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Recent Researches
in
&Social Sciences
HumanitiesISSN 2348–3318
International Refereed & Blind Peer ReviewedMultidisciplinary Research Journal
Chief Editor
Anita SharmaAssociate Professor & Head,Department of English, B.S.M. (P.G.) College, Roorkee
Editor
� Dr. Ruby Charak, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Psychology, University of Texas,Rio Grande Valley, USA
� Dr. Rita Sahai, Director, Hindustani Ensemble, Deptt. of Ethnomusicology, UCDavis, USA
� Dr. Ram Prasad Pal, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Pub. Adm. and DevelopmentManagement, Dilla University, Dilla, Ethiopia
� Prof. Shamsur Rahman Khan, Psychiatrist, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
� Anuja Rathi, CEO Management, DOCASAP, Virginia, USA
� Archana Gupta, CEO Tech., DOCASAP, Virginia, USA
Joint Editor
� Dr. Arti Bakhshi, Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Psychology, Jammu University, J&K, India
� Dr. Purnima Srivastava, Asso. Professor & Head, Department of Education, K.L.D.A.V.P.G.
College, Roorkee (Haridwar) Uttarakhand
� Dr. Chandra Shekhar, Sr. Asstt. Professor, Department of Psychology, Jammu University,
Jammu (J&K)
� Dr. Rakam Singh Sandhu, Professor & HOD, Department of Physical Education,
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra (Haryana)
� Dr. Vidyapati, Head & Dean, Faculty of Education, Ewing Christian College, An Autonomous
Constituent College of Central University, Allahabad
� Dr. Shiv Shankar Mishra, Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Sanskrit, Shri Lal Bahadur Sanskrit
Vidyapeeth (Deemed University), New Delhi
� Dr. Poonam Sharma, Associate Prof., Deptt. of Education, J.V.Jain College, Saharanpur (U.P.)
Environment� Dr. Manjul Dhiman, Asso. Prof., Deptt. of Botany, D.A.V.P.G. College, Roorkee (Haridwar) Uttarakhand
Home Science� Dr. Renu Gautam, Asst. Prof., Deptt. of Home Science, Govt. PG College, Augustyamuni (UK)
� Dr. Hemlata Sexena, Retd. Prof., Deptt. of Home Science, M.K.P. Girls P.G. College, Dehradun (U.K.)
� Dr. Bindu Nautiyal, S.C.E.R.T., Dehradun (U.K.)
Social Work� Mrs. Shashi Rani, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Social Work, University of Delhi, Delhi
� Dr. Uma Bhahuguna, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Soc./Social Work, HNB Garhwal Central Uni., Srinagar (Uttarakhand)
Yogic Science� Dr. Ishwar Bhardwaj, HOD, Deptt. of Yogic Science, Gurukul Kangri Univerisy, Haridwar (Uttarakhand)
� Dr. Suresh Lal Barnwal, HOD, Deptt. of Yogic Science, Dev Sanskriti University, Haridwar
� Dr. Kamakhya Kumar, Asso. Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Yogic Science, Uttarakhand Sanskrit University, Haridwar, UK
� Dr. L. N. Joshi, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Yogic Science, Uttarakhand Sanskrit University, Haridwar, UK
� Dr. Arpita, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Yogic Science, Shimla University, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
Music� Dr. Vandana Joshi, HOD, Deptt. of Music [ S.S.J. Campus, Almora], Kumaon University, Nainital
Library Science / Information Science & Mass Communication� Dr. Dhiraj Shukla, Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Journalism & Mass Communication, Uttarakhand Sanskrit University, Haridwar
� C. P. Panday, Deptt. of Library, Uttarakhand Sanskrit University, Haridwar, UK
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LINGUISTICS
(Hindi, English & Sanskrit)
Hindi� Dr. Bihari Lal Yadav, Asso. Professor, Deptt. of Hindi, Govt. PG College. Kotdwar, Pauri Garhwal (Uttarakhand)
� Dr. Nirmala Sharma, Asso. Prof., Deptt. of Hindi, M.L.J.N.K. Girls P.G. College, Saharanpur (U.P.)
� Dr. Vidula Singh, Retd. & Head, Deptt. of Hindi, J.V. Jain College, Saharanpur (U.P.)
English� Dr. Nalini Jain, Associate Prof. & HOD, Deptt. of English, S.M.J.N. P.G. College, Haridwar (Uttarakhand)
� Dr. Indu Sharma, Associate Prof., Deptt. of English, J.V.Jain College, Saharanpur (U.P)
� Dr. Parul Jain, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of English, B.S.M. P.G. College, Roorkee, Distt.-Haridwar, Uttarakhand
� Dr. Praveen Kumar, Principal, Himalayan Doon Academy (B.Ed. College), Sikandarpur, Bhagwanpur (Haridwar)
Sanskrit� Dr. Arun Kumar Mishra, Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Veda, Uttarakhand Sanskrit University, Haridwar
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opinions of the authors and have nothing to do with the opinions of
Recent Educational & Psychological Researches. Publisher and Editorial
Board do not own any responsibility. Authors are liable for any copyright
clearance, Factual inaccuracies and views expressed in their papers.
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RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 01 - 05
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
TREATMENT OF
MAN AND WOMAN RELATIONSHIP
IN GODAN
Relationships, especially man-woman relationship have been one of the major concernsand chief preoccupations of literature from an immemorial period of time. Theserelationships assume a paramount importance in the context of Indian society. So Indianwriters creating literature in different languages seem sometimes to hinge entirely on thisfundamental relationship between man and woman. Premchand is one of the mostvoluminous novelists to be recknoned with in the tradition of Indian Hindi novelists andstory-tellers who has emerged as an equally bold signature in the world of English readingpublic as his great works, Novels and stories have been translated into English as well. Thefocus of the present paper is on the treatment of man-woman relationship in Premchand'sGodan.
Anita SharmaHOD, Deptt. of English,
B. S. M. P. G. College,Roorkee (Haridwar) UK
International Refereed & Blind Peer-Reviewed Multidisciplinary Research Journal
http:// & http://recentjournals.in wellpress.inPeriodicity : , Language :Quarterly English & Hindi
“Man-Woman relationship is a tangled skein full of intricacies and complexities…. In fact, men andwomen are inherently different. Though they belong to the same species, Homo sapiens, yet they aredifferent. They usually have different sets of ideals, beliefs, feelings, attitudes and have different choices,preferences and points of view…”
This observation made by Kanwar Dinesh Singh is extremely significant. These differences in term offeelings, beliefs, choices etc. he ascribes largely to “biological differences”. Such differences have beendealt with variously by scholars, thinkers and literary beings in India and abraod. In Why Men Don'tListen and Women can't Read Maps Allan and Barbara Pease have arrived at the conlcusion which in noway can be talen lightly: “All things are not equal; men and women are different… Not better or worse-different.” These differences affecting the male-female relationship become more marked when appliedto a particular society.
It goes without denial that men and women are different in these respects, yet they are similar incertain other ways. First of all, they are human beings. The question of 'gender' comes only afterwards.'Being human' simply means that they have a certain physical likeness. For example, their sensoryexperiences of hearing and seeing etc. are identical and so are their basic human experiences of love,hatred, happiness sorrow, jealousy etc. Both are subjected to social and political pressures. Both areengaged in their own search for meaning of life and being. These similarities can not and even should notmake us ignore the fundamental differences which affect and finally decide the course of theirrelationship.
Premchand, like many other great Indian novelists was quite alive to the inricacies of thisfundamental relationship between man and moman. A close observer of the social surroundings, heturned into a committed painter of the social reality. In his masterpiece “Godan” Premchand dwells onthe man-woman relationship at length. We come across many pairs of lovers who represent various
International Refereed & Blind Peer-Reviewed Multidisciplinary Research Journal
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forms of love and marriage relationship. Mention may be made of (1) Hori and Dhania, (2) Gobar andJhunia, (3) Matadin and Selia (4) Bhola and Nohri (5) Sona and Mathura and (6) Rupa and Ramsevak.These pairs hail from the village. In the city the relationships that deserve special mention are –(1) Khanna and Mrs. Khanna (2) Khanna and Malti and (3) Mehta and Malti.
In the love and married life of the village depicted in Godan Hori-Dhania, Sona-Mathura and Rupa-Ramsevak are the couples married according to all the social rituals and so enjoy the sanction of thesociety. Hori and Dhania share together bliss and grief of life, get angry, even have the moments ofbitterness but all these are momentary feelings. They have a good understanding between them. So all theconflicts, their fighting on occasions and displeasure do not at all affect their relationship. They stayunited together amidst all the odds of life. Passing together through all the troubles of life, they respecteach other's feelings. In the last touching scene of Hori's death, whatever Dhania does and says clearlyestablishes her concern for her husband. Hori had a life-long desire for cow. He somehow even managedto buy a cow but his own brother Heera poisoned her and she died. When Dhania realises that the lastmoment of Hori's life has arrived, she thinks of his longing for cow. And the novelist records vividly herconcern thus:
“Dhania rose like a machine, went in the and brought out twenty annas which she has earnedfrom the sale of yarn. Placing the coins in the icy palm of her husband, she looked at Datadin,“Maharaj, there's neither cow nor a calf nor any money in the house. This is all the money, I have; thisis all I can give. Take this in place of the cow.” (288)
The relationship of Hori and Dhania presents a lofty picture of conugal love. The love begins withlove relationship of the two. Their love is not confined to the two alone but is a vast and deep one thatstands firm in the ups and downs of life. All the differences, conflicts, bitterness and fightings are easilydrowned in one sweet smile. Dr. Krishna Dev Jhari in his study of 'Godan' very frankly and generouslyshowers praises on Hori-Dhania relationship. According to him, “This love may not be physicallyrefined but the love of Dhania for her husband leaves behind the love of hundreds of heroines ofReetikal in the point of loftiness.”
Sona and Mathura relationship experiences a happy and smooth sailing. They live a happy marriedlife. Sona's love for her husband is again a great example of loftiness. It presents a picture of ideal love.Sona is true and faithful to her husband and so can not tolerate when her husband tries to go astray. Whenshe comes to know that Mathura tries to flirt with Selia, her anger knows no bounds. Her husband realiseshis guilt. It is all because of her true and deep love.
The treatment of Gobar-Jhunia relationship reveals one more phase of married love. Jhunia is Bhola'sdaughter whose husband was stabbed to death during the Hindu-Muslim riots. Gobar meets her firstwhen he goes to her father's village to buy his cow and falls in love with her. Their love begins in physicalintoxication. Premchand depicts the reaction: “The first contact with her body ran a shiver through himas though he had touched a live fire. How soft, how cushionary, her wrist was! Jhunia did notwithdraw her hand. She said very seriously, “Remember today you held my hand in your.”
This is how the love between them beins and develops. She expects his child, Gobar undertakes theresponsibility of his liason with Jhunia but is scared of social restrictions. Leaving her at the threshold ofhis home, he flees to Lucknow. Dhania accepts her as her daughter-in-law even though the family has topay a heavy price for it. Gobar's love now makes him realise his duty towards Jhunia. He earns moneythere, comes to his village and goes back to Lucknow with his wife and son. Their life goes on well therebut Gobar's lack of self-discipline spoils the happiness of both. Gobar feels dis-satisfied, Jhunia feelsdesperate. The death of her son makes her very detached. And Premchand makes a noteworthycomment:
“By sharing her grief, by probing into her afflicted heart, Gobar would have come closer to her.But he stopped short at the barren shores of her outward life, not caring to enter the great sea of her
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heart; and he went away thirsty.” (225)Jhunia felt certain that “Gobar was utterly selfish and heartless and she meant nothing more to him
than an object for his physical gratification.” Thus they made it a point to misunderstand each other. as aresult, a wide gap yawned between the two. It is only when Gobar gets seriously injured in Mill-workersstrike that he realises his mistake. He asks Jhunia to forgive him:
“I'm hurt Jhunia I'm dying. Forgive me. God has punished me. I treated you badly.” (232)Jhunia's heaft softens and she forgives him. In order to support him and the family, she becomes a
grass-cutter and earns livelihood. This relationship illustrates that the enjoyment of physical pleasurealone is not the goal and meaning of life. The true bliss of life lies in sacrifice.
The handling of Matadin and Selia affair brings to light the revolutionary aspect of Premchand.Matadin, the son of the village pandit, Matadin has relation with Selia, a cobbler women. An intercasteunion and affair of this type was simply an idea too imaginative to be realised in Premchand's times.Undoubtedly, in the treatment of this relationship Premchand is much ahead of his age. Dr. Krishna DevJhari thinks that in Godan the progressive mind of Premchand has become absolutely fearless and bold.This fearlessness is clearly reflected in the treatment of this relationship.
Selia-Matadin relationship does not go smooth. There are many hurdles to be crossed. The first one isthat of the caste. Matadin belongs to the Brahmin community. The next one is that Matadin is a hypocrite,cunning and selfish. While Selia comes before us as an ideal Indian woman who is loyal and faithful toher lover. She is hard-working and owns sacrificial nature. In spite of being rejected by the family ofMatadin and her own family, she does not lose courage. All the atrocities and indifferent attitude ofMatadin do not weaken her loyalty and faithfullness.
When Selia is expecting his child, Matadin wants to dump her. He tells her that she has no right onhim. When she dumps seer of grain in Dulari's outstretched end of sari, he thunders “What right have
you over my grain?” Have I no right over your things?”…She asks, ““No” Matadin's eyes bulged with rage. “You have no claim over me. You work, you are paid for it. If
you want to give away my things, you can't do it. If this work doesn't suit you, find another. There's noshortage of workers here.” (202)
Earlier also Matadin cunnigly exploited her love for him. Premchand comments on her plight:“Selia looked helplessly at Matadin like a bird which has been turned out of the cage with wings
clipped. Where else could she go? Though unmarried in the eyes of the world she belonged toMatadin, She wanted to flutter back into the cage even if she had to break her head by striking itagainst the bars. She remembered that day just two years ago. Matadin had sworn by the sacred threadround his neck that he would always treat her as a legally-wedded wife… And now the same man hadhumiliated her so outrageously.” (202-203)
She tolerates all the humiliation but she is also bold enough to assert her decision and identity. Sheeven does not agree with the behaviour of her parents with Matadin and denies going with them to herhome. But when Matadin too deserts her saying not to look at her that ,“I have nothing to do with you”
she does not let him go se easily. She “Seized his hand strongly. “You can't leave me like this. There arehandsomer and more respectable people than you in the village. But I have never cared even to look atthem. You can't drive me away like this. I'll work as a labourer, I'll beg if you deny me food. But I won'tleave you.”
These words show her boldness even they could not touch and move hard-hearted Matadin. Hedeserts her but she does not lose her courage. Neglected by him and her family, she begins to live withHori and Dhania. Matadin ultimately accepts her. And perhaps Premchand through this acceptancewants to give the message of inter-caste marriage to the society. Matadin realises the mistake of desertingSelia. When the son of Matadin and Selia dies of pneumonia, he openly expresses his grief:
“He carried the dead body to the cremation ground by the side of river, a mile away. For eight days
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he kept his arms stiff.” (274)After a month he gathers courage to face Selia, to express repentance and promises to live with her till
the end of her life. He is even prepared to renounce his religion: “I want to be cobbler, not a Brahmin.”
(275) He calls Selia's hut as “Ourhouse”: “This is our house; this is my temple.” (275)In the city the relationship between Mr. Khanna and his wife Govindi, Premchand names 'Strained'.
Premchand states “Why the relations were strained, is not easy to say. Astrologers said there was aconflict in their stars, although before their marriage the Pundits had taken every care to see that theirhoroscope tallied perfectly. According to the science of love, there could be some other reasons for thedifferences between husband and wife… But the fact remained that their relations were strained.”(151)
But Premchand, in fact, seems to know the real cause. Govindi is mainly devoted to her duties andresponsibilities. Mr. Khanna is a slave to lustful life. He runs after “Society girls” and so can not see her“Intrinsic beauty.” Unhappiness of Mrs. Khanna is due to the lustful nature of her husband. He isindifferent, unsympathetic and even harsh towards her:
“In spite of this khanna was every thing to her. Ever after fallen grace, she was his slave. She could notthink of life without him.” (152) Once fed up with her husband's unjust treatment, she makes up her mindto escape from her duties. On such occasions Mr. Mehta comes to help her by making her realise her owngreatness as a woman and mother.
