant.In Indian cities,
Incineration is generallylimited to hospital and other biological
wastesand mostly others are either landfilled ordumped.
Much research needs to be done on thedisposal of various types
of solid waste withoutcausing any harm to the environment or
thepeople.
E. WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE ANDSANITATION
According to the 2001 Census, out of 53.69million urban
households only 36.86 million hadtap water sources. A very large
percentage ofthe urban poor have no access to safe water.The
Government programme of acceleratedurban water supply scheme, as on
31.3.2006,supported 612 schemes for Rs 695 crores. Thisis
absolutely inadequate when compared to theassessment made by the
Central Public HealthEngineering (CPHEEO) of Rs 1,72,905 croresfor
100 per cent coverage of the urbanpopulation under safe water
supply andsanitation services by 2021.
No city has round the clock water supplyin India. Intermittent
supply results in avacuum being created in empty water lineswhich
often suck in pollutants through leakingjoints. Many small towns
have no main watersupply at all and are dependent on the wells.To
overcome this problem Municipal bodiesmust focus on increasing
operational efficiencies through reduction in pilferage,
improvingefficiency of staff and use of technology.Further, the
municipal bodies should meter allwater connenction within a time
frame.Installing a hierarchy of metering system couldhelp in
identifying pilferage. Payment of watercharges should be made
hassle free throughuse of Information Technology. As far aspossible
all water connections should bemetered, and if necessary targeted
subsidyshould be provided to the poorest sections.
Drainage situation is equally bad. Becauseof the non-existence
of a drainage system, largepools of stagnant water can be seen in
cityeven in summer months.
Further the sanitation problem is also highdue to lack of toilet
facilities in slums areas.Thus practice of open defecation is
prevalent.Human waste is also responsible for spreadingof water
borne diseases like typhoid, cholera,Shigellosis, Amoebic Dysentry,
Diarrhoea, etc.
The practice of open defecation in Indiacomes from a combination
of factors, the most
-
[10] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
prominent of them being the traditionalbehavioural pattern and
lack of awareness ofthe people about the associated health
hazards.As per the latest Census data (2001), only 36.4per cent of
total population has latrines within/attached to their houses.
However, in ruralareas, only 21.9 per cent of population
haslatrines within/attached to their houses. Outof this, only 7.1
per cent households havelatrines with water closets, which are the
mostsanitized toilets
Thus Minister Jairam Ramesh comes outwith a mission of Niramal
Bharat Abhiyan orTotal Sanitation Programme which wouldattempt to
banish open defecation within adecade.
Further a new technology Bio-toilets havebeen introduced which
is suitable for any area/application in India. Bio-Digester Toilet
is adecomposition mechanized toilet system bymeans of which the
sludge(Human Waste), thefecal matter is decomposed to bits in
thedigester tank using a specific high gradedbacteria further
converting them into methaneand water, discharged further to the
desiredsurface. The Bio-digester toilet is totalmaintenance-free
system & does not require anysewage system. The specific high
gradedbacteria involved in these bio-digester toiletscarries on to
further auto generation on theirown because of their supreme
quality. Bio-toilettechnology is based on anaerobicbiodegradation
of organic waste by uniquemicrobial consortium and works at a
widetemperature range. The bacterial consortiumdegrades night soil
at temp as low as -20 degreeC and produces colourless, odourless
andinflammable gas containing 50 70% methane.
This bacterial consortium has been madethrough acclimatization,
enrichment and bio-augmentation of cold- active bacteria
collectedfrom Antarctica and the other low temperatureareas.
Salient features of bio-toilet:
a) Suitable for sub zero temperature ofHimalayan Region,
Glaciers, Railwaycoaches, Buses, Highways, Remote areas,sea ports,
Mining area, metro cities, etc.
b) Suitable for Mobile Toilet applications.c) 0% maintenance
free, continuous biological
process.
d) Complete elimination of pathogens. e) Economically viable.f)
No dependence on the limited and costly
conventional energy sources. g) Can be installed and made
operational in
12 hours only. h) Inoculums charging is only once during the
entire life of Bio Toilet.i) No need of connectivity to the
sewage line,
septic tank. No disposal of sludge isrequired.
j) Routine cleaning chemicals like phenyl,soap, kerosene etc. do
not harm Bio Toiletor the inoculums.
