ISSUE 21 FROM THE NUTRIGOLD NUTRITIONAL UPDATE … · top 5 benefits of krill oil versus fish oils For more newsletters, log on to updates.nutrigold.co.uk or call 0845 603 5675 Krill

Education NewsI S S U E 2 1 F R O M T H E N U T R I G O L D N U T R I T I O N A L U P D AT E S E R V I C E

KRILL OIL Join the omega oil revolution today!

Omega 3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acids (EFAs) are indisputably essential to maintaining a healthy body from development in the womb right through to sustaining health in old age.1 Multiple clinical trials have demonstrated that omega 3 EFAs play a pivotal role in eye and brain development, as well as promoting cognitive and immune system function. Deficiencies in omega 3 EFAs have been linked to many illnesses including cardiovascular disease, dementia, arthritis and different cancers.2

Omega EFAs can only be obtained through the diet but a typical western diet is inadequate for supplying enough omega 3 eicosapentaenoic

acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA can only be obtained from dietary sources such as oily fish like salmon, trout and sardines, or vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which is rich in the EPA and DHA precursor alpha linoleic acid (ALA). Many diets also contain elevated levels of omega 6 EFAs; these are essential but required at lower levels compared to omega 3 EFAs. High intake of omega 6 EFAs can increase levels of pro-inflammatory mediators in the body that can lead to increased blood clotting and impair immune repsonses. Modern diets often have ratios of up to 30:1 omega 6 to omega 3 EFAs due to high intake of processed foods, meats, dairy and

vegetable oils. For optimal health the correct ratio should be around 4:1 with some sources citing equal daily amounts of omega 3 and 6.4

As a result, omega 3 EFA supplements, along with dietary EFA balance, can be very important in helping to maintain the correct omega 3:6 ratio and support health. However, recent studies have suggested that not all omega 3 supplements are equal in terms of absorption and therefore efficacy and value for money. Krill oil is packed full of readily bioavailable omega 3 EFAs and many other essential nutrients so let us help you clear the confusion about essential fatty acids and join the omega oil revolution today!

Many people are aware of the need to supplement their diet with omega 3 essential fatty acids (EFAs) to support different areas of health including the heart, brain and joints. However, with the vast array of omega 3 EFA supplements on the market which product is the most effective and therefore the best value for money?

Krill oil is a naturally occurring blend of highly bioavailable omega 3 EFAs (in phospholipid form) and antioxidants that combine to give a potent health-supporting daily supplement. In fact, it’s the market leader for supplying omega 3 EFAs. Research shows that krill oil supports many areas of health including heart, brain, hormone balance and weight management more effectively than fish oils due to its unique natural formulation.

TOP 5 BENEFITS OF KRILL OIL VERSUS FISH OILS

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Krill oil has over 50% greater bioavailability compared to fish oils and at lower doses meaning better value for money. Krill oil is free from marine contamination including heavy metals, unlike many fish oils. Krill oil has 48 times antioxidant capacity compared to fish oils. Krill does not produce a fishy aftertaste! Krill oil is clinically proven to be more effective than fish oils in:

• helping balance healthy cholesterol levels• promoting brain health• improving appearance of the skin• improving emotional and physical symptoms of PMS• supporting weight management• reducing intake of anti-inflammatory drugs

THE MANY HEALTH BENEFITS OF KRILL OIL

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PMS

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is characterised by a set of hormonal changes that trigger disruptive symptoms in a significant number of women for up to 2 weeks prior to menstruation.28 After just 3 months of krill oil supplementation, all measured physical and emotional PMS symptoms significantly improved compared to fish oil, which only improved 3 out of the 10 measured symptoms (including irritability, depression, joint pain, breast tenderness, weight gain and bloating).29,30 Krill oil supplements also worked faster being fully effective by the second menstrual cycle compared to the fish oil, which only improved three symptoms by the third cycle.