“…Please don't underestimate yourself. There are few persons whom I have any serious regard.You are one of them. Your patience, sacrifice and love are unparalleled. You are the embodiment of myideal of womanhood?” (156)
He also frankly and whole-heatedly utters: “…Deviji. That's your home and will always remainyour home. You have created it; you have given life to it. Motherhood enjoys the most exalted status inlife. In such an exalted position, one is above insult or humiliation. A mother gives life. What does itmatter to her whether somebody is annoyed with her or shouts at her?” (159)
Such utterances sustain her failing courage and with greater spirit she involves herself in herdomestic duties. Finally she emerges victorious. Khanna wakes from his trance only when his Mill isburnt. His wounded heart finds relief in the love of Govindi. She tries her best to console her husband'safflicted heart: “Whe are you disheartened? Money is the root of every evil, the destroyer of the soul.After all what did we gain by being rich… A true man does not bow his head before wealth. He lovestruthfulness, justice, sacrifice, perseverance. If these qualities were missing in a man, the worldwould think him a cheat and shut its doors on him” (238)
Khanna and Malti relationship is an important one to be taken into account. It casts its shadow overthe married life of Mr. and Mrs. Khanna. Blind to the “Intrinsic beauty” of his wife 'Govindi', Mr. Khannaruns after “Society” girls. Malti, a doctor by profession, is one ot such girls. She with all her ways is able toimpress Mr. Khanna. The real intention of such girls Mrs. Khanna can smell. When Mr. Khanna tellsGovindi that he can marry Malti any time, she retorts: “She won't marry you even if you scrape yournose at her feet for seven incarnations. To her you're a pony. She'll give you grass, pat your mouth, andstroke your flanks to keep you trim for a ride. She carries a thousand senile specimens like you in herhand bag.” (153)
Mehta-Malti relatonship is very interesting. The portrayal of their courtship and love in Godan isequally captivating. Both have their own liveliness-one due to his franskness in speaking and intellect,the other due to her butterfly manners. He admires her beauty and intelligence: “Miss Malti is pretty,intelligent, broad-minded and other things besides. But the qualities I seek in my life's partner aremissing in her. In my idea, a wife should be an embodiment of sincerity and self-abnegation whoeffaces her own individuality and merges herself with her husband's personality...” (212)
After coming into contact with Mehta, the change begins to occur in Malti. The man she had met sofar, excited her voluptuous nature. Her good instincts kept on depleting. But now Mehta's contact
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brought a great change in her: “She would often visit poor patients without charging fees: besides her
behaviour towards them mellowed.” (246)Malti with this self-transformation attracts Mehta towards her: “…the more he saw of Malti, the
more he felt pulled towards her. He knew that he did not much store by beauty, that only virtue hadany meaning for him.” (249)
Each of the two is a mirror in which the other sees its reflection, the real self, has a betterunderstanding and develops a true relationship. Malti is nor more a butterfly to Mehta. He frankly states:“You are a goddess.” And Malti says: “A goddess of stone. You should add that too”. Mehta says: “No
not of stone, but a living goddess of sacrifice, of many mercies.” (271)Thus Premchand has no one to stand close to him in giving the most realistic interpretation of the
man-woman relationship. 'Godan' is the product of his mature mind where he is raising the notes of thetrumpet of awakening and awareness. The woman here is boldly and steadfastly marching aheadtowards self-realization and self-affirmation. Bearing all the burden of duties, on occasions evensubdued by man, she never gives up her demand for peace and love.
Work cited:� Agrawal Sadhna: 'Man-woman Relationship in Godan' pub. in Indian Fiction in English Translation
ed. By Shubha Tiwari, Atlantic Publishers New Delhi 2005.� Allan and Barbara Pease, “Why men Don't Listen and Women Can't Read Maps” (London: Pease
International) revised Indian edition, Bhopal: Manjul Publishing House, 2001� Jhari, Dr. Krishna Dev: Rasavadi Sameeksha of Godan pub. in Radha Krishna Mulayankan Mala:
Godan ed. by Rajeshwar Radha Krishna Prakashan.� Premchand : Godan translated by Jai Ratan and P.Lal. Bombay: Jaico Publishing House.
All the textual references have been taken from this translation and page nos. are given in parenthesis.� Singh, Dinesh Kanwar: Contemporary Indian English Poetry, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi, 2008.
RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 06 - 08
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
POETIC IRIDESCENCE OF TERESINKA PEREIRA
Teresinka Pereira who is the president of the International Writers and ArtistsAssociation, U.S.A,is primarily a mother-figure due to her a number of poetry collectionsand several other books on various subjects for the spiritual whirlwind for Tom, Dick andHarry in general and her verse- suitors in particular amidst the sophistries of the monetaryminded fellows on this strife-stricken earth. The tragedy of tsunami in the South Asiancountries filled her heart with intense misery and pain. The violation of natural orderbecomes fatal for the peeping generations next to come. The burning issues she brings to lightstir sensations to the verse-suitors and the musers alike. Like Joy Rainey King TeresinkaPereira glorifies natural beauty in its original form that is, in fact, the real jewel of this earth.The roaring clouds, chirping birds, flowing rivers,whistling air and several other naturalfeatures make her a poet of romantic tradition in American literature. She has inhaled thenectar of love that is spiritual. Teresinka Pereira is the champion of the champions so far theuses of mythology in the verses are concerned. She calls Neil Armstrong the real hero of theworld.Teresinka Pereira is really a starry literary celebrity who has been perfuming thepoetic passage with novel thought, sensational capital idea and poetic pigments for theliterary whirlwind all around the continent.
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Teresinka Pereira, the president of the International Writers and Artists Association, U.S.A, is areputed rhetor amidst the versifiers all around the corner who credits more than three thousand poems, anumber of poetry collections and several other books on various subjects for the spiritual whirlwind forTom, Dick and Harry in general and her verse- suitors in particular amidst the nebulosity of the monetarymonarchy on this strife-stricken earth. The prime purpose of her poetic life is to perfume the poeticpassage with novel thought, racy style, sensational approach and thought provoking capital idea for thepeeping poets in all her conscience.
In her poem 'Tsunami' she brings to light the disaster caused by the tsunami in which thousands ofinnocent lives irrespective of race or religion or region are devoured in a moment. The tragedy of tsunamiin the South Asian countries filled her heart with intense misery and pain. The groaning children,wounded women, crying men, helpless animals and, above all , groaning humanity were the witness ofthe result of the tsunami that fire not only the poetic passion of Teresinka Pereira for versification ontsunami but warn also the human beings not to violate the natural order for the sake of temporary benefitfor the human beings. The violation of natural order will be fatal for the peeping generations sooner orlater. She elicits the troublesome impact of tsunami in her poem ' Tsunami':
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Buddhists, atheists and Bramanists,All share death and open hell
On South Asia beaches.”
As an expert versifier she prefers free verse to rhyme due to the interrupted flow of feelings in life .The lucidity, clarity and simplicity of the verses make her a champion of the champions so far style ofversification is concerned. The uses of various figures of speech add additional beauty to her poeticgarden.The mythology,history and various other global personalities persuade a number of her verse-suitors in and outside America. The style of lyrical luminosity she incorporates thrills the verse-suitorswithout interruptions. The capital idea she propounds stirs sensations to the verse-suitors and themusers alike.
Like Emily Dickinson Teresinka Pereira brought freshness, vivacity, wit and restraint in to the lyricalform. Like E.A. Poe she believes that the intensity and fervour of emotions was more effectivelycommunicated by restraining and regulating them. Like Emily Dickinson she draws images fromvarious sources—flowers, wars, voyages of exploration, tsunami, love and many others. Like Joy RaineyKing Teresinka Pereira glorifies natural beauty in its original form that is, in fact, the real jewel of thisearth. The roaring clouds, chirping birds, flowing rivers, whistling air and several other natural featuresmake her a poet of romantic tradition in American literature. Melancholy is also the part and parcel of herverses that runs wild without interruptions. The natural beauty that lies in the beholder's eyes beautifiesher poetic genre in to to. As a matter of fact she is really the nature- suitor in her verses that has beenproved ever fruitful for the generations next to her. She calls for a change of attitude towards sexuality asan element of character, personality, the emotions and a theme in literature. Her poetry is experimental,regional and universal. The universal poetic approach, racy style, pigmented passage and captivatingcapital idea of this putative poetess Teresinka Pereira mould many a shaping soul for the poeticperfection in their career that earn the credit of poetic recognition all around the corner. Teresinka Pereirais really an Indian Sarojini Naidu who has moulded the creative souls due to the melodious song inEnglish poetry.
To Teresinka Pereira poetry is ever new and energetic. It is the perfume of poetry that pierces thenebulosity of the piggish philosophy for the revival of the spiritual world for Tom, Dick and Harry on thisstrife- stricken earth. It is only time that recognizes the essence of the poetry from time to time. All types ofpoems are inspiring, thought provoking and sensational. Teresinka Pereira muses melodiously in thisstanza.
' Poetry is always newBut it is sufficient to embellish it
To match the occasion'.
In one of her interviews she unfolded her heart regarding the definition of poetry.“Only when you have a poem in front of your eyes you can decide if the poem is good or bad. The
definition then comes from what you expect from the poem. I have always expected that poetry brings mea surprising lyricism. Poetry is very important to my life. I have to quote what a brilliant Brazilian poetsaid about poetry. Poetry is the timber that floats reason sinks. Therefore any poem that can survive theshipwreck of reason is good.”
The violation of human rights is really a crime for this poetess in this world. She versifies this poem onthe eve of World Poetry Day:
“Poetry is ripe fruitOf the soul
Necessary nutrientOf our dreams and hopes
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Poetry is tendernessIs honey of words universe of mysteries
Magic memoriesOf Heaven lived
On EarthEvery day.”
What captivates the heart of the poetry lovers is the theme of love, human-right, ecological order,brotherhood, nature, hypocrisy, discrimination, exploitation and various others of her poems that makeher a global literary celebrity inspite of the muddy surroundings prevailing all around the globe . Thechastity of the human values must be restored for the spiritual whirlwind. As a matter of fact she is not apoet but the messiah and the propagator of the human values for all those deprived of its nectar . She isreally an explorer of the human soul who tries her best of the human soul who tries her best to revive thehuman values for the sake of the sufferers in this world.
She has inhaled the nectar of love that is spiritual and fiery. Love is the birthright of all human beings.It is Love that runs wild without interruptions. Love is really a nectar for the sensitive souls. Life withoutlove is ever troublesome . As a result she versifies this poem ' Love':
“Love becomes lonelinessIt is noble and proud
And if is not dominatedby a real passion
love has hopedreams youth courage
and most of all loveis nourished with pardons.”( p. 7)
Teresinka Pereira is the champion of the champions so far mythology in the verses is concerned. Shecalls Neil Armstrong the real hero of the world. In one of her poems ' Love Lession For Freedom' sheversifies:
“Freedom is the transparentAnd volatile love.
It is like a cloud that passes by the skysLandscape.”
Development at the cost of the annihilation of the natural order is ever disastrous for the humanbeings in general and the peeping generations in particular. Teresinka Pereira is really a global celebritywho has been perfuming the poetic passage with novel thought, capital idea and poetic pigments for theliterary whirlwind all around the continent.
International Refereed & Blind Peer-Reviewed Multidisciplinary Research Journal
RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 09 - 14
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
CHANGE IN RITUALS INDIA
The present study of change in rituals among Hindus is a Sociological sudy undertakenin Bijnor District of Western U.P. Whether one like it or not, but with the change in times,behavior and customs change too. As a result of Westernization and Modernization, wecelebrate today birthday in English Calendar and with English manners by blowing off thecandle. We celebrate wedding anniversaries and 1st of January as a new year instead ofVikrami Samvat that starts on 1st of Chetra month. This change need to be documented aftermaking empirical studies. In this study we have focused our attention on the rituals relatedto child birth and marriage, and have documented the observance of rituals and change inthem across three Generations.
Parul SharmaLecturer, Deptt. of Sociology,
B.S.M.P.G. College,Roorkee (Haridwar) UK
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INTRODUCTIONThe functional significance of religion as it interacts with other elements of culture is manifested in the
form of religious beliefs and rituals. Our ideas about supernatural forces when put to practice, take theform of religious action and ritual is a particularly important form of religious action(Johnson, 1960). Heidentified six general characteristics of Rituals.
· Ritual often involve the manipulation of tangible sacred objects, and the action is meaningfulwithin the frame of reference of the supernatural order though it may or may not have a logicaljustification.
· The performance is part of the religious system for attaining salvation in some form. Sometimesits effectiveness is presumed to depend upon the “will of a supernatural being; thus, whenpeople speak of prayer or supplication, they imply that supernatural being who is addressedmay or may not full fill the wishes of the petitioner.
· In some rituals, however the performance is automatically effective provided that it is carriedout according to certain prescriptions. “A sacrament is not fulfilled by the fact that one believes init, but by the fact it is performed.
· The ritual may be happy even joyous, but it is not regarded by the faithful as primarily a form ofentertainment; it is as Durkheim says, “Part of serious life itself” it is not casual.
· Being goal- directed, ritual is a kind of instrumental action, but it is also expressional that ischarged with symbolic content expressing.
Some rituals, called rites of transition supernaturally mark the transition from one social status toanother, of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church, five are rites de passage: these are Baptism,conformation, extreme unction, ordination and matrimony. Ordination, for example, confers upon aman of status of a priest- that is, the supernatural power of administering all seven sacraments and thusgiving grace. Rites de passage have the Sociological function of impressing upon the recipient and those
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who will henceforth interact with him the rights and obligations of his new status role(Johnson:1960).Ritual is a ceremonial or formal solemn act, observance or procedure done in accordance with a
prescribed rule or custom. Rituals are meant to induce change or reflect a change that is already takingplace .The rituals can be classified into multiple categories based on various scheme such as temple vshome Agamic vs Vedic, regional vs all India and textual vs popular. Popular indigenous categories ofritual include Yojna , Sanskara, Utsava, Vrata, Archna and puja. Most of these categories are fluid andoften component ritual steps overlap one another. Here the focus of our study is on a class of ritualscollectively called Sanskara. Rites of Passage can be grouped under five important heads they are:
Over a period of time there is a change in the rituals because of a number of processes likeUrbanization, westernization, modernization, globalization and information revolution. A change hasbeen noticed in style of life, values and above all priorities of life, that has led to a change in rituals as wellas change in the method of their observance, but this change has not been documented. We need to do indepth studies of change in rituals and its impact on family life and on social realations.
Rather some new rituals are replacing them and the mode of their observance is affected by westernstyle. Birthday celebrations and many more are additions to and some where replacing the old rituals. Allthese changes need an empirical study to see precisely the magnitude of change in rituals and its impacton family and society at large. This study is a humble attempt in this direction.
METHODOLOGYThe universe of this study is district Bijnor of Western U.P. There are five tehsils in the district out of
which Tehsil Nagina is selected for the present study. Nagina is small town and a municipal area. It iswood craft city. In addition it has many powerloom units and sugar industries as well. We selected twodensely populated areas of Nagina by random sampling Mohalla Mughlan and Manak Chowk and threevillages named Jeetpura, Begampur and Budawala for intensive study. We took voter list of all theseareas and selected married Hindu ladies of all ages. We took respondents of all three generations toensure a comparison of observance of rituals over a period of time. We took 10% sample comprising 350respondents from Nagina and 150 from villages. Thus we selected a a total of 560 respondents for thisstudy.
Observations and interview Schedules were prepared to collect primary data. Respondent wereinterviewed at their homes and data thus collected was tabulated , analyzed and interpreted to getresults.
HINDU RITUALSHindu rituals convey the tradition of Hinduism that has been followed since the ancient age. Sanskrit
word ritual is a broader term followed since the ancient age. Sanskrit word ritual is a broader termreferring to hierarchical and diverse group of specific rituals- certain ritual date back to the period of thevedas while others are constantly being created today, classified into many categories based on region,texts used and sectarian group, Sanskrit rituals are an uninterrupted tradition dating back over 3000years. These rituals can be classified into multiple categories based on various scheme such as temple vshome, agamic vs vedic, regional vs all India and textual vs Popular.
There is a misconception that the sanskaras are prescribed for man only. Tradition proves to the
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contrary. They vary according to caste. Certain caste are excluded from the obligationof performing mostor of them. They are performed at various times during four stage(Ashramas) of human life. There is nounanimous opinion as to the number of rites. The number varies between 13 and 40. The GautamDharamshastra prescribe 40 sanskaras, the Grihya Sutras between 12 and 18, where as the Manusmirtimentions only 13. The most traditionally accepted number is 16 and they are mentioned below-
The Stage Name Description
Before Birth GarbhadhanaThe rite of conception a prenatal ceremony performed at thetime of conception.
Before Birth PunsavanaCeremony performed seeking a male child or to increase thechances of the birth of a male child.
Before Birth SimatonayanaThe Parting of hair ceremony seeking safe delivery. This isusually performed for woman and celebrated by women .
At birth Jatakarma At the time of the birth and before the severing the cord.
Childhood NamakaranamNaming ceremony performed usually on the 10th or 12th dayafter birth.
Childhood NiskramanPerformed on the first outing of the baby and usually involvesthe first viewing of the sun.
Childhood AnnaprasanaPerformed on the occasion of the first feeding of the child withsolid food such as rice ghee and lentils. This ceremony isperformed for both boys and girls.
Childhood ChurakaranThe tonsure ceremony performed usually in the firstor thirdyear of the child’s birth.
Childhood Karnavedha
The ear piercing ceremony performed during the third or fifthyear. Now a days this ceremony is performed mostlyfor girlsand boys are reluctant to get their ear pierced for fear ofridicule or looking feminine.