F. ELECTRONIC WASTE
A new type of hazardous waste has comeup in recent years, namely
electronic waste. E-waste consists of all waste from electronic
andelectrical appliances which have reached theirend- of- life
period or are no longer fit for theiroriginal intended use and are
destined forrecovery, recycling or disposal. It includescomputer
and its accessories monitors, printers,keyboards, central
processing units; typewriters,mobile phones and chargers, remotes,
compactdiscs, headphones, batteries, LCD/Plasma TVs,air
conditioners, refrigerators and otherhousehold appliances.
The composition of e-waste is diverse andfalls under hazardous
and non-hazardouscategories. Broadly, it consists of ferrous
andnon-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood andplywood, printed
circuit boards, concrete,ceramics, rubber and other items. Iron and
steelconstitute about 50% of the waste, followed byplastics (21%),
non-ferrous metals (13%) andother constituents. Non-ferrous metals
consistof metals like copper, aluminium and preciousmetals like
silver, gold, platinum, palladium andso on. The presence of
elements like lead,mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium,hexavalent
chromium, and flame retardantsbeyond threshold quantities make
e-wastehazardous in nature. It contains over 1000different
substances, many of which are toxic,and creates serious pollution
upon disposal.Obsolete computers pose the most
significantenvironmental and health hazard among thee-wastes.
There are 10 States that contribute to 70per cent of the total
e-waste generated in the
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [11]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
country, while 65 cities generate more than 60per cent of the
total e-waste in India. Amongthe 10 largest e-waste generating
States,Maharashtra ranks first followed by TamilNadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, WestBengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat,
MadhyaPradesh and Punjab. Among the top ten citiesgenerating
e-waste, Mumbai ranks firstfollowed by Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai,
Kolkata,Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat andNagpur.
The main sources of electronic waste in Indiaare the government,
public and private(industrial) sectors, which account for almost70
per cent of total waste generation. Thecontribution of individual
households isrelatively small at about 15 per cent; the restbeing
contributed by manufacturers. Thoughindividual households are not
large contributorsto waste generated by computers, they
consumelarge quantities of consumer durables and are,therefore,
potential creators of waste.
E-waste Management System in India
Most of the activities right from thecollection,transportation,
segregation, dismantling,etc., are done by unorganized sectors
manually.Being a rich source of reusable and preciousmaterial,
E-waste is also a good source ofrevenue generation for many people
in India.The big portion (rag pickers) of the Indianpopulation
earned their livelihood by collectingand selling the inorganic
waste-like plastics,polythene bags, glass bottles, cardboards,
paper,other ferrous metals, etc. In absence of theadequate
technologies and equipment, most ofthe techniques used for the
recycling/treatmentsof E-waste are very raw and dangerous.Improper
recycling and disposal operationsfound in different cities of India
often involvethe open burning of plastic waste, exposure totoxic
solders, dumping of acids, andwidespread general dumping. As a
result,pollutants are dumped into the land, air, andwater, which
are the cause of seriousenvironmental problems in India. Also,
thelabourers and workers employed in thedismantling and recycling
units are poorlyliterate and uneducated, lacking the basicknowledge
about the serious occupational andhealth risks associated with the
operations. Mostof the time, dismantling and recyclingoperations
are performed by the workers
without proper Personnel ProtectionEquipment. Mostly hammers,
chisels, handdrills, cutters, electric torch/burners, andsometimses
electric drills are used fordismantling. These operations are
carried outin very congested places in the centre of citiesand
slums. Mostly, the dismantling andrecycling areas are without any
proper lightingand ventilation. In absence of suitabletechniques
and infrastructure, the workers andlabourers working in such areas
are prone toserious occupational health hazards.
Putting the onus of re-cycling of electronicwastes (e-waste) on
the producers, the Ministryof Environment and Forests (MoEF) has
for thefirst time notified e-waste management rules.Under the new
rules, producers will have tomake consumers aware about the
hazardouscomponents present in the product. Also,instructions for
consumers for handling theequipment after its use along with the
dos anddonts. They will also have to give informationbooklets to
prevent e-waste from being droppedin garbage bins.