Krill oil improves the emotional and physical symptoms of PMS more effectively than fish oils

LIVER HEALTH

Liver disease, including Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), is the 5th biggest killer in the UK – more than diabetes and road deaths combined!33 Krill oil is rich in phospholipids, in particular phosphatidyl choline34, which is a key component of hepatocyte (liver cell) structure.35 Krill oil can help maintain a healthy liver by reducing liver fat formation (i.e. hepatic steatosis), preventing weight increase, protecting against hepatic oxidative damage, as well as promoting bile production, which reduces the risk of developing gallstones.

Krill oil reduces fat content of the liver by 50% more than fish oils

BRAIN POWER

The brain contains up to 60% phospholipids, mainly as polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega 3 DHA.18 Studies show that the brain absorbs dietary phospholipids, such as those found in krill oil, twice as efficiently as triglyceride EFAs from fish oils19. DHA is critical for the correct development of the brain in the foetus and in young children20 where deficiencies can lead to behavioural problems, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and adolescent emotional dysfunction.21 Phospholipids are also vital for adult memory and learning, cognitive performance and mood.22 Clinical studies also show krill oil can improve concentration and planning abilities.23

Krill oil phospholipids are a vital part of a healthy brain contributing to memory, learning and mood

CURBING CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Recent clinical studies show that daily krill oil supplementation significantly reduces the level of circulating triglycerides, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol (major risk factors for cardiovascular disease) whilst increasing beneficial HDL cholesterol levels compared to fish oils or placebo.5,6 Cardiovascular disease (CVD), causes over 25% of all deaths in the UK every year.7 There are often no visible signs of CVD so prevention through diet and nutritional support such as omega 3 EFAs is imperative.8

Krill oil has a greater impact on reducing blood lipid levels to support heart health compared to fish oils

TYPE 2 DIABETES

There are now over 3 million cases of diabetes in the UK.36 Krill oil improves insulin sensitivity and prevents the depletion of the GLUT 4 protein, which helps reduce blood sugar levels by increasing muscle and adipose (fat) tissue sensitivity to blood sugars.37 The high astaxanthin antioxidant status of krill oil (not found in fish oils) reduces oxidative cell damage during hyperglycemic (high blood sugar) states.38 Diabetes is also associated with elevated blood fats and poor liver health. Krill oil can promote liver health improving the breakdown of sugars, fats and proteins that contribute to diabetic and metabolic syndrome symptoms.39

Krill oil improves insulin sensitivity and also protects cells from oxidative damage, unlike fish oils

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ANTI-AGEING

Krill oil is rich in a natural antioxidant, astaxanthin, which can powerfully protect cells from free radical damage caused by overexposure to UV sunlight and chemical pollutants. Studies show that Krill oil protects against UV sun damage and improves skin condition including reducing crow’s feet type wrinkles and increasing skin moisture content.31 Phospholipid omega 3 EFAs, only found in krill oil, also keep all cell membranes flexible, fluid and healthy, including those in skin cells.32

Krill oil reduces wrinkles and improves skin condition

TUMOUR INHIBITION

Krill oil significantly inhibits up to 64% cell proliferation within 72h shown in vitro studies using tissue from osteosarcoma (tumours in area of bone growth). Fish oil resulted in no significant changes.41 The inhibitory effects of krill oil were comparable to clinical doses of drugs typically used to control these tumours that come with many unwanted side effects.

Krill oil inhibits tumour cell proliferation by 64% whereas fish oils showed no effect

FIGHTING OBESITY

Around 25% of the UK population is obese,9 which contributes to many potentially life-limiting inflammatory diseases including CVD, type 2 diabetes and certain cancers.10 Krill oil is a superior form of omega 3 EFA for weight loss as studies show that blood levels of endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyglycerol (2AG), a signalling molecule that influences appetite and emotional state, are significantly reduced aiding weight loss.11 This result was not seen with fish oil supplements. Krill oil, alongside diet,12 also improves metabolic obesity parameters such as lowering blood lipids,13 increasing fat burning enzymes and reducing inflammation.14