Student Vidyarambha
Performed on the occasion of a child’s initiation Intoeducation. Now a days this is performed on the first day achild goes to school and starts practicing the alphabetsbeginning with letter AUM.
Student UpnayanaThe ceremony involving the wearing of the sacred threadwhich is confined to the upper three caste only and performedbetween the ages of 8 and 24.
Student Vedarambha
The ceremony marking the beginning of the study of thevedas. Now a days not all children show interest Inthe studyof vedas. The priestly profession is not very fetching. So thisceremony is performed in selected class only.
Student/Adolescence
Kesantha
The ceremony marking the first shaving of the beard or theapproach of manhood. In case of girl, in some regions there isa corresponding ceremony to mark the beginning ofmenstruation or change in dress from gown to saree.
Student Samvartana
Performed when a student completes his education andreturns home from the school. In olden days the schoolsexisted in remote places once a student left home foreducation, he would return only after several years of study.
Householder Vivah
Marriage ceremony . child marriages were the order of theday in ancient times. Now a days they are legally banned andalso out of favour. Marriage usually marks the beginning oflife as a householder.
Death Antyesti
Funeral rites performed after death and up to 15 days. Usuallyinvolves crenation rites making offering to Gods an cestors,seeing the souls comfortable journey to the worlds of light,scattering of ashes in select places and serving offood to therelatives and among the poor.
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The hindus believe that by performing the rituals they can get rid of hostile influence and at the sametime can attract beneficial ones so that they may progress in their life materially and spiritually withoutany impediments.
According to Hindu mythology the East is associated with light warmth, life happiness and glory.The West is inauspicious as it is associated with darkness, chill, death and decay. It can also be interpretedin different way. So in all ritual performances the individual is made to sit with his face towards East.
Thus the Hindu rituals are an admixture of social customs, and rules about eugenics, ethics, hygienescience and medicine. The rituals are the combination of physical, mental and spiritual aspects that makean individual a perfect human.
Modern Education and changing social values have eroded the importance of most of the religiousrites. Only the orthodox families take the trouble of performing all of them strictly in accordance with thescriptures. Some Sanskars are more popular such as Simantam, namkaranam, annaprasana,Vidhyarambha, Upnayana, Vivah and Antyeshti. Upnayana is exclusively for a male child ready to begineducation, The rest are events which are performed by both men and women.
All the rituals can be grouped under five important heads.They are-
· Prenatal Rituals
· Rituals of childhood
· Educational Rituals
· Marriage Rituals
· Funeral Rituals
THE SOURCE OF CHANGE, NATURE AND METHOD OF OBSERVANCE OF SANSKARASWe are passing through times where conditions for a big culture change are ripe. This will happen as a
result of three processes Modernization, Westernization and communication revolution. The magnitudeof cultural change is proportional to the amount of communication increase so a big movement incommunication flow will produce a big cultural change.
Sources of Change- The extent to which western lifestyle has penetrated in the cultural stream ofIndia or the degree to which new generation have undergone normative transformation can be analyzedonly in the perspective of change in rituals over a period of time. The issue of ideology assumessignificance when we attempt to understand the manner in which western life style has becomepervasive in our society and particularly new generation.
All changes reveal that how during a span of 60 years the process of social and psychic mobility of ourpeople has undergone changes which expands the sub cultural base of westernization. The institution offamily , incharge and custodian of cultural and tradition faces pressures of fission due to economic,cultural and social reorientation of its functions and obligations. Thus change has come through theprocess of industrialization, modernization, westernization and communication revolution.
CHANGE IN OBSERVANCE OF RITUALSIn the light of above discussion on change in culture and civilization over the last 60 years, there is a
tremendous change in the attitude of people towards sanskara. Since they are not directly andimmediately benefit by the observance of sanskaras. They tend to observe only the necessary one's.Secondly the nature and method of observance has been affected by the pace of civilization. Since, there isshortage of time for a busy person, the essentioal sankaras are done in haste. The time taken for examplefor marriage ceremony has reduced from 3 days to a few hours only. Brahmin is engaged for ceremoniesbut in metropolis the vedic mantras recorded in a C.D are played. Shortcut methods are adopted forritualistic ceremonies.
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The variation in ritual behavior of three generations living within the same household might havedifferent patterns of ritual practices. Thus the change in rituals has come to the process of modernization,westernization and communication revolution. Many of the traditional sanskaras have been droppedand only the essential one are observed by all.
NEW RITUALS ADOPTED BY HINDUSA significant quality of social change which relates to structures and processes in societies is that of
continuity and resilience of the traditional institutions and values. The process of Westernization andmodernization have both encountered this phenomenon in all societies. Culture anthologists likeMalinowski has explained it as being a result of the fact that a culture is always interactively constituted.Each culture has a basic theme or pattern or symbolic code which constitutes its core and all changes in itare mediated by it. The scope of the spread of the Western forms. Foods and beverages, dress, cosmeticsand ornamentations, music, dance and artifacts is very substantial. The Western style of living, such asinternal furnishing and stylizing house hold, reading of western journals magazines and literature hasgrown very fast. The Western values and practices have also been adopted by youth in interpersonalrealtonship and marriage are now more common.
Change in the life style of people including youth have led to observance of some new rituals. It hasbeen made possible because unlike other religions where many customs are mandatory, the hindu way oflife is comparatively flexible with people in different regions.
As a result of the processes of modernization, Westernization and globalization the process of changein our social institutions is coming fast and becoming a part and parcel of our culture. The newcelebrations added to our festivities are birthdays, wedding anniversaries, mothers day, valentines dayand retirement day.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONSRites, Rituals and customs play a major role in the life of every person irrespective of their religious
affiliations. This is more prominent in the case of Hindus. Right from the time of conception and birth upto a person's passing away and even after it, rites and rituals follow a Hindu at all times, much like ashadow. (Bhalla,2007) Indeed there is some rite, ritual or custom that comes into play for Hindu all 365days of the year. However unlike other religions, where many customs are mandatory, Hindu way of lifepermits resilience with people living in different regions fellow variable customs and traditions. Therituals provide an opportunity to meet and celebrate with friends relatives and community. Beside theyalso ensure that in the hustle and bustle of daily life in this materialistic era people do not loose sight ofspiritual goals.
A ritual is a ceremonial or formal solemn act, observance or procedure done in accordance with aprescribed rule or custom. Rituals are meant to induce change or reflect a change that is already takingplace. The rituals are of many types, but the rituals that we have studied arc rites of passage likeNamkaran, Marriage and funerals. Traditional rituals slow down the rush and chaos of daily life. Theypresent to us glimpses of eternity and show as where we are in the midst of things. One thing that a rituallike a wedding does is to breeze the clock against out most formidable opponent time.
SUGGESTIONSThe change in the observance of tradition rites of passage (Sanskaras) is fast coming into the society.
Some rituals (Sanskaras) have been dropped and some new one have adopted to take their place. We arepassing through a period of rapid social change where the impact of westernization, globalization andinformation revolution has begin to show its impact on our relations in the family. Therefore, there is anurgent need to do large scale study to document the changing pattern of rituals and its impact on the
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individual and family. Rituals have a Sementing effect on our relations. They must be observed, thoughwith some change in their method of celebration, so that the bonding in the institution of family may bepreserved.
Rituals are the life line of Hinduism. Through them we pass on our identity, culture and tradition onto the next generations. It is this identity of Hinduism that withstood all attacks by the muslim invadersand Britishers. Those foreign rulers have gone but we are here thriving and proud of our rich culturalheritage and tradition. We should propagate the impact of rituals on the socialization and up bringing ofthe new generation, so that we can have a next generation of confident and balanced personalities whocan be proud of being Hindus.
REFERENCES� Babb Lawrence, 1975 'The Divine Hierarchy': Popular Hinduism in Central India, New York,
Columbia Press.� Barbara H Fiese 2006, 'Family Routines and Rituals': Yale University Press.� Beeman O. William 2001, 'Fighting the good Fight' : Fundamentalism and religious revival' In J.
MacClancy ed. Anthropology.� Bhalla Prem P. 2007 'Hindu Rites, Rituals, customs and traditions' Pustak Mahal, New Delhi.� Bobock, Robert (1974), Ritual in Industrial Societies, London George Allen and Unwin Ltd.� Bossard, James H.S and E Leanor S. Boll (1950), Rituals in Family Living, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press.� Carstrains Morris G (1956) 'The Twice Born' Hogarth Pres� Chinmayananda Swami, 'Hindu Rituals and Routines' Bristolhindu temple.co.uk/Hindu-Ritual-
handbook pub.� D. Aquili, E Laughlin, C and Mc Manu S, J.(Eds), The Spectrum of Ritual Biogenetic Structural
analysis, New York, Columbia University Press, 1979� Dagron Alfonso Gumucio and Thomas Tufte 2006, Communication for socal Change Anthology:
Historical and contemporary Readings, South Orange, N.J Communication for Social Change CFSCConsortium INC.
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RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 15 - 19
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
CULTURAL CONSCIOUSNESS AND TRADITIONAL CONFLICT
IN BAPSI SIDHWA'S ICE CANDY-MAN
Cultural consciousness allows us to see our cultural beliefs as social constructs that atbest can never be more than mere approximations of a more complex reality. It reflects howwe perceive reality. Every country or community has a distinct culture and often within itthere are divergent cultural mores. Cultural diversity adds colour and variety to the humanworld but at the same time it divides people into numerous groups and sub – groups havinglittle in common with one another, and thus proves a great barrier to human relationships.The present paper discusses cultural consciousness and presents conflicts; one has to sufferdue to cultural differences.
Bapsi Sidhwa makes an honest attempt to measure the point of multiple intersections ofterritories, geographical, mental, and emotional losses of sufferers of Partition. In the novelIce Candy-Man, Sidhwa used the child psyche to analyse the whole incident which takesplace during the Partition. Her aim is to show how people were exploited in the name ofreligion, culture and became victims of communal hatred and cruelty during Partition. Shehas set her story of Ice-Candy-Man around the region of Western India with its historical,political and religious issues in general and cultural awareness in particular. Through thehorrible consequences of Partition cultures were divided as new and affected the lives ofMillions of population.
: atrocities, cultural consciousness, insecurity, intrigues, traumaKeywords
DurgeshAsstt. Prof., Deptt. of English,
Govt. Degree College,Laksar, Haridwar
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INTRODUCTIONSidhwa explores the cultural differences that shapes the psyche of men and makes them rebellious.
Intrigues, atrocities, love, hatred, betrayal and all such powerful words resonate throughout the novelmaking it immensely interesting and intact till the last line. With the atrocities caused by Partition, shegenerates the feeling of collective cultural identity. The violence of partition comprised both physical andpsychological wounding. The physical wounds are linked up with aspects of somatically markedcultural identity.
The patriarchal setup is discriminatory against women and emphasizes on conditioning them forlifelong and willing subjugation to men. The women of are not only conscious of theirIce-Candy-Mandesire, but also eagerly assertive about their independent handling of culture. The novel not onlydescribes the Partition havoc but also people's consciousness towards their culture. Although the noveldeals with a mixed culture of Hindu, Sikhs and Muslim, Sidhwa made an attempt to give some glances ofher own Parsi culture. The dismemberment of India brought forth unprecedented violence-bornrefugees on all sides of the borders, to whom home became exile overnight, existence parts of memories,and identity a disorder between Self and Other. It gave rise to cultural consciousness and, “soul-searching intersections of Centrality/ Marginality” (Majumdar 74). Bapsi Sidhwa mentions the
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consciousness regarding religion, culture and self as a tool to evaluate the characters of the novel. Herchosen location is Partition for physical and psychic cultural projection where only people living on bothsides of border differentiate 'Self' and 'Other'. Partition inflicted people's identity crisis and quest of theirinner self is more shocking and far reaching into unseen consequences than those of the Diasporics or theMigrants. Bapsi Sidhwa herself is a Parsi, she tried to unveil the culture of Parsis. Parsi community is verysecretive but with the publication of , she reveals the true identity, culture and religiousThe Crow Eaterspractices of Parsis.
Sidhwa evinces keen interest in the interaction of two or more cultures that exist side by side. ThePartition of India is not a bygone event, but a contemporary phenomenon which influence the aspect ofreligion and culture. Sidhwa is not alone in her need to explain her heritage but shares with other Third-World writers, particularly those writing in a non-native language. It is also the compulsion to explainher culture to an audience unfamiliar with that culture. Most of the characters employed by Sidhwa inthis novel are truly Parsi by their culture and traditions. Culture and tradition of a particular society playsan important role in mind making and perceiving things. As during the Partition days, Parsis are notallowed to interfere among other groups, their closeness or devotion towards the culture is astonishinglynoticeable.
Sidhwa, herself a Parsi, aimed to re-enact the picture of the Partition through her novel Ice-Candy-Man. She throws light on the aspect, how Parsis had suffered in this holocaust. Through her Parsicharacters like Lenny's parents- The Sethis, Col. Bharucha, Dr. Mody, Mr. Bankwala and many more,Sidhwa presents the insecurity and complexities for their religion and culture. Parsis were thedescendents of the Aryan tribes and migrated from Persia (now Iran) to India just for saving their religionfrom being Islamized by the Arab invaders. Parsis had decided to follow the rules and customs of theruling classes whether it may be Hindu, Muslim or Sikh in order to avoid all the possibility of any harm totheir community. When the community migrated to Gujarat, they fully adopted the culture of Gujarat.Being an adaptable community, they realized that they can practice their religion and prosper it onlywhen they remain loyal to the ruling people. Parsis were the first people to practice English language andways under the British Raj and become the most Westernized Indian community. They also haveknowledge of Gujarati language due to their settlement in Gujarat.
In the novel, Lenny's family never misses any congregation and gathering in Fire Temple of theirParsi community where they all fulfill their religious practices. Parsis of Lahore held a, “Jashan prayer”(32) to celebrate the victory of British in the Fire Temple. In the temple, the Fire alter is so sacred that thepriest of the temple wears the, “cloth mask” (32) to prevent the specks of spittle. Parsis have a distinctcultural tradition. Each and every house has a small sacred fire which is kept alive permanently. In aninterview Sidhwa explains that a Parsi Zoroastrian background influences her identity as a writer:
. . . it has formed my habits, my thoughts, my values, and I have fun portraying my community, asin Crow Eaters. No matter where they are the Parsis are a minority, and the tension this createscompels one to express feelings, ideas, politics etc. Being a Parsi can also make a writer moreobjective observer perhaps. (Hussain A. Internet)
Sidhwa brought readers close to her unknown community's culture and Islamic culture as well. Ice-Candy-Man suggest that she possesses the perception, the culture's knowledge and sentimentalapproach to community which makes it possible for being an cultural document. Whatever she hasdescribed about her culture, it is authentic just because of honesty of the events. Inspite of being amember of secretive community, she revealed all cultural phenomenons with honesty. However, she hassuccessfully evoked the life of Lahore in the early part of twentieth century, Alamgir Hashmi points outin his excellent review of the novel as:
Bapsi Sidhwa writes from a deep historical consciousness. Her evocation of a part of Lahore life as
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lived in the first half of this century is convincing and charming to me as a Lahorite myself. She herselfgrew up in Lahore and makes her home there: the first –hand knowledge of it certainly lends credence tothe irony, as it arises out of a deep understanding of the place and people and their ways. (376)
In the novel, Lenny tours the village of Imamdin and notices how Khatija and Parveen, the adolescentsisters of Ranna, like the other girls in village, already wear the responsible expressions of much olderwomen and they, “affect the mannerisms and tone of their mothers and aunts” (54). They are perplexedby Lenny's cropped hair and short dresses. Parsis dress themselves in modern style and speak English.Lenny also wears short dresses and has short hair. The girls of village live in restrictions and wears suit-salwar. Lenny perceives many differences in the personality traits and interests of men and women.Parveen, one of Ranna's sister astonishingly asks Lenny about the reason of her short hair. Lenny tells herthat it is the “city fashion” and “'Even my mother's hair is short'”. Leaving that place Lenny feels a kind of,“guilty conscience” (57) just because of the cultural difference and she realizes that culture matters a lot inshaping the mind.
Lenny's mother is very conscious about her religion, custom and practices. She wants to make herchildren aware about their cultural identity as a Parsi and takes them to Fire Temple in everycongregation or festival. Despite her liberated handling of children and modern life-style, she is verymuch a traditional wife. Lenny picturises the inner sanctum of the Fire Temple by saying, “. . . I can seethrough two barred windows and an open archway the main fire altar. It is like gigantic silver egg cupand the flames are dancing above a bed of white ashes” (34). No one is allowed to enter into the innersanctum except Priests who, “tend the fire” (34). Lenny is informed about “Tower of Silence” (113), aplace where Parsis dispose the dead body. When she hears about Mr. Roger's mutilated body, shebecomes aware about the death ritual of Christians and Parsis. She herself proclaims, “The shock of MrRoger's demise makes me curious about all aspect of dying. 'What is the Tower of Silence'” (113)? AmongParsis it is known as “ ”. It is a, “big round wall without any roof” (113). The dead body is putDungarwadiinside it for the vulture to clean and the Sun dries out the bones. It is supposed that after death our bodyshould be used for the good. They believe, “. . . Instead of polluting the earth by burying it, or wasting fuelby burning it, we feed God's creatures” (114).