However, according to the rules, bulkconsumers such as
enterprises and governmentwill be responsible for recycling of the
e-wastesgenerated by them. The bulk users have toensure that the
e-waste generated by them ischannelized to authorised collection
centres oris taken back by the producers.
They also have to maintain records of e-wastes generated by them
and make suchrecords available with State Pollution ControlBoards
or the Pollution Control Committees. TheState Pollution Control
Board will be requiredto prepare and submit to the Central
PollutionControl Board (CPCB) an annual report (basedon the data
received by consumers) with regardto implementation of these rules,
by September30 of every year. On receiving which, the CPCBwill have
to prepare a consolidated annualreview on management of e-waste and
forwardit to the government along with itsrecommendations by
December 30 of everyyear.
G. URBAN POVERTY
Urban poverty is a major challenge beforethe urban managers and
administrators of thepresent time. Though the anti-poverty
strategycomprising of a wide range of poverty
-
[12] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
alleviation and employment generatingprogrammes has been
implemented but resultsshow that the situation is grim.
Importantly,poverty in urban India gets exacerbated bysubstantial
rate of population growth, high rateof migration from the rural
areas andmushrooming of slum pockets. Migration aloneaccounts for
about 40 per cent of the growthin urban population, converting the
ruralpoverty into urban one.
Moreover, poverty has become synonymouswith slums. The
relationship is bilateral i.e.slums also breed poverty. This
vicious circlenever ends. Most of the worlds poor reside inIndia
and majority of the poor live in ruralareas and about one-fourth
urban populationin India lives below poverty line. If we countthose
who are deprived of safe drinking water,adequate clothing, or
shelter, the number willbe considerably higher.
Further, the vulnerable groups such asScheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes, Minorities,Pavement dwellers, etc., are living in
acutepoverty. Housing conditions in large cities andtowns are
depicting sub human lives of slumdwellers. With the reconstruction
of povertyalleviation programmes in urban India, it isexpected that
social and economic benefits willpercolate to the population below
the povertyline. However, eradication of poverty andimproving the
quality of life of the poor remainone of the daunting tasks.
Alleviation of urban poverty necessarily callsfor identification
of the urban poor to be ableto chalk out an appropriate strategy.
Thus withthe objective of putting in place a uniformcriterion to
identify the BPL households inurban areas so that objectivity and
transparencyis ensured in delivery of benefits to the targetgroups,
the Planning Commission constitutedan Expert Group under the
Chairmanship ofProfessor S.R. Hashim.
The Expert Group decided that poverty inUrban areas could be
best captured byidentifying three categories of
vulnerabilities,i.e., residential vulnerability,
occupationalvulnerability and social vulnerability that theurban
poor is subjected to. It was agreed toevolve a methodology to
identify urban poorbased on the various dimensions of these
threeareas of vulnerabilities to be qualified by anumber of
indicators which would also give
an idea of the depth/intensity of thevulnerability.
Based on the above broad approach, theExpert Group recommends a
three stageidentification process (i) Automatic Exclusion ;(ii)
Automatic Inclusion ; and (iii) Scoring Index.
Stage 1: Automatic Exclusion: If the numberof dwelling rooms
exclusively in possession ofthe household is 4 and above, that
householdwill be excluded. Secondly, the householdpossessing any
one of the assets, i.e., 4 wheelermotorized vehicle, AC Set and
computer orlaptop with internet will also be excluded.Besides the
households possessing any three ofthe following four assets, i.e.,
refrigerator,telephone (landline), washing machine, twowheeler
motorized vehicle will also be excluded.
Stage 2: Automatic Inclusion: householdsfacing various kinds of
deprivations andvulnerabilities viz. residential, social
andoccupational vulnerabilities would beautomatically included in
the BPL List.
a) Under residential vulnerability, If thehousehold is houseless
or the householdhas a house with roof and wall made
ofplastic/polythene or the household havingonly one room or less
with the material ofwall being grass, thatch, bamboo, mud, un-burnt
brick or wood and the material ofroof being grass, thatch, bamboo,
wood ormud, then that will be automaticallyincluded.
b) Under occupational vulnerability, thehousehold having no
income from anysource; any household member (includingchildren)
engaged in a vulnerableoccupation like beggar/rag picker,
domesticworker (who are actually paid wages) andsweeper/sanitation
worker /mali); and allearning adult members in a household aredaily
wagers or irregular wagers, then thathousehold should be
automaticallyincluded.
c) Under social vulnerability, if there is nomember of the
household aged 18 yearsand above (Child-headed household) orthere
is no able-bodied person aged between18 and 60 years in the
household or allearning adult members in a household areeither
disabled, chronically ill or aged more
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [13]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
than 65 years, then that household shouldbe automatically
included.