Krill oil aids weight loss more effectively than fish oils

CALMING INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASES

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD), including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, have a complex set of causes and symptoms that greatly impact on quality of life. Krill oil reduces levels of gut inflammatory markers and has a potent antioxidant effect (unlike fish oils), which ultimately may help to protect and restore gut tissue function in IBD.40

Krill oil reduces inflammation and damage in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

HEALTHIER JOINTS

Omega 3 EFA deficiencies contribute to inflammatory conditions such as arthritis.15 Krill oil supplements reduce inflammatory swelling in joint tissue in people with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.16 Moreover, patients treated with krill oil (not fish oils) dramatically reduced their consumption of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) like aspirin, which have been linked to increased risk of gastric ulcers, gastric bleeding and stroke.17

Krill oil reduces dependence on harmful Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs

NATURALLY BOOSTING MOOD

DHA increases production of the hormones serotonin and dopamine that are important in balancing mood, emotions and enhancing feelings of wellbeing.24 Krill oil has been demonstrated to reduce symptoms of anxiety25 and may improve the quality of life in a natural way for adults and children with depression.26,27

Krill oil reduces anxiety and boosts mood

ENERGY BOOST

Krill oil can boost energy! Krill oil switches on genes involved in the mitochondrial electron transport chain42, a crucial pathway responsible for producing cellular energy (ATP).43 This exciting research suggests that krill oil could be important in preventing a decline in cellular energy production, a common symptom of which are reduced in illness, stress and ageing. This increased energy production effect has not been reported with fish oils.

Krill oil boost cellular energy producing pathways, unlike fish oils

Krill oil is rich in bioavailable forms of omega 3 EFAs proven to improve many areas of health including supporting heart, joints and brain function.45 Krill oil also naturally contains high levels of phospholipids and antioxidants, like astaxanthin proven to reduce skin ageing from UV sunlight.46 Krill oil is also extremely safe for human consumption and certified sustainable. These are just some of the reasons why krill oil is the omega 3 supplement of choice.

FABULOUS PHOSPHOLIPIDS!Phospholipids are a unique component of krill oil and are not found in fish oils. Phospholipids within cell membranes act as “gate-keepers” and form the membrane structure by linking in a double layer interspersed with proteins and other key fats like cholesterol, vital for transport of nutrients and waste to and from the cell (Figure 1). Membranes also surround the internal structures inside cells such as mitochondria, the batteries of the cell that produce energy (ATP).47 Membrane integrity always subserves cell function so, in simple terms, phospholipids are vital for overall cell function.

KRILL OIL COMPOSITION

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Figure 1. Phospholipids (e.g. phosphatidyl choline) are integral to cell membrane structure

phosphatidyl choline

KRILL FACTS• Euphausia Superba (i.e. common

Krill) are shrimp-like marine crustacean about 2 inches long, commonly found in cold water oceans such as the Antarctic Ocean.

• Krill’s naturally pink colour comes from the high levels of potent health-promoting carotenoid antioxidant called astaxanthin.

• Krill forms the largest biomass (i.e. collection of living biological organisms) on the planet, which also glows from bioluminescent krill organs!

• Krill can only live in a pure environment unlike fish, which may be contaminated with mercury and other heavy metals.

• Antarctic krill are herbivores and feed off phytoplankton (microscopic plants) and algae, which are at the bottom of the ocean food chain, so have very limited accumulation of environmental contaminants, unlike many fish.

• Krill food is rich in chlorophyll, which is comprised of many health-promoting nutrients including oxygen and magnesium.44

• Krill oil is naturally rich in phospholipid omega 3 essential fatty acids, as well as astaxanthin and other vitamins and minerals.

• Krill oil’s numerous health benefits have also conquered the outer space market, as NASA spaceship crews enjoy this as a regular part of their space travelling diet!