Sidhwa has put the name of Rodabai as Godmother to provide the religious responsibility in hercharacter. As far as the name is concerned it is the translation of “Italian word 'Padrino'” and in english ithas several meanings. One of them is, “. . . it designates a person who takes the responsibility of religiousupbringing of another person (usually a newborn) when the latter is baptized in a Christian church”(Piciucco 213). Her figure is set to arouse the feeling of ethnicity in minds of children like Lenny, Adi andher cousin. She is the savior of religion and culture, who always tries her best to save her culture andtraditions.
People are conscious for their cultural traits and tradition whether they are Muslim, Hindu, Sikh orChristian. In the novel, there are glimpses of tradition followed by people. Hari who is Hindu has hisshaven head with “ -hair rising like a tail” (95). After asking about the reason by Lenny, he answerbodhiher that it is a tradition “. . . from the time of my grandfather's grandfathers . . . it's the way of our caste'”(95). Caste difference is also presented with the child psychology when Lenny states:
The Rogers of Birdwood Barracks, Queen Victoria and King George are English Christians: theylook down their noses upon the Pens who are Anglo-Indian, who look down theirs on thePhailbuses who are Indian-Christian, who look down upon all non-Christians. (94)
What is remarkable in the novel is the traditional conflict, introduced by Sidhwa. In the novelwhen Partition havoc takes place, Muslims try to throw out all Hindu population from Lahore. Religionappears to have been the determinant of nationality because of the conflicting worldviews. People leavetheir ancestral home with heavy heart. But rest ot people takes their own stake to live there. They are
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compelled to leave their ancestral home. Mr. Singh informs Lenny's mother that all Hindu families haveleft from Lahore except them. He prefers to go rather than converting to Islam. Hari, the gardenerconverts himself to Muslim and named as Himmat Ali. The Muslim mob teases him and asks him to recitethe “ ” (181) which is an essential part of Islamic culture. They ask him about his circumcision andKalmamake fun of him. Moti, the sweeper converts to Christianity. This conversion provides people a sense ofloss and identity crisis. To become a Muslim is totally a cultural shock for them. They feel how to followtheir own cultural traits.
In Ayah's case this conversion makes her alienated. Ice-candy-man compels her to live as his motherand sisters live on . He has, “trapped her in the poisonous atmosphere of the ” (250). BeforeKotha KothaPartition Ice-candy-man ask her out of curiosity that why she does not wear Punjabi clothes, this showsthat he is aware about cultural traits. But Ayah is forced to wear the, “divided skirts of ” andgararacompulsion of veil “ ” (260) instead of Sari. She has to change her name to Mumtaz. Ayah's IndianghoongatHindu Identity get derooted from her known culture and established in the Muslim culture by her forcedmarriage to Ice-candy-man. Again she is rescued for coming back to Amritsar, her own place and culture.She has been through all, the Hindu Self and the Muslim other, who lost her love, trust and sense ofassured identity. This trauma is brought by Ayah's most infatuated admirer, the Ice-candy-man. Withoutgoing deep into the events, one could realize the pain of conversion to other culture. Because, “. . .identity is connectivity, connecting to the world of concern and affection, it is a construct basically basedon psychic, religious, emotional, social stilts of the community as such” (Majumdar 81). Identity is basedupon compromises and survival just to save their life.
In the mayhem of Partition, Muslims proclaims, “'We cannot leave,' . . . 'What face will we show to ourforefathers on the day of judgment if we abandon their graves” (195)? This is cultural representation ofdisplacement. Muslim considers it a cultural responsibility to provide the peace to their forefathers intheir graves. They believe that on doom's day or the Day of Judgment they will meet with theirforefathers. They are deep rooted with their cultural traits. Ice-candy man's declaration also proves hisdevotion towards his religion or culture when he says, “' If we want India back we must take pride in ourcustoms, our clothes, our languages . . . And not go mouthing the got-pit sot-pit of the English'” (28-29)!In his character deep embedded cultural consciousness is also seen. He salaams to Godmother bytouching his forehead when she comes to meet Ayah.
Lenny's mother always keeps herself busy in religious practices. She appears, “. . . devout, her headcovered by a gauzy white scarf and smelling of sandalwood. She has been praying” (41). In Parsi culturethere is a ceremony to invoke the great “Trouble Easers, the angels Mushkail Assan and Behram Yazd”(241). They are the gods who frequently evoked by the Parsees at trouble times. Mother makespreparations for the ceremony by putting a white sheet on the floor and placing the small fire altar andphotographs of saints on it. These ceremonies she does in home to make her children more religious andcommitted. According to Parsi belief, she places a, “. . . six-inch iron nail, blessed by the Parsee mysticMobed Ibera, the disciple of Dastur Kookadaru” (213), under the mattress to vanish off fear from herchildren's heart.
The novel presents the picture of cultural complexities and problems of displacement. Despite it, thefinal message of the novel is clear. It rejects the two nation theory and suggests that religious, social andcultural differences are artificially created and exploited by unscrupulous people. Sidhwa also suggeststhat power should be used for the good of the people and to suppress the evil. Being a member ofminority community, she is equally conscious for her religion and culture as other minorities. Her novelreveals the pain of migrants who come from other land to retain their religion and culture. Partition ofIndia was the pivotal moment for those who had to leave their land and hearth for survival. The novelsuggests Sidhwa's psyche behind writing this novel.
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CONCLUSIONIn the novel, the idea is quite clear that religion and culture of an individual is as essential as food and
water for living. Anybody can be recognized only through his or her religion and culture. Culture makesa person's identity and it can change the whole thought process. The novel also proves this fact thatcultural and traditional conflicts make people rebellious and violent.
REFERENCES� Hashmi, Alamgir. “The Crow Eaters”. World Literature Written in English. sVol.20 No.2, Autumn,
1981.� Hussain, Ahmede. “In conversation with Bapsi Sidhwa” Black and Gray. December 14, 2006.
http://ahmedehussain.blogspot.com/2006/12/ in-conversation-with-bapsi-sidhwa.html� Majumdar, Keya. “Locating the Part(s) in the Partition of India: A Postcolonial Study of Bapsi
Sidhwa's Ice-Candy-Man”. The Literary Criterion. ed. By C.D. Narasimhaiah, C.N. Srinath RaginiRamachandra, Jayashree Sanjay. Vol XXXVII 2003, No-1.
� Ice-Candy-Man. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1988. (Hereafter all the references from this very text willbe in parenthesis with that very quotation without mentioning the last name of the authoress.)
� Piciucco, Pier Paolo. “The Hiddien Strength of Women: A Key to the Reading of Bapsi Sidhwa's Ice-Candy-Man.” The Atlantic Literary Review. Vol.1, No. 1, July-September, 2000.
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RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 20 - 23
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
INTERPRETATION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
COLONIZER AND COLONIZED IN “CAN THE
SUBALTERN SPEAK” BY GYATRI CHAKROVORTY SPIVAK.
Gyatri Chakravorty Spivak, in her most influential essay; “Can the Subaltern Speak”argues that abolition of the Hindu rite of sati in India by the British has been generallyunderstood as a case of “white man saving brown women from men in colonial India.” Shegoes to suggest that the ills of Indian society stem from the very essence of Hinduism and itstraditions. In India the practice of sati was very common and many women who become partof the rituals did it out of their love for their husbands. The society has played a major role inmaking sati a common phenomenon in the country so as to deny seprate existence from men.She has become an authoritative voice of the post colonial period and through her culturaland critical therories tried to challenge the legacy of colonialism. Her critical discourse raisesthe issues of marginal subjects such as the place of the subaltern women in the society andtheir empowerment.
Poonam RaniAsstt. Professor
Deptt. of EnglishGovt. Girls Degree College
Dallawala, Khanpur (Haridwar)
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Gayatri Chakravarty Spivak is an emminet scholar concerned with the relationship betweenfeminism, post structuralism and the discourse of post-coloniality. She presents a feminist perspective ondeconstruction, the Marxist critique of capital and the international division of labour, the critique ofimperialism and colonial discourse and the critique of race in relation of nationally, ethnicity, the status ofthe migrant, and what it meant to identify a nation or a cultural form as post-colonial in a neo-classicalworld. Spivak emphasis the intersections between race and gender, and sees a connection betweenwomen and colonized races, as both have been given the marginalised position of other and both haveexperienced oppression and repression. Don Jacobean describes the view of white colonizers towards theblack, when he writes:
“A colonial culture is one the has No memory…………………preciousely because thesense of history is so deficient, (historical) enmities tend to be regarded as so manygiven unalterable facts of line ………feels no need to ask himself how the blackmancame to be his inferior, he simply knows that' The black is inferior.”
Spivak discusses the lack of an account of the sati practice, leading her to reflect on whether thesubaltern can even speak. She recounts how sati appears in colonial archieves and demonstrates that thewestern academy has obscured subaltern experience by assuming the transparency of its scholarship.Her over-riding ethico-poilitcal concern has been for the site occupied by the subaltern especiallysubaltern women, both in discursive practices and in insinuations as much as western culture. She ishardly impressed with western efforts to speak for the other or try presents his own voice. She believes
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that the west is obsessed with preserving itself. As Edward Said wrote.“She pioneered the study in literary theory of non-western women and produced one theearliest and most coherent accounts of the role available to us.”
She describes an obscure tradition in parts of India, sati, where when a husband dies, the wife maychoose to burn herself on the husband's funeral pyre; often it was expected of a good wife. Sati as awomen's proper name is in fairly widespread use in India today. Naming a female infant “a good wife”has its own proleptic noun is not the primary operator in the proper name. Durga in her manifestation asa good wife. In the part of the story, Sati-she is already called that arrives at her father's court uninvited, inthe absence, even of a initiation for her divine husband siva. Her father starts abusing shiva and Sati diesin pain. So in ancient time if Sati commit suicide it was not due to ritual but due to love towards herhusband Shiva. It is important to note that at this time, widows could inherit the husbands property. So itmakes senses from a patriarchal perspective to encourage this behavior so that sons could directlyinherit, this is taking place under Britians-Colonial rule. Eventually this practice is outlawed whileunderstandably recognizing that this was a good act by the British and not a violent imperial impositioninsists that it still reflects the problem of representation and transparency. However the women whowere performing sati were never heard from. In the Indian cultural scenario, the hysteric graph failed torepresent the contribution of women towards the materialization of Indian independence. It would benow difficult to retive the voice of the subaltern classes. Women had a very limited, role to play in thesociety as they were not allowed to think independently. The gendered subalterns are playing the role ofmere shadows to please their men. It is clear that voices of the oppressed and marginalised are silenced inthe hegemonic discourse. How can the subaltern be empowered to speak? She says in, Can the SubalternSpeak;
“Hindu………………regulative Psychobiography? Can a women Have access toicchamrity-a Category of suicide arising out of Knowledge of the 'it'-ness of the Subject?The question of gendering Here is not psychoanalytic or Counter psychoanalytic. It is thequestion of women's access to that pardox of the knowledge of the limits of knowledgewhere the strogonest assertation of a agency.can be an example of itself as suicide.”
Spivak explains the notions of epistunatic violence with the example of reformation of the Hindulegal system reveals that such epistemic violence is kept alive by the establishment of one explanationand narrative of reality as the normative of reality as the normative one. She goes on to indicate that on themargins of the circuit marked out by epistematic violence are men and women among the illiteratepeasantry and tribals. She shows us that it is either the white man explaining why sati is a barbariccustom and must be abolished or the brown insisting that it is a ritual that renders the women sacred. Itwas finest example to support the argument that the subaltern women didn't get the opportunity totransact their ideas and convince the society.
Spivak is a leading contemporary feminist deconstructionist who pays careful attention to issues ofgender and race. Her use of the term 'subaltern' is influenced by Italian, Anotonic Gramsic andconsistently referred to a subordinate position in terms of class, gender, race and culture. The mainargument of her essay is between patriarchy and imperialism, subject constution and object formations,the figure of women disappears not into nothingness, but into a marginal position tradition andmodernization. Spivak's controversial statement “the subaltern can not speak” implies a lot of innermeanings. The subaltern have the capacity to articulate things well and they can go to any extent so as tomake their stand clear before the authorities. The real problem lies in the receiver as they are not ready tolisten to the sender of the massage.
As women were tied down to four wells of their bedrooms, they hardly had an opportunity to speakand even when they spoke something they could not transact the proper massage. The peace of the
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funeral pyre of her dead husband turns out to be the first and the last platform for a women to speak. Thewomen may try to speak but other won't have patience to listen her. The communication system failswhen the speaker is not able convince the receiver. Spivak famously gives the example of English classesin India as India is having actually played a subtle but powerful role in perpetuating an imperialistcivilizing mission. She adds:
“It should not be possible to read nineteenth century British literature withoutremembering that imperialism, understood as English social mission, was a crucial partof the cultural representation of England to the English.”
Another misreading of the concept is that, since not speak, she needs an advocate to speak for heraffirmative action or special regulatory protection-Spivak objects;
“Who tell hell wants to subalternity? No activist wants to keep the subaltern in thespace of difference….. You did not give the subalternity.”
Spivak emphaises the intersections between race and gender, and sees a connection betweenwomen and colonized races, as both have been given the marginalised position of other and both haveexperienced oppression and repression. She believes that the subaltern cannot speak' is derived fromgeneral statements in which the subaltern women is conceived as a single and homogeneous categoryand that there are ways that these women have articulated their presence.
The subaltern is one who has no position or sovereignty outside the discourse that constructs her assubject. The subaltern cannot speak and is hence spoken for and has no position of enunciation: sheremains within the discourse of patriarchy and colonialsm as the object of somebody else' discoursesubaltern is used to denote the entire people that is subordinate in tern of class, caste, age, and gender, orin any way. The historical process of colonial India were marked by an admixture of pre-capitalist andcapitalist relations. The nature of power, exploitation and popular ressistance in such a society was nottherefore, amenable to adequate understanding in terms of distinct class categories that can be clearlyenunciated. Spivak is hardly impressed with western efforts to speak for the other or try to present hisown voice. She believes that the west is oppressed with preserving itself as subject and that any discourseis eventually about the discoursing agents themselves.
“Spivak is unique voice of courage and conceptual ambition that addressed public lifefrom the perspective of psychic rality, encouraging us to acknowledge the solidarity andthe suffering through which we emerge as subjects of freedom.”
Spicak is primarily concerned with the issue of whether people who have been historicallydispossessed or exploited by European colonialism are able to achieve a voice. Spivak does agree withintroduction use of the term subaltern which conventionally refers to a junior ranking officer in theBritish army. The subaltern figure could be historically understood as those under the control of colonialpowers or a victim of slavery, they can be understood as the completely powerless.
Problem of subject formation or representation – for Foucault the subject is knowledge and forDerrida the subject is always a subjects of the West. For Spivak, this is a problem of assumed transparencyin Western intellectualism, which dismisses the problem of representation without acknowledging thatideologies are often delineated through what remains unsaid.
She began final part of her essay by asking what the elite must do in order to avoid continuing toconstruct the subaltern. As mentioned earlier, Spivak broadens the definition of the subaltern to includewomen and their histories. Spivak uses the example of sati in colonial India and the story ofBhubaneshwari Bhaduri to affirm that the women is assigned no position of articulation.
Everyone else speaks of her. Spivak formulates the sentenee 'White men are saving brown womenform brown men' and states that the sentence discloses her politics. Applying this sentence to theexample of the practice and subsequent abolishment of the practice of sati. Spivak shows us that it iseither the white man explaining why Sati is a barbaric custom and must be abolished or the brown man
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insisting that it is a ritual that reanders women sacred. At no point is the voice of the 'brown' heard. It iswomen who, becomes sati, yet no one comes across the 'testimony of the women's voice consciousness.'She is continuously wirte as the object of either patriarchy or of imperialism. She addressed the way theSubaltern' women is constructed, as absent or silent or not listened to. The main argument of her essay isthat between patriarchy and imperialism.
Spivak asserts that women are restricted to being the subject of men because they are only includedin the student and marriage life stages, since this aspect of problem with sati (and the larger problem withthe lack of gender) was never articulated by either the British of the Hindu leaders, it becomes apparentthat ideology is at play and that the subaltern position effectively silenced.
The subaltern is all too often silenced. It is true; swallowed in ethnocentric representation, or ,mutedoutright by the interests of power we cannot give voice to the subaltern without supplanting it; perhapsmuch of the problems lies in out ability to listen for the quiet; perhaps we need to listen for what thesilence signifies. Spivak is against any attempt to express the voice of subaltern by intellectuals becausethe intellectual is a transparent medium through which the subalterns emerges. Edward said says inCulture and Imperialism.