Stage 3: Scoring Index: In the third and finalstage, the
remaining households will be assignedscores from 1 to 12 based on
various indicatorsof residential, social and
occupationalvulnerabilities. Those households with scoresfrom 1 to
12 are to be considered eligible forinclusion in the BPL List in
the increasing orderof the intensity of their deprivations
meaningthereby that those with higher scores are moredeprived.
GOI Initiatives to Curb Urban poverty
a) Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rojgar Yojana
With a view to provide gainful employmentto the urban unemployed
poor throughencouraging the setting up of self employmentventures
and provision of wage employment Swarn Jayanti Shahari Rojgar
Yojana (SJSRY)was launched in 1997 after subsuming theearlier three
schemes of UBSP, NRY andPMIUPEP. SJSRY is funded on a basis of
75:25between the Centre and States. The schemerests on a foundation
of communityempowerment towards this ends, communityorganizations
like Neighbourhood Groups(NHGs), Neighbourhood Committees (NHCs)and
Community Development Societies (CDSs)are to be set up in the
target areas.
At the National level the Ministry ofHousing & Urban Poverty
Alleviation shall bethe nodal Ministry for implementation of
SJSRY.At the Central level, a Steering Committeeheaded by Secretary
(HUPA) and havingmembers from the States/UTs, Ministry ofFinance,
RBI, and other stakeholders willmonitor the Scheme. This Committee
will bemeeting at least once in every three months. Atthe State
level also, a State Level MonitoringCommittee having members from
the Banks,Micro Finance Institutions, Civil Society, andother
stakeholders will be set up to effectivelymonitor the Scheme. This
Committee will bemeeting at least once in every three months. Atthe
Urban Local Body level an Urban PovertyAlleviation & Livelihood
Development Cell willcoordinate and implement the scheme with
asuitable monitoring system put in place.
b) Jawaharlal Nehru National UrbanRenewal Mission
JNNURM aim is to encourage reforms andfast track planned
development of identifiedcities. Focus is to be on efficiency in
urbaninfrastructure and service delivery mechanisms,community
participation, and accountability ofULBs/ Parastatal agencies
towards citizens.
Objectives of the Mission
i. The objectives of the JNNURM are toensure that the following
are achieved inthe urban sector;
ii. Focussed attention to integrateddevelopment of
infrastructure services incities covered under the Mission;
iii. Establishment of linkages between asset-creation and
asset-management througha slew of reforms for long-term
projectsustainability;
iv. Ensuring adequate funds to meet thedeficiencies in urban
infrastructuralservices;
v. Planned development of identified citiesincluding peri-urban
areas, outgrowthsand urban corridors leading to
dispersedurbanisation;
vi. Scale-up delivery of civic amenities andprovision of
utilities with emphasis onuniversal access to the urban poor;
vii. Special focus on urban renewalprogramme for the old city
areas to reducecongestion; and
viii. Provision of basic services to the urbanpoor, including
security of tenure ataffordable prices, improved housing,
watersupply and sanitation, and ensuringdelivery of other existing
universal servicesof the government for education, healthand social
security.
c) Rajiv Awaas Yojana
With an aim of creating a slum-free IndiaRajiv Awas Yojana (RAY)
was launched tofacilitate affordable housing for slum dwellers.The
Centre would provide financial assistanceto States willing to
assign property rights toslum dwellers for provision of shelter and
basiccivic and social services for slum re-developmentand for
creation of affordable housing stockunder the RAY scheme.
-
[14] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
The scheme is expected to cover about 250cities, mostly with
population of more than onelakh across the country by the end of
12th Plan(2017).