WHY KRILL OIL PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE IS IMPORTANTFats in general are comprised of a glycerol head and fatty acid chains such as omega 3 and 6 EFAs (Figure 2). EFAs in fish oils are in the triglyceride form where three fatty acid chains are attached to the glycerol head (Figure 2B). However, krill oil contains two omega 3 DHA and EPA fatty acid chains attached to the glycerol head, which is associated with a special group such as choline. This forms phospholipids such as phosphatidyl choline (Figure 2A), a very important fat for liver and brain health. The choline (or inositol, serine or ethanolamine) attachment gives phospholipids a dual nature, as the glycerol head becomes

hydrophilic (i.e. water loving) or polar and the fatty acid omega 3 fatty acids tails are hydrophobic (i.e. water-hating) or non-polar.

This unique polar and non-polar (i.e. amphipathic) nature allows phospholipids to mix with water, unlike other fats including triglycerides found in fish oils, which are entirely non-polar. This means that krill oil omega 3 EFAs are readily absorbed into cell membranes (Figure 1), unlike triglyceride omega 3 EFAs from fish oils, which have to be converted into phospholipids. Krill oil also mixes with the contents of the stomach greatly reducing any fishy aftertaste that many people experience with fish oils.

CHOLINE

PHOSPHATE

1 2

GLYCEROL

FATT

Y A

CID

FATTY ACID

Nonpolar(hydrophobic)

headgroup

Polar(hydrophilic)

headgroup

GLYC

EROL

FATTY ACID

FATTY ACID

FATTY ACID

1

2 3

Non

-pol

ar (h

ydro

phob

ic)

tail

grou

pPo

lar (

hydr

ophi

llic)

h

ead

grou

p

Krill oil phospholipids (left) have two omega 3 fatty acid tail groups and mainly choline associated with a glycerol head group

forming a cell membrane ready omega 3 EFA phospholipid. Triglyceride fish oils (right) do not contain choline and are

entirely non-polar (i.e. hydrophobic) so need to be converted into phospholipids before being incorporated into cell membranes.

Figure 2. Structure of krill oil phospholipid (A) and fish oil triglyceride (B) omega 3 EFA

“Krill oil mixes with the stomach contents greatly reducing the

chance of fishy aftertaste.”

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KRILL OIL IS MORE COST EFFECTIVE THAN FISH OILSKrill oil omega 3 EFAs have 42% greater bioavailability compared to fish oils after just 7 weeks of supplementation and are readily incorporated into cell membranes. Bioavailability accounts for how much of a substance (e.g. omega 3 EFAs) reaches the blood and covers absorption from the gastrointestinal tract and survival rate in the blood and body. Greater bioavailability and bioefficacy means a better value for money product!KRILL OIL IS EASILY ABSORBED THROUGH THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

Unlike triglycerides, krill oil phospholipids do not need bile salts from the liver and gallbladder and the fat digesting enzyme lipase released by the pancreas in order to be digested. Phospholipids are readily absorbed across through the gastrointestinal tract and available for membrane structure. However, triglyceride omega 3EFAs from fish oils need to be emulsified by bile, digested by lipase enzymes, absorbed as micelles into the lymphatic system before entering the blood stream and converted into phospholipids in the liver ready for membrane insertion.48 This is a very energy consuming and time dependent process that can be greatly affected by factors including stress, poor diet and illness.49

KRILL OIL HAS HIGHER PLASMA LEVELS AT LOWER DOSES COMPARED TO FISH OILS

A randomised double-blind human clinical study measured EPA and DHA levels in 76 overweight and obese men and women after daily administration of 2g/day krill oil, fish oil or olive oil. When the EPA and DHA doses were

adjusted to account for lower levels found in krill oil, the study showed krill oil supplementation resulted

in 24% increased plasma EPA and DHA bioavailability compared to fish oil at just 4

weeks and 42% greater after just 7 weeks (Figure 3).50 So even though EPA and DHA levels are lower in krill oil, they have greater plasma bioavailability