“One must ignore the innumerable Subaltern examples of resistance throughout theimperialist and pre –imperialist centuries, often suppressed by those very force ofnationalism which would be instrumental in changing the geo – political conjuncturefrom territorial imperialism to neo – colonialsm and which seem particularly useless incurrent situations of struggle.”
Spivak's theory of subalternity is still relevant as people suffer in the name of gender, class and creed.As change is the only permanent things in the world, the subaltern should continue to make their positionclear before the authorities. It is only when the authorities heed to the pleas of the subaltern that newdawn of life may be enjoyed by the subalterns in its fullness.
The subaltern were subjected to the colonial rule and only the colonizer had the voice. The subalternwomen continue to suffer an then is little scope for further improvement. In an interview with the editorsof “The Spivak further explains the controversial statement, 'the subaltern can not speak' as.
“It means that even when the subaltern makes an effort to the death to speak, she is notable to be heard and speaking and hearing complete the speech act. That's what it hadmeant, and anguish marked the spot.”
REFERENCES
� Rajan, Rajeshwari Sunder. “Death and the Subaltern.” Can the Subaltern Speak ? Reflections on thehistory of an Idea. Columbia University Press.2010.
� Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty; Can the Subaltern Speak? Ed. Williams. Patrick and Laura Chrisman.Colonial Discourse and Post – Colonial Theory : A Reader. 1994.
� Mani, Lata. Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India: London University ofMichigan Press, 1998.
� Edward, W. said. “Permission to Narrate” London Review of Books, Feb, 16, 1984.� Spivak, Gyatri Chakravorty. “A Literary Representation of the Subaltern: A Woman's Text from the
Third World; York : Methuen : 1987.� Said, Edward. Cultural and Imperialism. London : Chatto and Windus, 1993
International Refereed & Blind Peer-Reviewed Multidisciplinary Research Journal
RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 24 - 31
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
DISPARITY OF GENDER RATIO AMONG MAJOR RELIGIONS
OF JAMMU & KASHMIR
Religion is an important cultural feature of the Indian population and is characterised bya diversity of religious beliefs and practices. India is home to many famous religions, it beingthe birth place of four important religions namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism andSikhism. There is much debate regarding the role of religion in fuelling the son preferenceand sex selection in Indian society. The present study examines the pattern of Child sex ratioby major religious communities. It also depicts the association of female literacy rate andfemale work participation with child sex ratio among different religious groups of Jammu &Kashmir state. The sex ratio trend suggests that 'backwardness' may actually support genderequality by denying access to pre-natal sex determination technology.
: Sex Composition, India, female literacy, religion, Son preference,Keywordspatriarchal, regression, autonomy.
Akhil Bhat,Research Scholar,Department of Economics,University of Jammu, J&K
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Manoj Bhatt,Asso. Prof.,
Department of Economics,Doon University, Dehradun
INTRODUCTION
One of the features of India's demography that have brought out particular interest is gender bias-the small number of female compared to males. The gender disparity caused by a skewed sex ratioremains a persistent problem in India. Sex Ratio is an important demographic measure to find the balancebetween male and female in a society. Composition of the population largely reflects the socio-economicand cultural pattern of a society. Child Sex Ratio is the most realistic indicator used for assessing thestatus of girl Children. It is also an indicator of the likely future trends of sex ratio in the population whichis very unlikely undermined by sex-selected migration trends. It reveals recent changes in the attitudeand outlook of the society towards the girl child. The decline in Child Sex Ratio has outcome from bothexcess infant mortality among females due to malnutrition and neglect, and sex selective abortion.Though the latest census of India (2011) showed an encouraging trend in the sex ratio which increased tenpoints from 2001 census to 943-the highest since 1961, it has witnessed all time low Child Sex Ratio,standing at 919.
The steep decline in child sex ratio can be linked to the ever growing preference for a male child.Indian society is based on extreme patriarchal. The identity of women in an Indian society is notindependent. She is always considered as consumer who is dependent on men. Her role as producersremains largely imperceptible to the society. The birth of a girl child is always considered to be a badinvestment for future. Son preference is a global phenomenon that is prevailing across religions andclasses.
Religion is a key means of social stratification and plays a vital role in the cultural life of differentspace. It is deeply rooted in peoples' experiences and influences the socio economic and political
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direction of societies (Stump, 2008). The extent of son preference varies among the Hindus, Muslim,Christians, Sikhs and other religious groups in India. Hindus and particularly, Sikhs (mostlyconcentrated in Northern India) display stronger son preference than Christians and Muslims ( Bhat andZavier, 2003).
The Sikhs preponderate in the North-west region which demonstrates stronger preference for sonthan any other region in India (Das Gupta, 1987). Although unambiguously condemned by Sikh Gurus aswell as by the Sikh Raht Maryada, female infanticide played a considerable role in substantially reducingthe female to male ratio among Sikh historically (Malhotra, 2002). To ensure equal status for women, thetenth Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh made the Khalsa initiation ceremony open to men andwomen alike and fated that while men would be given the name 'Singh' meaning 'Lion', the womenwould be called 'Kaur' meaning 'Princess'. The Rahitnamas( codes of conduct) prohibit Sikhs from havingany contact or association with those who practiced female infanticide. Son preference persists todayamong Punjabi Sikhs, given increasingly easy access to sex selection clinics, thus replacing foeticide withinfanticide. A substantial proportion of Sikhs are Jats. In Jat culture the structure of rights over assetownership and decision making favours males very heavily and has an irresistible influence on therelative positions of the sexes. These social- structural factors creates preference for a son by makingpeople dependent heavily on sons or other male kin for necessary economic support( Das Gupta, 1987).Contrastingly, a very high proportion of the Christian population belongs to the tribal areas of the northeastern region where women enjoyed a good status and the practice of female foeticide do not exist(Varma, 2007).
A higher proportion of Muslim families lead to less skewed sex ratios despite the popularpigeonholes about Muslims and their attitude towards women. Compared to Hindus, Muslims appear toperform less sex selective abortions and do not discriminate as much against girls- at least with respect totheir survival chances. There is a difference in beliefs and norms between Hindus and Muslims that mayimpact their perceived benefits of sons versus daughters.
An Islamic marriage or the Nikah is defined as a civil contract (Azim, 1997). In the Koran, all Muslimmales are encouraged to marry; however, the universal remarriage of widowed and divorced women isalso highly encouraged; parents and guardians exercise control over the selection of marriage partners,and a dower or 'bride price' is paid to the bride or her guardian (Youssef, 1978).As in Islam, Hinduismalso encourages all Hindu to enter married. Girl's parents can earn religious merit by giving a daughteraway at the time of marriage ( Kanyadaan). Once married, women cease to be members of their natalhome, and are generally not permitted to remarry in the event of divorce or widowed. In contrast toMuslim, Hindu marriages are typically between strangers and involve dowries (Bhat and Zavier, 2003).These dowries are not returned to her in event of divorce or widowhood. For Hindus, having a son isessential (Singh, 2005).Even the Atharvaveda says, “The birth of a girl grants elsewhere, here grant aboy”(Jeeva et al. 1998). According to Hindu tradition, sons are important for parents since a person's soulcan reach heaven only if a son lights the funeral pyre and sons are also believed to be able to enable thesouls of deceased parents to achieve salvation by performing various rites such as distributing alms andfood to the poor or to the priest (Arnold et al., 1998).
It may be argued that son preference may be less unambiguous as it is with Hindus. Fertility is knownto be higher among Muslims than it is among Hindus(Basu,1997).An alternate explanation for theobserved differences in fertility is that Muslim show a much lower degree of 'daughter aversion' than theHindus (Boroah and Iyer, 2005). Prohibition of abortion in Koran is one of the many reason for the sexratio going in favour of Muslim girls. However, this does not indicate that son preference is not inevitablephenomenon among the Muslims. Islam law is patriarchal and patrilineal. Sons are given twice as largeas inheritances as daughter are given and a man's testimony in court is worth twice that of a woman
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(Coulson and Hinchcliffe, 1978). Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanavi, in early 20 century wrote in ath
compendium that bless a Muslim woman by wishing her husband, brother, a children long life orwishing for her, many sons and grandsons(Minault, 1998).
OBJECTIVES
1. To study the pattern of child sex ratio among different religious groups in India in general and inJammu & Kashmir in particular.
2. To identify the association of female literacy and female work participation with child sex ratio acrossdifferent religious communities in the state.
METHODOLOGY
This study is primarily based on secondary data collected from various Population census reports ofMinistry of Home affairs, Government of India and Government of Jammu & Kashmir covering religionwise Juvenile sex ratio, female literacy rate and female work participation for the 2011 census. Tables andgraphs are used for explaining the data. In the present study the Child Sex Ratio is taken as dependentvariable and Female Literacy Rate and Female Work Participation as independent variables. To find outthe relation between dependent variable and independent variable, the regression model is used.
y = α + β1Χ1 + β2Χ2 + μ
Where y = Child Sex RatioX = Female LiteracyX2 = Female Work Participation
= Random error termμ
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAs per the religion based census data (2011), the total population of the India in the age group of 0-6
years was 164,515,253. Hindu population in the age group 0-6 years is 127,509,717 which account 77.5percent; while Muslim with 28,299,593 makes 17.2 percent of population under 0-6 years age group.Among the other minorities in the country, Christian who number 3,353,497 make up 2 percent and Sikhwith the number of 2,178,264 claimed 1.3 percent of country's child population. Interestingly, Buddhistsand Jains number 981,879 and 396,740 respectively and account for 0.6 percent and 0.2 percentrespectively of total children under 0-6 years age group of the country.
The proportion of Hindu population to total population in the age group of 0-6 years has declined by1.4 percent; the share of Sikh population has declined by 0.2 percent. Both Buddhist and Jains haswitnessed the same percent i.e. 0.1 decline in their respective share of population during the decade 2001-2011.The Share of Muslim population to total population in the age group of 0-6 years has increased by1.4 percent, whereas there has been no significant change in the proportion of Christian communityduring the above referred period.
Figure 1 depicts the Child Sex Ratio by religion communities in 2011 census in India by residence.
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Christian with 958 girls per thousand boys has recorded the country's highest Child sex ratio amongall religious communities. It was followed by the Muslim and Buddhist communities with the Child sexratio of 943 and 933 respectively. Sikh with 828 girls against thousand boys in the age group of 0-6 yearshas been placed at the bottom of the ladder. Among other communities, there were 913Hindu girlsagainst thousand boys and 889 Jain girls against thousand boys.
Similar, the position is as far as rural sex ratio relating to various religious communities is concerned.Here also the highest sex ratio has been recorded by Christians with the child sex ratio of 957 and thelowest number of girls per thousand has been returned by Sikhs at 828 followed by Jain with the child sexratio of 869. Those who recognize Muslim, Buddhism and Hinduism claim child sex ratio of 944, 938 and920 respectively.
In urban areas of the country, Christians with 959 girls per thousand boys has again outshined allreligious communities in terms of Child sex ratio. It was again followed by Muslim community with 940.Sikh community is again at the bottom of the ladder with a child sex ratio as 830 girls per thousand boys. Itis followed by Hindu with 894. Jain community and Buddhist community has a child sex ratio of 895 and925 respectively.
It is also depicted from the data that among Christian, Sikh and Jain, sex ratio is higher in urban areasthan rural areas whereas it is opposite among Hindu, Muslims and Buddhist.
Muslims have been returned as the predominant religious community of Jammu & Kashmir state in2011 census. They number 1,545,974 and account 76.6 percent of the total population in the age group of 0-6 years. Hindu has been second largest community numbering 429,288 or 21.3 percent of the total juvenilepopulation of the state. Those who profess Sikhism, Buddhism and Christianity claim small proportionof population limited to 1.1 percent, 0.6 percent and 0.2 percent respectively. Jain's proportion of 0-6population is very negligible.
In all the ten districts in the valley viz. Kupwara, Budgam, Baramula, Bandipora, Srinagar,Ganderbal, Pulwama, Shupiyan, Anantnag and Kulgam; Muslims(of 0-6 years age group) are inPredominant majority with higher concentration by Ganderbal(99.5 percent), closely followed byBandipora(99.4 percent), Shupiyan(99.3 percent), Anantnag(99.3 percent), Kupwara(99.2), Badgam(99.2percent), Kulgam(99 percent), Baramula (98.4 percent), Pulwama(98.2 percent) and Srinagar(97.7percent).Punch district and Kargil district have recorded a proportion of 95.7 percent and 85.7 percent inKargil district to 9.5 percent in Samba district.
The followers of Hinduism, the other main religious community have their highest concentration inUdhampur district (85.9 percent), followed by Samba (84.5 percent), Kathua district (84.3 percent) andJammu district (84.2 percent). Their proportion in Kashmir valley is very small due to mass migration ofKashmiri pundits from the valley to other states of the country owing to disturbed conditions thatprevailed in the state right from 1990.
The largest percentage of Sikhs under 0-6 years age group is found in Jammu(6.2 percent)followedby Samba(5.2 percent). In other districts, their proportion percent in 2011 census ranges from 0.1 percentof Kishtwar district to 1.6 percent of Rajouri district. Their proportion is negligible in Kargil, Bandipora,Ganderbal and Shupiyan districts.
The highest concentration of Buddhists of 0-6 years age group is found in Leh(Ladakh) districtwhere they account for 78.1 percent. Kargil with mere 13.6 comes next. The corresponding proportion inthe remaining districts is either negligible or very small.
Interestingly, though Christians are scattered all over the state yet there is however, not a singledistrict in which they constitute even 1 percent of the total population. The state average of 0.2 percentpertaining to Christians is exceeded by Jammu district(0.9 percent), Samba district(0.6), Leh(Ladakh),Kathua, Udhampur (with 0.3 percent each).Badgam, Srinagar, Shupiyan and Reasi are at par with thestate average. Jains are the sixth and last in the scale. Their proportion are either very small or negligible.
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Figure 2 indicates Child sex ratio by major religious communities in 2011 census in Jammu & Kashmirstate.
It is discernable from the data at the state level, Buddhist have registered the highest number of girlsper thousand boys at 953, followed by Christians with 895. The lowest child sex ratio has been recordedby Sikh(737). Those who profess Islam, Hinduism and Jainism claim number of girls per thousand boysas 871, 834 and 779.
In rural areas, Jain is notable for having returned the highest child sex ratio at 1034 and the lowestnumber of girls per thousand boys has been returned by Sikh at 718. While Buddhist with 944 girls perthousand boys claim the second position, the third has been occupied by Christians with a child sex ratioof 875, followed by Muslim (874) and Hindu (839).
In Urban child sex ratio of the state, Buddhist is at the top of the ladder with 989 girls per thousandboys. While the second rung has been occupied by Christians (914), the third has been taken by Muslims(861). Jain is at the bottom of the ladder in contrast to its position in rural areas of the state. Child sex ratiopertaining to Hindu and Jain are 819 and 763 respectively.
Districtwise Child sex ratio across major regional communities in 2011 census is depicted in table 1. Itrevealed that amongst Hindu, Ganderbal district recorded the highest number of girls per thousand boysat 1275. Interestingly, in Kargil, the numbers of girls are at par with those of boys. The lowest beingrecorded by Shupiyan with 576. In the remaining districts of the state, the number of girls per thousandboys ranges from 925 of Doda district to 729 of Pulwama district.
As regards Muslims the highest number of girls per thousand boys has been reported fromKargil(974) followed by Leh ( Ladakh) with 969; whereas the lowest child sex ratio has been returned byPulwama with 831 girls per thousand boys. Other districts which have recorded higher child sex ratiothan the state average are Kishtwar(939), Reasi(939), Doda(938), Ramban(926), Udhampur(924), Punch(897), Jammu(896), Kathua (893), Bandipoa (893), Kulgam (885), Rajouri (883), Kupwara (881) andShupiyan.
Kulgam district is notable for having returned the highest child sex ratio among Christians standingat 1414. The lowest number of girls per thousand boys has been registered by Kishtwar at 531. The Childsex ratio of Badgam district is at par with the state average (895). Further, 50 percent of the total numbersof district have reported low child sex ratio than the state average.
Sikh community has recorded a child sex ratio of 737 for the state as a whole. Seven districts wheresix districts of Jammu region viz. Jammu (715), Rajouri (711), Kathua (686), Udhampur (683) and Ramban(605); one district of Kashmir valley namely Kulgam (735) have Child sex ratio below the state average
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Table 01Districtwise sex ratio of population across religious communities in 2011 census.
Amazingly, Baramula district has recorded the highest number of girls per thousand boys in so far asBuddhist is concerned. Other districts which have registered child sex ratio of above 1000 includeAnantnag(2000), Kulgam(2000), Badgam(1500), Ramban(1500), Srinager(1143), Jammu(1045). Thenumber of girls is at par with boys in case of Doda and Udhampur. However, the lowest child sex ratiohas been returned by Ganderbal and Pulwama district with the same Child sex ratio at 333. Interestingly,Rajouri , Kathua and Samba districts has also claimed the same Child sex ratio of 500.