The Centre will bear 50 per cent of the costof slum
re-development. To encourage creationof affordable housing stock,
the existing schemesof Affordable Housing in Partnership
andInterest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the UrbanPoor have been
dovetailed into RAY.
In order to encourage private sectorparticipation in slum
re-development, Centralassistance can be used by the States and
citiestowards viability gap funding.
Credit enablement of the urban poor andthe flow of institutional
finance for affordablehousing is an important component of
thescheme. The government has agreed to establisha mortgage risk
guarantee fund to facilitatelending the urban poor for housing
purposeswith an initial corpus of Rs. 1000 crore.
The scheme has been designed on the basisof experience of the
Jawaharlal National UrbanRenewal Mission (JNNURM) sub-mission
ofBasic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) andthe Integrated Housing
and UrbanDevelopment Programme (HSDP). Under theseschemes,
government had sought to take actionfor inclusive urban growth by
enabling redevelopment of slums with basic amenities anddecent
housing with security of tenure.
The inclusive city growth process will leadto enactment of
productivity at the bottom ofthe pyramid and will sustain the
contributionof cities to the Gross Domestic Product.
H. HAPHAZARD GROWTH OF REALESTATE SECTOR
The real estate sector is a critical sector ofIndia economy. It
has a huge multiplier effecton the economy and therefore, is a big
driverof economic growth. It is the
second-largestemployment-generating sector after
agriculture.Growing at a rate of about 20% per annumand this sector
has been contributing about 5-6% to Indias GDP. Not only does it
generate ahigh level of direct employment, but it alsostimulates
the demand in over 250 ancillaryindustries such as cement, steel,
paint, brick,building materials, consumer durables andso on.
But the most important obstacle tosustainable growth of cities
is the total lack ofregulation of this sector, nowadays it is
lacedwith black money, corruption, red tapism, landmafias and
corruption. It is also recognisedthat existing laws on land
registry, transfer ofproperty, contracts and related matters
arethemselves inadequate in this context, areimplemented by
different authorities and theycast no responsibility (or liability)
on thebuilder/developer for observing certain corenorms in the
contracts with home-buyers. Inrecent years, considerable progress
has beenmade in setting up empowered regulatorybodies for the
financial sector for investmentsin corporates, companies and mutual
funds.
Recently GOI has also introduced The RealEstate (Regulation And
Development) Bill, 2013- to provide a uniform regulatory
environmentin the real estate sector which is laced withblack
money, corruption, red tapism, landmafias and corruption. The core
objective ofthis Bill are twofold i.e. to ensure sale ofimmovable
properties in an efficient andtransparent manner and to protect the
interestof consumers in the real estate sector.
Major Highlights of the Bill
The provisions of this Bill are applicableonly to residential
projects.
Prior approval before launch andadvertisement- This Bill
contains provisionsrestricting launch of projects oradvertisements
unless all approvals arereceived and all the agents are not
expectedto facilitate the sale of immovable propertywhich are not
registered with the Authorityand to maintain books of accounts,
recordsand documents.
Mandatory deposit of funds- It makesmandatory upon the promoters
to deposit70 per cent or such lesser per cent asnotified by the
government to cover theconstruction cost of the project of funds
ina separate bank account to ensure timelycompletion and prevent
fund diversion.
Registration of real estate project and realestate agent - The
Bill also ensuresmandatory registration of real-estateprojects and
real-estate agents with theAuthority, except when the land
proposedto be developed is less than 1000 square
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [15]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
metres. This provision is likely to provideanother level of
protection to buyers whilealso preventing concerns regarding
moneylaundering by the non-organised brokercommunity.
Disclosing of mandatory information - Thereal estate
agents/developers are nowrequired to disclose material
informationsuch as details of the promoters, project,layout plan,
plan of development works,land status, carpet area (as opposed
tosuper area) and number of the apartmentsbooked, status of the
statutory approvalsand disclosure of proforma agreements,names and
addresses of the real estateagents, contractors, architect,
structuralengineer, etc. on the Authority's website.
Restriction on taking advance - Prohibitionon taking more than
ten percent as advancefrom the buyers without a writtenagreement
and also the developers/agentsare required to refund to buyers the
fullamount in case of delay of projects.