compared to fish oils. Studies also show that lower doses of EPA and

DHA from krill oil are required to produce plasma EPA and

DHA levels similar to those found fish oils (Figure 3).51

KRILL OIL IS READILY ABSORBED INTO CELL MEMBRANES AND FAVOURABLY ALTERS THE OMEGA 6:3 RATIO

Studies have show that krill oil increases the Omega 3 Index (a reliable indicator of omega 3 incorporation into cell membranes) by 125% after just 8 weeks of supplementation (Figure 4) with a 45% increase after just 2 weeks. There is also a two-fold improvement of omega 6:3 ratio (i.e. increase in cell membrane omega 3 EFA content) using krill oil compared to fish oil.52 The omega 6:3 ratio has many adverse health consequences when omega 6 EFAs are too high in cell membranes. Supplementing with krill oil has been proven to help raise membrane omega 3 EFA ratio and improve many areas of health.

Krill oil has greater biological activity compared to fish oils so

is more cost effective.

Figure 3. Krill oil produces 24% increased plasma levels of DHA and EPA after 4 weeks and 42% after 7 weeks compared to fish oils

Figure 4. Krill oil increases level of omega 3 EFAs in red blood cell membranes by 125% after 8 weeks, unlike fish oils

5040

3020

100

4 weeks

7 weeks

% in

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se p

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a EP

A a

nd D

HA

a

fter k

rill o

il co

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red

to fi

sh o

il in

take

100%

50%

2 weeks

8 weeks

Om

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Krill oil has 24% increased plasma levels of DHA and EPA after 4 weeks compared to fish oils.

KRILL OIL NUTRIENTSKrill oil is rich in a very special carotenoid called astaxanthin.53 Astaxanthin has very potent antioxidant activity preserving cell membranes from free radical (oxidative) damage, as well as anti-inflammatory properties and can readily cross the blood brain barrier.54,55 Astaxanthin protects lipids from oxidation, including reducing damage caused by LDL cholesterol in the vasculature, as well as raising “good” HDL cholesterol and lowering blood triglycerides.56,57,58 Astaxanthin also protects skin from UV damage and ageing.59

Krill oil has 48 times greater antioxidant action compared to fish oil

due to natural levels of astaxanthin

ASTAXANTHIN - A POWERFUL ANTIOXIDANTKrill oil has 48 times greater antioxidant action compared to fish oil, 500 times greater than vitamin E and 34 times that of coenzyme Q1060 using the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) scale to compare the relative antioxidant power of foods (Figure 5). This is due to the krill oil astaxanthin content that is found in naturally high levels in marine micro-algae, which krill consume. As the marine food chain progresses, astaxanthin is diluted so fish oils do not contain any significant levels of this health-promoting antioxidant.

VITAMINS & MINERALSKrill oil naturally contains other valuable nutrients including fat soluble vitamins A and E (both important antioxidants) in higher levels than found in oily fish such as trout or salmon. Krill also contain minerals such as magnesium and selenium,61,62 as well as astaxanthin, omega 3 EFAs and other phospholipids.

6

Vitamin AVitamin ELuteinFish OilCoenzyme Q10AstaxanthinLycopeneKrill Oil

0 125 250 375 500

ORAC Total FL Value (µmole/g)

Figure 5. Comparison of antioxidant ORAC scores of different oils and nutrients

KRILL OIL SAFETY AND STABILITYKRILL OIL SAFETY AND STABILITYAntarctic krill live in a naturally clean environment, devoid of pollution, so there’s significantly less risk of heavy metal contamination compared to some commercially produced fish oils. Krill oil has undergone extensive in vitro, in vivo and human studies to determine its safety and lack of toxicity. A recent study with 76 men and women63 showed that four weeks of krill oil supplementation increased plasma EPA and DHA and was well tolerated with no adverse effects to health or wellbeing. However, people with known allergies to crustaceans (prawns, crab, lobster etc.) should not use krill products and instead take a premium quality fish oil with high potency phosphatidyl choline lecithin powder and broad spectrum plant digestive enzyme complex containing lipase for daily omega 3 boost.