Amongst Jain, the number of girls is at par with boys in case of Rajouri, Srinagar, Kulgam and Reasidistricts. The lowest Child sex ratio has been reported from Kupwara at 200.
Table-02Some important indicators across religious communities of Jammu & Kashmir
Table 2 shows the child sex ratio, female literacy rate and female work participation for the major
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religion groups in Jammu & Kashmir in 2011 census. The female literacy rate among Jains and Sikhs isencouraging compared to other religion. Despite that, both the communities have the lowest Child sexratio. The female work participation rates vary considerably among different religion groups withChristians and Buddhists having the highest rates and at the same time they have better child sex ratio.
A regression model was used for depicting the relationship of Female literacy rate and Female workparticipation with the child sex ratio for the major religious groups in Jammu & Kashmir.
Child Sex ratio= 904.4 – 2.3* Female Literacy Rate + 4.84*Female Work Participation(-2.31) (2.91)
R- Squared= 0.86Here, female literacy rate is found to be significant and has a negative coefficient. Whereas female
work participation is significant, with a positive coefficient. This reveals an inverse relationship betweenfemale literacy rate and child sex ratio. The most literate religion with greater access to technology hadmuch worse child sex ratio than the least literate religion. While the greater the labour participation forfemale, the greater is the improvement in child sex ratio.
CONCLUSIONThe sex composition of the population in the state varied from religious group to another. None of
the six major religion groups recorded sex ratio in favour of the girl child in 2011 census. Only amongJains in rural areas of state, girls outnumbered boys. The Buddhist community had the highest child sexratio (953), followed by Christians (895) and Muslims (871) in 2011 census. The Sikhs had the lowestjuvenile female-male ratio of 737 during this period in the state. The relationship between the Child sexratio and female literacy rate among various religious communities seems to be inverse- the religion (likeJains, Christians) that have highest literacy rate have lowest Child sex ratio. The relationship between theChild sex ratio and female work participation seems to be positive - the religions (e.g. Buddhist andChristian) that have highest workforce among females have better child sex ratio than the religion(Jain,Sikh)relatively with low female work participation.
The results of the regression analysis in the present study showed negative impact of female literacyon Child sex ratio. It may be due to the fact that literate women are more exposed to mass media and havemore information and access to sex determination and abortion facilities. Female literacy makes womenmore aware about vulnerability of whole women folks and thus there is a strong preference for sonamong literate women. Thus improving female literacy is necessary but not adequate for narrowing thegap in female-male ratio. Whereas female work participation has shown a positive impact on the childsex ratio in the study. Thus the value of a girl child can be promoted by giving autonomy to female. Jobpreference should be given to women. To correct the persistence in adverse sex ratio, changes in themindset and attitude of people towards girl child is needed.
REFERENCES :� Arnold F, Choe M K, Roy T K(1998). Son preference, the family-building process and child mortality
in India. Population studies, 52,301-315.� Azim,S.(1997). Muslim woman: Emerging Identity. New Delhi: Rawat Publications.� Basu, A. (1997). The 'Politicization' of fertility to achieve non-demographic objectives. Population
studies, 51, 5-18.� Bhat, P. N. M. and Zavier, A. J. F. (2003). Fertility Decline and Gender Bias in Northern India.
Demography, 40(4),. 637-57.� Boroah, V.K and Iyer,S (2005). Religion, Literacy and the Female to Male Ratio. Economic and Political
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� Census of India (2011) Office of the Registrar General & census commissioner-Ministry of Homeaffairs, New Delhi.
� Coulson, N and Hinchcliffe, D. (1978). Women and Law reform in Contemporary Islam. In L.Beckand N. Keddie(Eds.), Women in the Muslim world(p 37-49). Cambridge : Harvard university press.
� Das Gupta,M.(2003), Selective discrimination against female children in Rural Punjab, India.Population and Development studies,40(2),153-187.
� Das Gupta M., Jiang Z, Li B, Xie Z, Chung W, Bae H.(2003).Why is son preference so persistent in eastand south Asia? A cross- country study of China, India and the Republic of Korea. Journal ofDevelopment Studies, 40(2), 153-187.
� Jeeva, M., Gandhimathi, and Phavalam(1998). Female Infanticide: Philosophy, Perspective andconcern of SIRD. Search Bulletin,13(3),9-17.
� Malhotra, A.(2002).Gender, caste and Religious identities: Restructuring class in colonial Punjab.New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
� Minault, G.(1998). Seculded Scholars: Women's Education and Muslim Social reform in ColonialIndia. Oxford University Press.
� Singh, J. P.(2005). The contemporary Indian Family. In B.N.Adams and J. Trost(Eds.).Handbook ofworld families(p129-166). California: Sage.
� Stump, R. (2008). The geography of religions: Faith, Place and space. Maryland. Rowman & LittlefieldPublishers.
� Varma, S.(2007). Survey: Sex Ratio highest among Christians. The Times of India, 26 December.� Youssef, N.H.(1978).The status and fertility patterns of Muslim women. In L.Beck and N.
Keddie(Eds.), Women in the Muslim world(p 66-99). Cambridge : Harvard university press.
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RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 32 - 44
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
DETERMINANTS OF RURAL NON-FARM SECTOR
EMPLOYMENT IN UTTARAKHAND
A CASE STUDY OF DISTRICT TEHRI
The study examines the structure, growth, development potentials and the variousproblems which exist in the functioning of non-farm activities in Tehri Garhwal district ofUttarakhand. To identify the variables for over regression analysis, we have collectedsecondary data census 2001 and 2011 and primary data of randomly selected 10 villages ofeach selected sub-district. In the light of the above discussions we can simply suggest thatEducation which has been found to be the strongest contributing factor as illiteracy hampersthe path of inventions, innovations and adoption of new agricultural and non-agriculturaltechnologies, therefore, educational facilities are to be improved. In addition to this theexpansion of employment opportunities through the development of small and cottageindustries in rural areas. The Govt. has to come forward with some fundamental policies ofrural development with a STONG WILL.
: Rural Non Farm Sactor, Employment, Regional Factors etc.Keywords
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KanupriyaDept. of Economics
Govt. Degree College Laksar,Haridwar (Uttrakhand)
Uttarakhand, formerly known as Uttaranchal, is a state in the northern part of India. On 9th
November, 2000, this 27 state of the Republic of India was created from the Himalayan and adjoiningth
north western districts of Uttar Pradesh. Uttarakhand is divided into two major sub-regions – Garhwaland Kumaun. Uttarakhand is also known as Dev Bhoomi, it is famous for its Char Dhams - Kedarnath,Badrinath, Gangotri and Yamnotri as well as for Hemkund Sahib and Piran Kaliyar. The state has 13districts (i.e. Dehradun, Tehri Garhwal, Haridwar, Bageshwar, Pithouragarh, Champawat, Chamoli,Rudraprayag, Udhamsingh Nagar, Nainital, Almora, Pauri and Uttarkashi), prior to the formation ofUttaranchal, now Uttarakhand, there were 8 districts in this region, 50 tehsils and 95 communitydevelopment blocks, besides there are 15669 villages and 70 cities and towns.
This study has purposively selected Tehri district of Garhwal region, this district stretches from thesnow-clad Himalayan peaks of Thalaiya , Sugar, Jonli and Gangotri group, all the way to the foot hillsnear Rishikesh.The gushing Bhagirathi with Bhilangana, Alaknanda, Ganga and Yamuna rivers border iton the east and west. Its neighboring districts are Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pauri, Rudraprayag andDehradun, the capital of Uttarakhand.
The study examines the structure, growth, development potentials and the various problems whichexist in the functioning of non-farm activities in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand. In this contextdepth knowledge of the study area generally gives an insight into the existing conditions and status of itsdevelopment.
The rural non-farm sector is neglected by economists who were mainly working in the two sector
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growth models (Lewis, 1972; Rania-Fei, 1961). An explicit effort to incorporate rural non-farm sector intoa growth paradigm was made by Mellor (1976) and followed by Hazel and Haggblade (1991), developeda model designed to estimate the strength of farm and non-farm linkages, based on the hypothesis thatthe performance of the rural non-farm sector is linked to agricultural performance. A substantial share ofrural non-farm sector involves agro-processing and consumer goods production through forwardlinkages, and repair and supply of farm inputs through backward linkages. Dominant sectors like tradeand services provide largely for rural consumer demand. The growth of rural non-farm employment isdriven primarily by agricultural growth, while infrastructure also showed a positive impact on ruralnon-farm employment.
This paper analyses the determinants of inter household differences in rural non-farm employmentfor two sub-districts, Narendra Nagar and Pratap Nagar of Tehri Garhwal, and highlights basiccharacteristics of households. It has also been analyzed in order to see whether there are differences infactors between the sub-districts influencing non-farm activities. Two broad groups of determinant ofrural non- farm employment participation have been identified in the review of literature; growthlinkages from development in agriculture and distress diversification. A high traditional rural non-farmsector share is likely to be associated with low years of education of workers in a household, lower castes,and agricultural indicators suggesting distress diversification. Upper castes and agricultural indicatorsalso suggest rural growth linkages from agriculture. Overall Development Linkages (ODL) also suggestthat when rural labor is not fully absorbed in the farm sector, the traditional non-farm sector acts as asponge for overload labor spillover inter unproductive and low paid (lower than the prevailing wagerates/below subsistence relative to the farm wage), non-farm activities.
The factors that influence rural non-farm employment at macro (district) and micro (household)levels may be broadly similar but some are particularly significant at the household level. District levelstudies, by using aggregate data, may miss some of the factors. For detailed study, we selected two sub-districts, Narendra Nagar and Pratap Nagar of district Tehri Garhwal it is also important to note thatbasic and general characteristics of both the sub-districts are more or less the same but rural Pratap Nagaris less developed than rural Narendra Nagar. We have randomly selected 10 villages of each sub-districtand collected primary and secondary data (census 2001 and 2011) regarding household population, sexratio, literacy, workforce, occupational classification and migration etc.
There are number of factors/variables that may determine the magnitude of non-farm employmenti.e.size of land holdings, pattern of agriculture, literacy rate, rural infrastructure (roads, banks, electricityetc.) and government policies are among the most significant determinants of the growth of rural non-farm activities. To identify the variables for over regression analysis, we have collected secondary datacensus 2001 and 2011 and primary data of randomly selected 10 villages of each selected sub-district,have been taken as samples to get knowledge about the demographic features, literacy level,occupational pattern especially farming and non-farming activities, role of women in economicactivities, importance of education, transport, banking institutions in occupational distribution and roleof male and female in these activities.
1. DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES:
Demographic features and economic development are friend and foe to each other. In this paper,demographic features, mainly numbers of households, total population, male-female population andpopulation under 6 and sex ratio are covered. Table1.1 (2001) and Table 1.2 (2001) show the demographicfeatures of 20 randomly selected sample villages of Narendrea Nagar sub-district and sub-district PratapNagar, 10 villages of each sub-district.
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Table 1.2
Population, Sex-Ratio and Literacy in Sample Villag es of Sub-District : NARENDRA NAGAR (2001)
� Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 clearly indicate male members are dominating in adult wing and in the agegroup of under 6 year slot, similarly females are lagging behind in literacy in both the sub-districts. Sexratio is also indicating towards a big problem for future.� Table1.3 and Table 1.4, relate to Census 2011, indicate with the span of 10 years, the total population,in 10 randomly selected villages, in Pratap Nagar comes down to 5984 from 6222 in 2001) among themmale are 2925 and 3059 females with a sex ratio of 1045, on the other hand in the same number of selectedvillages in Narendra Nagar total population goes to 8357 ( from 7575 in 2001) in 10 years, in which 4456
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are male and 3901 female with a sex ratio of 875. In same part of sub- dist. Narendra Nagar the number ofmale literates touches 60% while Pratap Nagar sub-dist. has 4293 total literates among them femaleswere 45%.
In comparison of both the census (2001& 2011) we find, there are significant changes in population,sex-ratio and level of literacy in the selected villages in 2011 in comparison to the previous one. TotalPopulation in 10 years has decreased in one sub dist. While increased in the second sub-district while sexratio in NN comes down from 958 to 875 but in PN it increased from1003 to 1045. Male literacy rate hasupper hand in both the sub- districts while female literacy rate comes down, similarly number of childrenless than the of 6 year has also been changed i.e.785 in PN and NN it is 1096.
These changes are not reflecting friendly features for the economic development especially
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decreasing sex ratio and lowering rate of literacy among female wing. It seems the failure of Governmentpolicy of EDUCATION FOR ALL , now it is more relevant to adopt the policy of “Beti Bacho Beti Parao”in real sense.
2. EDUCATIONAL LEVELEducation has always been found to be the strongest contributing factor for the growth and
development of the economy. People of Uttarakhand are also aware of this fact, therefore, census 2011shows the literacy rate in the state of Uttarakhand is 71.6% as far as our study area is concerned, sub-district Narendra Nagar,as a whole, has 69.8% literacy rate while sub-district. Pratap Nagar shows 63.5%mark of literacy but Literacy rate in the sample villages explain the different story.
the literacy rate in Pratap Nagar is 63.5% (2001) and 75.6% (2011) which is lower than that ofNarendra Nagar 68.8% (2001) and 87.6% (2011), it is also important to note that literacy rate amongwomen is only 43.9%(2001) and 61.3 % (2011) in Pratap Nagar while Narendra Nagar has 53.1%(2001)and 80.9 % (2011)
Table 2.1 shows that total literacy position in sub districts as a whole while Table2.2 in the sample 10villages of each sub dist. In both, the sub-district Narendra Nagar (87.6% ) has an edge over PratapNagar (75.6%) but 10 sample villages of each show that literacy in NN (56.1%) and in PN ( 53.8%), in bothmales are in lead. In P. Nagar female literacy is just 38.7% while Narendra Nagar has also an edge over infemale literacy i.e. 45.7%.Ultimately literacy and literacy rate, especially on female side, is putting a badeffect on non-farm activities in the region. It shows there is no effect of Education For All program in thisregion. It also shows a big gap between Govt. claims and actual position.
3. OCCUPATIONAL PATTERNOccupational pattern is the mirror of the economy, it not only translates the number of persons in
different sectors but also indicate the level of future progress and development of the economy as awhole.
Table 3.1 and 3.2 (of year 2001) indicate that the population of 200 surveyed households of the twosub-districts is 1139 (560+579) out of which total number of workers is 432, among them male and femalewere 213 and 214. The numbers of workers engaged in non-farm activities (186) are less than of thoseengaged in farm activities (248). 45.4% of the total workers are engaged in non-farm activities. Table 3.1and Table 3.2 show that sub-district Narendra Nagar is leading by around 2%, workers engaged in non-farm activities.
Table 2.1
Literacy and Literacy Rate In Narendra Nagar and Pratap Nagar Sub districts ( 2001 )
Sub-District Literate Persons Literacy Rate
Total Male Female Total Male Female
Narendra Nagar 54601 31212 23389 87.6% 93% 80.9%
Pratap Nagar 40238 23023 17215 75.6% 92.1% 61.3%
Table 2.2
Literacy and Literacy Rate in Narendra Nagar and Pratap Nagar Sub districts ( 2011)
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Table - 3.2
Workforce in Farm and Non-Farm Activities in Sample Villages of Sub-District :Pratap Nagar (2001)
SR.NO. VILLAGE Households PopulationTotal
Workforce
Workforce at
FS
Workforce at
NFS
1 Chheti 10 64 25 12 12
2 Chaund Jaspur 10 55 22 12 10
3 Devel 10 52 20 10 10
4 Dharkot 10 63 24 14 10
5 Herwal Gaon 10 56 21 13 8
6 Budkot 10 56 22 20 2
7 Jakhni 10 64 23 11 12
8 Mengwali 10 55 22 12 10
9 Malyakot 10 47 17 10 7
10 Siloli 10 65 23 12 11
Total 100 579 216 126 92
Source: Census of India Uttaranchal, 2001
Table - 3.1
Workforce in Farm and Non-Farm Activities in Sample Villages of Sub-District : Nrendra Nagar (2001)
SR.NO. VILLAGE Households PopulationTotal Work
force
Workforce
at FS
Workforce
at NFS
1 Maidhar 10 64 27 20 7
2 Ranakot 10 56 21 14 7
3Khanana
Mayfanika10 54 20 17 3
4 Basui 10 50 19 15 4
5 Kail 10 58 22 13 9
6 Shivpuri 10 61 23 3 20
7 Timli 10 59 26 15 11
8 Baman Gaon 10 55 20 10 10
9 Tapowan 10 52 19 5 14
10 Ampata 10 51 19 10 9
Total 100 560 216 122 94
Source: Census of India Uttaranchal, 2001
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Though the numbers of main workers has been increased in both the sub-districts in ten year spanbut Narendra Nagra is leading in both the census years. On the whole, sub-district Narendra Nagar wasalso leading in number of main workers 13770 (2001) and 20670 (2011) engaged in non-farm activities asthere number in Pratap Nagar sub-district was 9532(2001) and 15110 (2011).