Liability/ Penalty The Bill prescribes forcivil and criminal
liability for thecontravention of various provisions of theBill,
such as, imprisonment up to three yearsor a penalty up to ten per
cent of theestimated cost of the real estate project forprojecting
out misleading information inadvertisement or prospectus.
Real estate regulatory authority The Billgives the power to
establish one or moreReal Estate Regulatory Authority in
eachState/UT, or one Authority for two or moreStates/UT, by the
Appropriate Government,specifying their functions, powers,
andresponsibilities to exercise oversight of realestate
transactions. The Bill shall alsoappoint adjudicating officers to
settledisputes between parties, and to imposepenalty and
interest.
Real Estate Regulatory Authority Powersand Functions
The Authority will act as a nodal agencyto co-ordinate efforts
regardingdevelopment of the real estate sector andrender necessary
advice to the appropriateGovernment to ensure the growth
andpromotion of a transparent, efficient andcompetitive real estate
sector.
The authority shall ensure compliance ofthe obligations cast
upon the promoters and
the allottees and to cause an inquiry to bemade into compliance
of its orders ordirections made in exercise of its powers.
To host and maintain a website of recordsof all real estate
projects within itsjurisdiction as database, with all details
asprovided in the application for registrationunder the Act, for
projects, for whichregistration has either been granted orcancelled
as the case may be.
To make recommendations on protectionof interest of the
allottees, measures toimprove the processes and procedures
forclearance and sanction of building plansand development projects
from theCompetent Authority; and constructionand maintenance of
structurally safe,environmentally sustainable, and low
costbuildings, apartments and properties andany other form of
assistance or advocacyto promote competition and efficiency inthe
real estate sector.
Regulatory Authority shall have the powerto call for
information, conductInvestigations, and make inquiry in theaffairs
of promoters where it considersexpedient to do so.
Regulatory Authority has the power to Issuedirections to
promoters and allottees fromtime to time and such directions are
bindingon all concerned.
Powers of the Regulatory Authorityconsequent upon lapse of or
cancellationof registration of the promoter torecommend to the
Competent Authority tohave the remaining development works,carried
out from the proceeds of theenforcement of bank guarantee and
recovercharges incurred on the said developmentworks due from the
promoter.
The Regulatory Authority shall have powersto regulate its own
procedure and shall beguided by the principles of natural
justiceand shall have all the powers as are vestedin a Civil Court
under the Code of CivilProcedure,1908
Penalties
Any promoter who fails to register inaccordance with the
provisions of the RealEstate (Regulation and Development) Bill,2013
shall be punishable with imprisonmentfor a term which may extend to
three years,
-
[16] Chronicle IAS Academy
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
or a penalty which may extend to ten percent of the estimated
cost of the real estateproject, or with both.
If any promoter contravenes any otherprovisions of this Bill,
other than thatprovided above, or the Rules or Regulationsmade , he
shall be liable to a penalty whichmay extend to five per cent of
the estimatedcost of the real estate project.
Any promoter who wilfully fails to complywith orders of the
Authority shall be liableto a minimum penalty of one lakh rupeesfor
every day during which such defaultcontinues, which may extend to
five percent of the estimated cost of the real estateproject.
Any promoter who unfully fails to complywith the orders of
Appellate Tribunal shallbe punishable with imprisonment for a
termwhich may extend to one year or with apenalty which may extend
to ten per centof the estimated cost of the real estateproject, or
with both.
Way Forward to Tackle Issues Related toUrbanization
India needs to work on several areas tomanage its urbanization.
The following areperhaps the most important: Inclusive cities,urban
governance, funding, planning, capacitybuilding and low-income
housing. India alsoneeds to start a political process where
theurban issues are debated with evolution ofmeaningful solutions.
The areas are:
Inclusive Cities: The poor and lowerincome groups must be
brought into themainstream in cities. Regulations intendedto manage
densities and discouragemigration both limit the supply ofland
andrequire many households toconsume more land than they
wouldchoose. This drives urban sprawl andpushes up the price of
land and the cost ofservice delivery for all. High standards
forparking, coverage limits, setbacks, elevators,road widths,
reservations for health centresschools etc. (often not used)
prevent thepoor from choosing how much to consumeof the costliest
resource (urban land) to puta roof over their heads, and comply
withlegal requirements. Informality is now theonly path to
affordable housing for the bulkof the population in Indias cities.