Krill oil is far less prone to oxidation (i.e. free radical formation, which damages fats and destroys omega 3 EFAs) compared to traditional triglyceride forms of omega 3 found in fish oils. A study of krill oil and fish oil kept at 40˚C for 6 days showed no oxidation occurred in the krill oil after 6 days but there was a high oxidation rate of omega 3 fatty acids in the fish oil (Figure 6). A recent study in Nature also found that 83% fish oil products sold in New Zealand exceeded the recommended peroxide value levels.64 The powerful antioxidant astaxanthin that naturally occurs in krill oil protects the oil and omega 3 EFAs structure against oxidation ensuring a more stable product with increased shelf-life.65

250

200

150

100

500

0 3 6

Krill Oil

18/12 fish oil

Pero

xide

Val

ue

Days at 40˚C

Figure 6. Krill oil omega 3 EFAs do not oxidise and have much greater stability compared to fish oils.

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For more information please see Nutrigold CPD accredited webinars at www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/educational_webinars

KEY ADVANTAGES OF KRILL OIL OVER FISH OILS

Phospholipid omega 3 EFAs

• Krill oil omega 3 phospholipids are naturally absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and are membrane-ready, unlike fish oil triglyceride omega 3 EFAs.

• Krill oil increases membrane omega 3 EFAs by 125% improving the omega 6:3 ratio two-fold compared to fish oils.

Bioavailability

• Krill oil phospholipid omega 3 EFAs have 42% greater bioavailability compared to triglyceride forms of EFAs found in fish oils, and at lower doses.

• Gastrointestinal absorption of krill oil is quicker than triglyceride forms of omega 3.

Scientifically proven health benefits

• Krill oil supports the heart, weight loss, liver, joints, brain function, emotions, female hormone balance, blood sugar balance, fat metabolism, skin (anti-ageing) and increases energy production pathways in the cell.

Stability • Naturally present astaxanthin stabilises krill oil by preventing oxidation, preserving omega 3 EFAs and prolonging shelf-life.

Astaxanthin • High levels of naturally occurring antioxidant means krill oil has 48 times more antioxidant activity compared to fish oils.

Safety*• Krill oil is free from contaminants such as dioxins, heavy metals and PCBs, as krill

only live in naturally clean environment with minimal contamination.

• Safe for human consumption.

Value for money

• Greater bioavailability at lower doses so fewer capsules of krill oil are required.

• Greater stability improves shelf-life.

• Direct gastrointestinal absorption of phosholipids means no extra cost of taking digestion enhancing supplements (such as high potency phosphatidyl choline lecithin powder or broad spectrum plant digesting enzymes) with krill oil, unlike fish oils.

KRILL OIL SUSTAINABILITYKrill form an important part of the marine food chain. They are ecologically important in helping to limit the extent of global warming due to krill waste containing significant amounts of atmospheric carbon, which sinks to the bottom of the sea. It’s for these reasons that krill must be

harvested from sustainable sources.

The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is an international nonprofit organisation with an

independent certifying body. The MSC focuses on the health of ocean stocks and how they are managed in addition to assessing the effects of the fishery on the wider ecosystem including marine mammals, birds and fish. Reputable krill oil supplements should therefore have minimum MSC certification but some oils also achieve the MSC eco-friendly label, providing consumers with a guarantee of sustainability, effective fishery management and full traceability from sea to shelf. Look for the MSC eco-friendly label to be sure of your krill oil supplement origin.

*People with known shellfish allergies should not use krill oil. Instead, fish oil free from contaminants such as dioxin and PCBs can be used to supplement the diet with omega 3 EFAs alongside a broad-spectrum plant digestive enzyme supplement containing lipase and a lecithin powder to support digestion and absorption of triglyceride fish oil omega 3 EFAs.