Census 2011 also indicated the development also apparent in the 20 sample villages in the selectedfor the study area. As far as household industries are concerned, Narendre Nagar is far head of PratapNagar.
Tables 3.3 and 3.4 (Census 2001) show the different categories of workers in randomly selectedsample villages of both sub-districts. In 10 villages of Narendra Nagar sub-district, out of 3204 totalworkers, male workers were 1824 while in Pratap Nagar sub-district their number was1413 out of 2557.Among main workers, the number of male and females was 1514 and 850 in Narendra Nagar on the otherhand in Pratap Nagar they were 1051 and 673 it means females are lagging behind But in cultivationactivities females were leading in both the sub-districts. In Narendra Nagar they were 1209 against 745males and in Pratap Nagar their number was 994 to 460 males.
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In Narendra Nagar sub-district male and female workers in household industries were more or lessequal but in Pratap Nagar sub-districts the number of female workers in non-farm activities were alsomore than male workers.
As far as compositions of RNF activities in the sample villages is concerned, that has been divided ineight categories i.e. grocery, transport, construction, carpentry, black smithy, tea stall and dhabas,household industries (public and private) services. As per Primary data collected in the study area,percentage of workforce engaged in different RNFA in both the sub-districts, in Narendra nagar 20.6% ofworkforce deals in grocery, 16.59% in tea stalls and dhabas 15.35% in household industries and 14.53% inpub-services while in Pratap Nagar these percentages are 23.94%, 14.9%, 9.63% and 15.14% respectively.
Table3.3 Work-Force in sample villages of sub-district : Narendra Nagar 2001
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Due to undeveloped resources for HHI the numbers of non-workers increased (Table 3.5 & Table 3.6) andon the other hand HHI has been decreasing since 2001.table 3.4 and table 3.5 also show the femaleworkers in HHI has no important place only ther number is less than one-fourth in comparison to malemembers.
Table 3.7
Workforce in Farm and Non-Farm Activities in Villa ges of Sub-District : Narendra Nagar (2011)
SR.
NO.VILLAGE Households Population
Total
Workforce
Workforce
at Farm
Sector
Workforce at
Non-Farm
Sector
1 Maidhar 52 167 113 109 5
2 Ranakot 244 785 443 436 67
Table - 3.5
Work - Force in sample villages of sub-district : N arendra Nagar 2011
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Table 3.7 and Table 3.8 indicate the number of workers in non-farm sector proportionallyincreased 2011 in comparison to 2001 and it is a healthy sign.In randomly selected 10 villages of sub-district Pratap Nagar in census 2001 indicated that the number of males in the categories of total andmaim workers were 1432 and 1051 respectively and in census 2011 the number of both categories falls to1351 and 896 and in the same fashion the members of males in household industries also shrinks from 66to 36 and all these are not good sign for the health of economy, though a sign of relief that the number offemales have been increased in all the categories i.e. total workers 1144 to 1232, main workers 372 to 425,household industries workers from 10 to 12. All these verify that in spite of Govt. and NGO efforts male-migration from hilly areas is on and male workers category shrinks from 789 to 623 while female workersgot increase 109 to 183.
These tables (3.7 & 3.8) also narrate the story of Narendra Nagar has indicated different aspects inthe randomly selected 10 villages of this sub-district census 2001 shows number of total workers, mainworkers and workers in household industries were 1824, 1514 and 52 respectively but in the census 2011,in all these categories show increase to 2253 ( total workers), 1999 (main workers) but on the other hand,the female wing more or less remained constant in these wings but a sharp decline in female householdindustries workers from 55 to 07 only.
In both the sub-districts the number of non-workers is very high and alarming i.e. 2200 (M) and2702 (F) in Narendra Nagar and 1791 (M) and 1827 (F) in Pratap Nagar.The Description of Variables
The description of variables identified for the regression analysis given below:
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3Khanana
Mayfanika161 666 284 260 14
4 Basui 54 237 120 163 19
5 Kail 26 95 54 51 3
6 Shivpuri 60 322 230 16 214
7 Timli 306 1671 825 540 285
8 Baman Gaon 150 747 281 158 123
9 Tapowan 677 3227 1178 128 1050
10 Ampata 89 440 127 54 73
Total 1819 8357 3655 1915 1853
Source: Census of India Uttaranchal, 2011
Table3.8
Workforce in Farm and Non-Farm Activities in Sample Villages of Sub-District : Pratap Nagar (2011)
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TNF = Total Non-Farm (Dependent Variables)MMF = Male members of familyFMF = Female members of familyMWF = Male WorkforceFWF = Female WorkforceLM = Literate MaleLF = Literate Female
The ModelThe classical least square model has been used for the analysis of determinants viz.:
TNF =
Where j stands for an individual; i for an independent variable (¡ = 1, 2 …n); TNF is a Total NonFarm; and employment/ workers are the parameters to be estimated and µ is the random unobservedβdisturbance with zero mean and constant unknown variance.
RESULTSThe regression results for the sample are being reported below in the form of table. Regression
equation and results for the samples. The descriptive statistics and correlations Matrix of this model aregiven in the as appendix table of this chapter. The appendixes also provide a histogram for regressionstandardized residual.
Regression Results
This table shows that the regression coefficient for the variable representing Male members offamily i.e., MMF have been found to be positive and statistically significant at the level of probability. Itseems that the larger number of the male family members have significant and positive contributions.
The regression coefficient for the variable representing Female members of family i.e. FMF havealso been found to be positive and statistically significant at the level of probability. It seems that thelarger number of females family members have also significant and positive contributions but less thanthe MMF.
The positive and significant regression coefficients for the variable representing Male Workforce(MWF) indicate toward the favorable impact of this explanatory variable i.e. on the Total Non-Farm.
In case of the variable Female workforce (FWF), it was expected that this variable would have apositive effect on the Total Non-Farm. The relationship, as expected, has been found to be positive andthe regression coefficient is statistically significant.
The regression coefficient for LM (Literate Male) shows a low level significance but positive
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Mean Std. D N
MMF 0.690909 0.601915 100
FMF 3.018182 0.877672 100
MWF 2.990909 1.018142 100
FWF 1.4 0.679989 100
ML 1.090909 0.697906 100
FL 1.690909 0.713506 100
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relationship between Literate Male and the Total Non-Farm. This also indicates of the important role thatliterate male can play Positive role in improving the socio-economic conditions.
The variable LF (Literate Female) on the other hand has been found to be insignificant but therelationship between literate female and total non-farm, however, is positive. In view of the low level andlittle variability of Literate Female among Sample Households, one may be reasonably expect thatLiterate Female might exercise a relatively weak influence.The R² (Adj.) shows the relationship between dependent and explanatory variables. Since the F statisticsfor the sample regression is larger than the critical F value at significance level, the hypothesis ofindependence between the dependant and explanatory variables can be rejected. It can further beinferred that the regression model provides a significant explanation of variation in the dependedvariable i.e., Total Non-Farm.
Descriptive Statistics
4. TRANSPORTDevelopment of Infrastructure is of great importance for the economy. It is an umbrella term for
several activities which includes transport, power, financial institution and telecommunication etc. buttransport relatively has an edge over others because it is considered as life line of the economy.
Transport is essential for economic progress as it helps to open up remote regions and resources forproduction Transport includes roads, railways, shipping and civil aviation. As far as our Uttarakhand isconcerned, railways, shipping and civil aviation have not much of importance as the maximumgeographical area of this state is either hilly or covered with forests, therefore, roads has graphed higherlevel of significance. Road transport is more convenient and flexible in this state.
In district Tehri the length of roads is 1924 km and out which 1289 km roads are of P.W.D. It is alsosignificant that the length of roads per square km. in Tehri dist. out of which the share of P.W.D. is 46.5%.Though the sub-district Narendra Nagar is well linked-up with Rishikesh and Haridwar but theconstruction of Tehri dam, sub-district. Pratap nagar has been cut-off from the main stream of districtTehri, it seems that while designing the dam, transport (road) problems of Pratap Nagar sub-district havenot been considered or taken into account.
Due to lack of transport facilities, the different villages of the study area are not well connected withdistrict HQ and NFA could not float and flourish as the raw material and production could not reach thedestinations. As our study area is hilly as well as covered with forests, therefore, kachi roads andpegdandis are in good number, due to lack of transport facilities, maximum villages of this area areremained under-developed. The progress of non-farm activities in these sub-districts, especially PratapNagar, is hampered and out- migration for earnings and employment among literate workforce has beenincreased from 17% (1991) to 21% (2001) and 23% ( 2011) therefore it can be concluded that in the studyarea, there is a negative association between transport facilities and out-migration. While associatebetween road transport and level of income and employment suppose to be positive.
5. FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONSFinancial institutions have important roles to play in the economic growth of an economy, a sound
system of commercial banking is also an essential pre-requisites for the economic development for a
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developing economy, they encourage savings and investment, they give movement to funds from oneplace and person to another and provide loans for the establishment and development of small scale andcottage industries.
As far as, state of Uttarakhand( Uttaranchal) is concerned in 2003-2004, it has 652 branches ofNationalized Bank, 168 Regional Rural Bank, 189 Cooperative Bank and 20 Cooperative AgriculturalRural Development Banks and deposits of these branches of different banks was Rs. 15789.18 crore andloan disbursement was Rs. 4277.78 corer, which is a very small in percentage of the requirements .Theamount of deposits and credit remains more or less constant up to the recent census year.
In district Tehri (2002-2003) the number of branches of Nationalized, Regional and CooperativeBanks were 47, 22 and 24 respectively and their total deposits and credits were Rs. 652.9 corers and Rs.102.64 corers. In this district all branch of commercial banks have advanced loans of Rs. 23.37 cores to thecottage and small scale industries which is just 1.45% of loan given to this sector by the banks inUttarakhand (Uttaranchal), which indicates the poor show of commercial banks in the economicdevelopment of this area.
As far as, the sample villages are concerned only 02 out of 20 villages have very small branches ofState Bank of India with a very poor business. Expect this, no cooperative society is in existence in these 20sample villages of these two sub-districts and even the people of the small villages have not even heard ofco-operatives societies, therefore, it can be said that the financial institution have a little effect in theprocess of NFA and generating employment in the area, therefore, State- government must comeforward with certain concrete policies and measures, otherwise especially male migration neither bereduced nor be stop.
CONCLUSIONOn the basis of sample data, observations and results we have been able to visualize the emerging
conditions of farming and non-farming sectors of district Tehri. The following conclusions can beforwarded:� Rapid growth of population on one hand and decreasing rate of available land and natural resources,
on the other, have been seriously forcing the problems of sustaining livelihood for farmingcommunities. In this context the significance of extending NFS becomes only alternative in suchagriculturally and low growth state but this depends upon rich infrastructure like education(literacy), transportation as well as provision of motivation and facilities to develop by the Govt.
� Transport, the life line of economy, facilities for obtaining raw material from different destinationsand for selling goods of articles produced by rural or house hold industries in nearby markets, havealso been experienced a basic problem for unsatisfactory growth of rural industrial enterprises in thestate due to poor road-linkage in the state
� Despite the fact that various kinds of problems existing in the properly functioning of the ruralindustrial activities in different geographical locations, a significant proportion of the entrepreneursare approaching various government agencies and financial institutions for financial requirements, toupgrade their units but in the study area banking facilities are not up to the mark. Out of 20 samplevillages, only 02 have SBI branches but their credit activities are more or less insignificant. Similarlyco-operative societies are yet to open their account in the area, majority of the people do not knowabout the formation, working and benefits of co-operative societies too.
� In the study area, it is noticed that the women have an upper hand in agricultural as well as in non-agricultural activities and their sex ratio (2001census) was low (1000:981) and in 2011 (1000:962) butmore difficult days are ahead because the sex ratio of 0-6 year population in 2011 was only 1000:897which will not only hamper the economic activities in the study area but also crucify the level ofdevelopment in Uttaranchal state in the future, therefore, State Govt. has to think twice .
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In the light of the above discussions we can simply suggest that Education which has been found tobe the strongest contributing factor as illiteracy hampers the path of inventions, innovations andadoption of new agricultural and non-agricultural technologies, therefore, educational facilities are to beimproved. In addition to this the expansion of employment opportunities through the development ofsmall and cottage industries in rural areas, general improvements in the rural economy along with betterworking conditions and provision of social security measures are also essential for the generation of morerural employment and reduction in out-migration. Along these, roads especially connecting villages totowns and district head-quarters must be given similarly the expansion and development of state highways and other transport facilities may not be forgotten. The Govt. has to come forward with somefundamental policies of rural development with a STONG WILL.
REFERENCES-� Chadha, G.K. (1999) ''Rural Non-Farming in India; What Does Recent Experience Teach Us” the
Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. 45, no. 4� Review of Economics and Statistics� Journal of Rural Development� www.ua.nic.in� www.census2011.co.in� www.en.m.wikipedia.org
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RECENT RESEARCHES in
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Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 45 - 51
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
CORPORATE ATTRIBUTES AFFECTING
THE DISCLOSURE PRCTICES IN INDIAN COMPANIES
Corporate Disclosure can be defined as a process through which a business enterprisecommunicates with the external parties. Disclosure is the movement of information fromthe private domain (inside information) into the public domain. In the present paper anattempt has been made to establish the relationship between Disclosure Practices and theCompany Attributes. To evaluate the disclosure score of various companies, some yardstickis required for that purpose a comprehensive list of 14 major items with breakup of 482 subitems has been made to determine the adequacy of disclosure practices of the corporatesector in India. The attributes included in the present study happens to be age of thecompany, size of the company measured by turnover, profitability of the companymeasured by return on capital employed. There is significant association between disclosurescore and age of the company and also significant association between disclosure score andsize of the company. Return on Capital Employed and disclosure score has shown nosignificant association in case of public sector. However, this variable has become moresignificant in case of private sector and shows that there has been positive and highlysignificant association between disclosure score and profitability. The quality and extent ofdisclosure of information in corporate annual reports varies from company to company inthe private as well as public sectors. The disclosure of information in the annual reports isnot an independent factor. There may be various factors affecting the extent of disclosure ofinformation in annual reports by the companies. Many researchers like Cert (1961), Singhviand Desai (1971), Singh and Bhargava (1978), Jawahar Lal (1985), Chander (1992), Vasal(1995) and Verma (1997) have studied the impact of various company attributes on the extentof disclosure of information in the annual reports of different companies.
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Ashish MittalSaharanpur
Uttar Pradesh, India
INTRODUCTIONCorporate Disclosure can be defined as a process through which a business enterprise
communicates with the external parties. Disclosure is the movement of information from the privatedomain (i.e. inside information) into the public domain. The corporate reports are disclosed throughcompany's annual reports: Annual report is a periodic statement, which is issued at the end of eachaccounting period. It usually consists of accounting and non accounting information. Accountinginformation are quantitative, formal, structural, numerical and past oriented materials. This includesBalance Sheet, Profit and Loss accounts, Schedules and notes to financial statements. These are generallyaudited be a qualified auditor. They must exhibit “true and fair view” of the state of affairs. Corporatedisclosure is a process of reporting of accounting information of an entity to a user or a group of users. Itsignifies a total communication system between the corporation and its interested constituents. This is
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the most direct, least expensive, most timely and fairest methods of reaching present and potential users.So, corporate reporting is nothing but the communication of financial information of the activities of theundertaking to the interested parties for facilitating their economic decisions. Generally, three conceptshave been proposed for disclosure and they are adequacy, fairness and full disclosure. The mostcommonly used concept is adequacy; and it implies that all material information needed by the users ofthe financial statements are reports should be included in such financial statements and reports i.e. itshould be adequate to the need of the users. The adequacy of the information can be tested when it isreported outside the organization, but when reported inside the organization, the adequacy of thedisclosure cannot be tested accurately as there is no test to measure it. Another difficulty is that the needsof the users are different from user to user, and as a result, adequacy can be obtained only to a certainextent. The concept of 'fair disclosure' implies that all users of the information should be treated alike, inpreparing the financial statements and reports, and the concept of 'fair disclosure' implies that all users ofthe information should be treated alike, in preparing the financial statements and reports and the conceptof 'full disclosure' implies that all relevant information of the financial activities of the business enterpriseis presented in the financial reports. In the recent years, the perspective shifted to an informationalapproach. According to this approach, the basic purpose of financial statements is to provide informationuseful to various users, viz., investors, creditors, management, government, security analysts,consumers and the public. This shift in emphasis is fully reflected in the objectives of financial statementsdeveloped by the Financial Accounting Standard Board (FASB).
In the present paper an attempt has been made to establish the relationship between DisclosureScore and the Company Attributes. To evaluate the disclosure level of various companies, someyardstick is required. A list of disclosure index is being developed as yardstick on the basis of analysis ofprevious studies, literature, guidelines of ICAI for best presentation of accounts awards and a detailedconsultation with various academicians, financial analysts etc. A comprehensive list of 14 major itemswith breakup of 482 sub items has been made to detemine the adequacy of disclosure practices of thecorporate sector in Indai. A list comprising the major items and sub items of information is as under:
CORPORATE ATTRIBUTESThe attributes included in the present study happens to be age of the company, size of the company
measured by turnover, profitability of the company measured by return on capital employed.