But
informality implies illegality and thereforevulnerability. While
lower income groupspay dearly for shelter and servicestheyare
bereft of normal property rightsprotection and their investments
are thusfar riskier than those of the well off. Theymust instead
depend on the good will ofbureaucrats and politiciansto
safeguardtheir homes and places of business. Thesebarriers to
healthy urbanization come notonly at a high human cost, but take a
tollon productivity. Chronic informalitydiscourages the very
investments ineducation, health and housingimprovements the lower
classes need toimprove their own lot and contribute moreto the
national economy.
Urban Governance: Meaningful reformshave to happen that enable
true devolutionof power and responsibilities from the statesto the
local and metropolitan bodiesaccording to the 74th Amendment. This
isbecause by 2030, Indias largest cities willbe bigger than many
countries today. Indias urban governance of cities needs
anover-haul. Indias current urbangovernance is in sharp contrast to
largecities elsewhere that have empoweredmayors with long tenures
and clearaccountability for the citys performance. India also needs
to clearly define the relativeroles of its metropolitan and
municipalstructures for its 20 largest metropolitanareas. With
cities growing beyondmunicipal boundaries, having fully
formedmetropolitan authorities with clearlydefined roles will be
essential for thesuccessful management of large cities inIndia.
Financing: Devolution has to be supportedby more reforms in
urban financing thatwill reduce cities dependence on the Centreand
the states and unleash internal revenuesources. Consistent with
most internationalexamples, there are several sources offunding
that Indian cities could tap into, toa far greater extent than
today: Monetizingland assets; higher collection of propertytaxes,
user charges that reflect costs; debtand public-private
partnerships (PPPs); andcentral/state government funding. However,
internal funding alone will notbe enough, even in large cities. A
portionhas to come from the central and stategovernments. Here one
can use central
-
Chronicle IAS Academy [17]
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHRONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
ONIC
LE
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS AAAAACADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
CADEM
Y
schemes such as JNNURM and Rajiv AwasYojana but eventually India
needs to movetowards a systematic formula rather thanad-hoc grants.
For large cities with deepeconomies, this might mean allowing
themto retain 20 per cent of goods and servicetax (GST) revenues.
This is consistent withthe 13th Central Finance
Commissionsassessment that GSTa consumption-basedtax that creates
local incentives for growthand that is therefore well suited for
directallocation to the third tier of government. For smaller
cities, however, a better optionwould be to give guaranteed annual
grants.
Planning: India needs to make urbanplanning a central, respected
function,investing in skilled people, rigorous factbase and
innovative urban form. This canbe done through a cascaded
planningstructure in which large cities have 40-yearand 20-year
plans at the metropolitan levelthat are binding on municipal
developmentplans. Central to planning in any city isthe optimal
allocation of space, especiallyland use and Floor Area Ratio
(FAR)planning. Both should focus on linkingpublic transportation
with zoning foraffordable houses for low-income groups. These plans
need to be detailed,comprehensive, and enforceable.
Local capacity building: A real step-up inthe capabilities and
expertise of urban local
bodies will be critical to devolution andimprovement of service
delivery. Reformswill have to address the development
ofprofessional managers for urbanmanagement functions, who are in
shortsupply and will be required in largenumbers. New innovative
approaches willhave to be explored to tap into the
expertiseavailable in the private and social sectors. India needs
to build technical andmanagerial depth in its city administrations.
In the Indian Civil Services, India has abenchmark for how to build
a dedicatedcadre for governance. It now needs tocreate an
equivalent cadre for cities, as wellas allow for lateral entry of
private-sectorexecutives.
Affordable housing: Affordable housing isa particularly critical
concern for low-income groupsin the absence of a viablemodel that
caters to their needs. India canmeet the challenge through a set of
policiesand incentives that will bridge the gapbetween price and
affordability. This willenable a sustainable and economicallyviable
affordable housing model for bothgovernment housing agencies and as
wellas private developers. India also needs toencourage rental
housing as an optionparticularly for the poorest of the poor,
whomay not be able to afford a home even withthese incentives.