Should you need a more detailed approach, or should you have any questions or concerns that are not addressed in this article, you are always welcome to contact our nutritional advice team on 0845 603 5675 (9.00am – 5.00pm Monday – Friday).

For all the latest nutritional research and legislation why not log on to:

updates.nutrigold.co.ukNUTRIGOLDPO BOX 217, Exmouth, EX8 9AXTel: +44(0)845 603 5675 (local rate) Fax: +44(0)845 603 5690

Nutrigold do not support or condone the use of animal experimentation.

This newsletter was co-written with and for Nutrigold by Dr Elisabeth Philipps, a highly qualified and practicing Natural Nutritional Therapist and a member of the Federation of Nutritional Therapists. To find out more please visit www.hartwellnutrition.co.uk.

Alternatively if you would like a more personalised approach, addressing dietary recommendations, lifestyle changes etc., we would suggest you consider consulting a qualified nutrition adviser or therapist, which you can do by either asking us for details of your local

practitioners, or contacting the Federation of Nutritional Therapy Practitioners on 0870 312 0042 or by emailing them at [email protected].

For more information visit the website at: www.fntp.org.uk

This newsletter was co-written with and for Nutrigold by Dr Elisabeth Philipps, a highly qualified and practicing Natural Nutritional Therapist and a member of the Federation of Nutritional Therapists. To find out more please visit www.hartwellnutrition.co.uk.

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44. Ishii, H. (1987) Metabolic rates and elemental composition of the Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba Dana. Polar Biology 7(6)

45. Health Benefits of Krill Oil. Nutrigold newsletter. www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutritional_newsletters

46. Tominaga et al (2012) Cosmetic Benefits Of Astaxanthin On Human Subjects. ACTA ABP Biochimica Polonica 59: 43-47

47. Dr E Philipps (2014) Optimising Energy. Nutrigold newsletter. www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutritional_newsletters

48. Dr E Philipps (2015) Understanding the Omega Oil Revolution. Nutrigold CPD accredited webinar. www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/educational_webinars

49. Dr E Philipps (2013) Digestive Enzymes: The Key to Optimum Health. Nutrigold newsletter. www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutri-tional_newsletters

50. Maki et al (2009) Krill Oil Supplementation Increases Plasma Concentrations Of Eicosapentaenoic And Docosahexaenoic Acids In Overweight And Obese Men And Women. Nutr Res 29:609-615

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53. Alphabet of Antioxidants. Nutrigold newsletter. www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutritional_newsletters

54. Fassett et al (2011) Astaxanthin: A Potential Therapeutic Agent In Cardiovascular Disease. Mar Drugs 9:447-65

55. Riccioni et al (2011) Marine Carotenoids And Cardiovascular Risk Markers. Mar Drugs. 9:1166-75

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58. Hussein et al (2007) Astaxanthin Ameliorates Features Of Metabolic Syndrome In SHR/Ndmcr-Cp. Life Sci 80:522-9

59. Tominaga et al (2012) Cosmetic Benefits Of Astaxanthin On Human Subjects. ACTA ABP Biochimica Polonica 59: 43-47

60. Coenzyme Q10. Nutrigold newsletter. www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutritional_newsletters

61. Tou, et al (2007) Krill for Human Consumption: Nutritional Value and Potential Health Benefits. Nutr Revs 65:63-77

62. Dr L Plaskett. Health Benefits of Krill Oil. Nutrigold newsletter. www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutritional_newsletters

63. Maki et al (2009) Krill Oil Supplementation Increases Plasma Con-centrations Of Eicosapentaenoic And Docosahexaenoic Acids In Overweight And Obese Men And Women. Nutr Res. 29:609-615

64. Alber et al (2014) Fish oil supplements in New Zealand are highly oxidised and do not meet label content of n-3 PUFA. Scientific Reports. Nature. doi:10.1038/srep07928

65. Pashkow et al (2008) Astaxanthin: a novel potential treatment for oxidative stress and inflammation in cardiovascular disease. Am J Cardiol 101:58D-68D