S.No. Major items of Classification No. of Sub items
l. Contents 54
2. Directors Report 593. Chairman’s Report 32
4. Corporate Governance 26
5. MDA (Management Decision Analysis) 26
6. Shareholder’s Information 51
7. Accounting and Finance 96
8. Personnel/HR Information 27
9. Marketing and Segment Reporting 2010. Highlights 25
11.` Mission 01
12. Graphs, Diagrams, Pictures 44
13. Social Responsibility 11
14. Emerging Concepts 10TOTAL 482
Disclosure Score 1990-91 2006-07Age in (Yrs) X C.V. X C.V.
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For the study, the following characteristics/attributes have been considered:1. Age of the company2. Size of the company, measured by turnover3. Profitability of the company measured by Return on Capital Employed (ROCE)
1. DISCLOSURE SCORE AND AGE:�Age of a company is considered as one of the important attribute affecting the inter company
variations in disclosure score. There is general notion that older companies disclose more informationthan new ones. This may be because of the fact that older companies are well established and withmaturity become aware of the benefits of greater disclosure.
Table 1.l and 1.2 shows the relationship between age and disclosure score of a company for the year1990-91 and 2006-07 for the private and public sectors respectively.
TABLE – 1.1AGE AND DISCLOSURE SCORE 1990-91 AND 2006-07
(PRIVATE SECTOR)
Source: Statistical values computed from Annual Reports of the Companies
It can be observed from the table 1.1 that companies with less than 20 years in age have minimumaverage disclosure of 95.25 items in the private sector for the year 1990-91. The values of standarddeviation (30.54 items) and coefficient of variation (32.06) percent are uppermost for this age group.
The average disclosure scores are 113, 129.70, 97.50 and 146.66 for the age groups 20-40, 40-60, 60-80,80 and above respectively. The average disclosure score has gradually improved with age except in theage group of 60-80 years. The average disclosure score is highest i.e. 146.66 items in the age group of 80years and above. For the year 2006-07 the average disclosure scores are 221.40, 229.85, 234.25, and 224.50for the age groups 20-40, 40-60, 60-80, 80 years and above correspondingly. It shows a continuousincrease in average disclosure score with the increase in age up to 60-80 years, where it is maximum i.e.234.25. However, average disclosure score has decreased to 224.50 items for the age group of 80 yearsand above. There seems to be positive association between age and disclosure score in the private sectorduring the period of study.
TABLE- 1.2AGE AND DISCLOSURE SCORE 1990-91 AND 2006-07
(PUBLIC SECTOR)
Source: Statistical values computed from Annual Reports of the Companies
Disclosure Score 1990-91 2006-07Age in (Yrs) X C.V. X C.V.
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It can be observed from table 4.2 that average disclosure scores are 118.7, 136.5, l84, l98 for the agesless than 20, 20-40, 40-60, 80 years and above respectively for the year 1990-91 in the public sector. Itshows that average disclosure score is maximum for companies in the age group of 80 years and above forthe year 1990-91. Analysis further reveals that disclosure score is 231.0, 253.6 and 300 for the age 20-40,40-60 and 80 years and above, for the year 2006-07. It clearly reveals that disclosure score is lowest in thecompanies falling in the age group of 20-40 years and maximum for companies in the age group of 80years and above.
2 SIZE OF COMPANY AND DISCLOSURE SCORE:�It is generally stated that there is positive relationship/association between extent of disclosure
score and size of a company. It means that the firms which are larger in size tend to disclose more ascompared to the small size firms. Various reasons have been given to justify this positive associationbetween disclosure score and size of company. The reasons may be the cost of collection anddissemination of information, pressure from government agencies, demand for more information byinterested parties and dependence on capital markets for funding of their operations. Cost of collectionand dissemination of information is a costly affair and smaller companies may not possess the necessaryresources for collecting and presenting more information. So, it is the large size firms which can betterafford to incur such expenses. Secondly, larger companies are more closely monitored by variousgovernment agencies and interested parties. These companies are expected to disclose more to satisfythe requirement of various government agencies and interested parties. Thirdly, smaller companieshave more fear than larger companies that extensive disclosure of information could adversely affecttheir competitive position. Finally, larger companies have to encash the benefits of better disclosure suchas dependence on capital markets for funding their operations.To measure the size of a firm a number ofmeasures can be used. This study measures size of a company in terms of total assets and turnover.
2.1 TURNVOER AND DISCLOSURE SCORE:Table 1.3 and 1.4 exhibits the descriptive score of the relationship between turnover and disclosure
score for the years 1999-91 and 2006-07 for the private and public sectors respectively. Table 1.3 clearlyreveals that in case of the private sector, the companies have minimum average disclosure score of 115.70and 206.20 for the years 1990-91 and 2006-07 respectively. The minimum average disclosure score hasbeen in case of the companies falling in the turnover range of less than Rs. 1000 crores. For the year 1990-91, the maximum variability in disclosure score have been shown by in this turnover range, as shown byvalues of standard deviation and coefficient of variation. For the year 1990-91 as well as 2006-07, theaverage disclosure scores have gradually increased with an increase in turnover for the year 2006-07; theaverage disclosure score has been maximum of 278 items for the turnover range of Rs. 4000-5000 crores.There is, however, greater dispersion in score as shown by its standard deviation. So it can be stated thataverage disclosure score has increased with increase in turnover over the period of study.
TABLE – 1.3DISCLOSURE SCORE AND TURNVOER (PRIVATE SECTOR)
Source: Statistical values computed from Annual Reports of the Companies
Disclosure Score 1990-91 2006-07Turnover
(Rs. in Crores)X C.V. X C.V.
Less than 1000 115.70 26.70 23.07 206.20 71.52 34.68
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Disclosure Score 1999-91 2006-07Turnover
(Rs. in Crores)X C.V. X C.V.
Less than 1000 117.71 10.08 8.56 204.00 2.00 0.98
1000-5000 146.00 34.48 23.61 218.00 19.00 8.71
5000-10000 164.50 17.52 10.65 213.00 - -
10000-20000 178.50 66.54 37.27 268.00 35.24 13.15
20000 & above - - - 237.20 50.41 18.45
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TABLE 1.4DISCLOSURE SCORE AND TURNOVER (PUBLIC SECTOR)
Source: Statistical values computed from Annual Reports of the Companies
Table 1.4 depicts that in case of public sector, the average disclosure scores have been 117.71,146.00, 164.50 and 178.50 for turnover of less than Rs. 1000 crores, Rs. 1000 crores to Rs. 5000 crores, Rs.5000 to Rs. 10000 crores, Rs. 10000 crores to Rs. 20000 crores respectively for the year 1990-91. Themaximum average disclosure of 178.50 has been shown by the companies falling in highest turnoverrange of Rs. 10000 to Rs. 20000 crores. The values of standard deviation and coefficient of variation showshigh degree of variability in disclosure score for various turnover ranges/categories.For the year 2006-07the average disclosure scores have been 204.0, 218.0, 213.0, 268.0, 273.20 respectively for turnover of lessthan Rs. 1000 crore, Rs. 1000 to Rs. 5000 crores, Rs. 5000 crore to Rs. 10000 crores, Rs. 10000 to Rs. 20000crores, and Rs. 20000 crores and above respectively. The average disclosures score shown has generallyimproved with higher level of turnover. The lowest/minimum average disclosure score has been 204.0for the company with less than Rs. 1000 crore of turnover. The maximum average disclosure score of273.20 has been in case of companies falling in the turnover level of Rs. 20000 crores and above. Theanalysis of tables 1.3 and 1.4 reveals that the minimum and maximum average disclosure score shownhas improved with turnover the period of study.
3 DISCLOSURE SCORE AND PROFITABILITY:�Profitability is another important attribute which may affect the extent of disclosure by the
companies. It is generally stated that there is positive relationship between extent of disclosure andprofitability. The reasons for such relationship may be cost of disclosure and competitive advantage.Forthe purpose of this study, the measure of profitability used is Return on Capital Employed (ROCE).ROCE is the ratio of PBIT/Capital employed multiplied by 100.
3.1 DISCLOSURE SCORE AND ROCE:�Table 1.5 and 1.6 reveals the relationship between ROCE and disclosure scores of the private and
public sector for the year 1990-91 and 2006-07 respectively. Analysis of table 1.5 shows averagedisclosure scores of 95, 112.50, 119 and 130.44 for ROCE of 0-5 percent, 5-l0 percent, l0-l5 percent, l5percent and above respectively for the year l990-91. It can be observed from analysis that averagedisclosure score has been increasing with increase in ROCE. The lowest average disclosure score of 95have been shown by companies with ROCE falling between 0 to 5 percent and maximum averagedisclosure score of l30.44 have been shown by companies with ROCE ranging between l5 percent andabove,. Larger variations in the disclosure scores of the companies have been seen in case of companieshaving ROCE of l5 percent and above as shown by coefficient of variation.
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TABLE – 1.5DISCLOSURE SCORE AND ROCE (PRIVATE SECTOR)
Source: Statistical values computed from Annual Reports of the Companies
TABLE- 1.6DISCLOSURE SCORE AND ROCE (PUBLIC SECTOR)
Source: Statistical values computed from Annual Reports of the Companies
For the year 2006-07 average disclosure scores have been 232.50, 2l6, 245.0, 256.0 and 226.20 forROCE of less than 0, 0-5 percent, 5-10 percent, 10-15 percent and l5 percent and above respectively. It canbe observed from this analysis that there is positive relationship between ROCE and average disclosurescore. Smaller variations in disclosure score have been observed in the year 2006-07 as compared to 1990-91 as indicated by coefficient of variation. Further, average disclosure scores have increased in eachrange of ROCE over the period of the study.Table 1.6 shows that in case of public sector the averagedisclosure scores have been 112, l76.5, l22, l5l.4 and l29 for ROCE of less than 0 percent, 0-5 percent, 5-10percent, l0-l5 percent, l5 percent and above respectively for the year l990-91. For the year 2006-07 theaverage disclosure scores have been 206, 202, 300, 243.33 and 259.8 for ROCE of less than 0 percent, 0-5percent, 5-l0 percent, l0-l5 percent, l5 percent and above respectively. The foregoing analysis reveals nodefinite relationship between ROCE and average disclosure score in the public sector over the period ofstudy.
CONCLUSIONOn the basis of the foregoing analysis of the corporate attributes affecting disclosure, the
following conclusions may be drawn:1. There is significant association between disclosure score and age of the companies in both the sector
for the year 1990-91. However, there is no significant association between disclosure score and age ofthe companies in the public as well as private sector for the year 2006-07.
2. There has been significant association between disclosure score and size of companies in both thesectors as measured by its turnover and total assets during the period of study.
3. In the public sector, ROCE and disclosure score have shown no significant association. However,
Disclosure Score 1999-91 2006-07ROCE (%age) X C.V. X C.V.
Less than 0 - - - 232.50 52.48 22.57
0-5 95.00 8.02 8.44 216.00 62.00 28.70
5-10 112.00 29.98 26.63 245.00 98.00 40.00
10-15 19.00 27.69 23.27 256.00 - -
15 & above 130.44 24.82 19.03 226.20 37.00 16.36
Disclosure Score 1990-91 2006-07ROCE (%age) X C.V. X C.V.
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this variable has become more significant in case of private sector and shows that there has beenpositive and highly significant association between disclosure score and profitability.
REFERENCES -
� Lal Jawahar Corporate Annual Report – Theory & Practice, Starling Publisher Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi,1985, P.38
� American Accounting Association, Conceptual Framework for financial accounting and reporting,Elements of Financial Statement and their measurement, AAA, June 1977, p.19.
� Himstreet, W.C. Brely, W.M. Business Communication, WM Publishing Co. Inc. California 1973, pp.357- 380, (guidelines for writing the report effectively)
� Dr. M. Saeed, The Theory of Corporate Disclosure and its Applications in Financial Reporting, AnmolPublications New Delhi, p. 239
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RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 52 - 55
ISSN 2348 – 3318
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ABSTRACT
MEDITATION IN ASHTANGA YOGA
AN ANCIENT INDIAN FORM OF EXERCISE
Mediation (Dhyana) the its proper context is the seventh of the eight steps of classicalAsthanga yoga, the concepts of the meditation is that of a state which earned through thearduous practical of six preceding stages namely Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama,Pratyahara and Dharana. The last three stages of dharana (concentration), dhyana(meditation) and Samadhi (stasis) are together referred to as antaranga yoga. The author alsotried to explain the three type of meditation i.e. Concentrative meditation, Mindfulnessmeditation and Transcendental meditation. It is also tried to explain the seven meditativebenefits on the way of self realization. The investigator also retrieves to explain themeditation as investigated in renowned and recognized laboratories significantly. Thescientific investigations on individual practicing meditation have demonstrated exactlyopposite effects to those induce by stress, such as:1. Reduce heart rate and respiratory rate.2. Reduce blood pressure in the range.3. Rhythmic and regular respiration.4. Decreased blood lactate level.5. Deep muscular relaxation as revealed by electromyography.6. Reduce eye movement as revealed by electro-oculography.7. Vasodilatory effect as reveled by plethysmography.8. Increased alpha activity, a sign of relaxation, as revealed by
electroencephalogram9. Increased skin resistance, a sign of intensity of result fullness, as revealed
by galvanic skin resistance (GSR).Vasodilatory, Electromyography, Electro-oculography, PlethysmographyKeywords -
and Electroencephalogram
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Rakam Singh SandhuDean, Faculty of Education,
Kurukshetra Univeristy,Kurukshetra (Haryana)
Mediation (Dhyana) the its proper context is the seventh of the eight steps of classical Asthanga yoga,the concepts of the meditation is that of a state which earned through the arduous practical of sixpreceding stages namely Yama,Niyama,Asana,Pranayama,Pratyahara and Dharana. Meditation is ablissful state which everyone can aspire to accomplish provided he is keenly willing to acquire theknowledge and has the patience and perseverance. Once would not accept to become a mathematician,physician, an atomic physicist or a literary scholar in just ten easy lesson. These are difficult disciplines inits complexity.
The eighth and the last step to Ashtanga Yoga is Samadhi which literally means completely inagreement also called “Smapti”. It is a state of super-consciousness. It is a state where the trio-the
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mediator, meditation and the meditated upon become one. It is a state of bliss and oneness with immensebeing (universal concentration). The last three stages of dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation)and Samadhi (stasis) are together referred to as antaranga yoga. These stages are sequential and shouldsmoothly merge, and blend in to each other.
Apart from the spiritual goal of Samadhi, there are many other benefits of meditations, poise,equanimity and mental and emotional tranquillity. Meditation can also help to heal Physical ailmentsand reduce high Blood pressure.
Meditation is a mental discipline by which one attempts to get beyond the conditioned, “thinking”mind into a deeper state of relaxation or awareness. Meditation often involves turning attention to asingle point of reference. It is recognized as a component of almost all religions, and has been practicedfor over 5,000 years. It is also practiced outside religious traditions.Diffrent meditative disciplinesencompass a wide range of spiritual and/or psychophysical practices which may emphasize differentgoals from achievement of a higher state of consciousness, to greater focus, creativity or self-awareness,or simply a more relaxed and peaceful frame of mind.
T M :YPE OF EDITATION
All the meditation techniques can be grouped in three basic approaches:-
· Concentrative meditation
· Mindfulness meditation.
· Transcendental meditation
C MONCENTRATIVE EDITATION:Concentrative meditation focuses the attention on breath, on image, as a sound (Mantra), in order to
still the mind and allow a greater awareness and clarity to emerge. This is like a Zoom lens in a Camera;one narrow focus to a selected field.
T S C MHE TRUCTURE OF ONCENTRATIVE EDITATION
Begin by finding a comfortable position in which to sir or lie down, preferably sitting as the purposeis not to go to sleep, but to maintain a state of focused alertness in which the body doesn't cause anydistractions. Choose a quiet place, and practice for 5-30 minutes once or twice a day, startingwith thelesser time. This is an exercise for the mind, just as jogging or weight lifting is exercise for the body. Bothwill do one a lot more well if done regularly for short periods than done sporadically for long periods.
T O M :HE BJECTS OF EDITATION
In concentrative meditation an object is chosen and concentrated only on it. The four main forms onwhich to concentrate is breath, a mental image, a physical object, and a word or phrase.
Breath- In this meditation simply follow ones breath. Don't think about anything, just watch onebreathe. There are many variations on this. In one, called the fourfold breath, breathe in to a count of four;hold the breath for a count a four. The length of each step can be gradually increased, but each need to bethe same, and one should feel strain. Prefer to just watch the breath without trying to manipulate it.never
Mental Image- In this meditation one chooses any mental image and focus only on it. Have the eyesopen or closed. In the beginning at least, it is easier with the eyes closed as the visual imagery of externalenvironmental is automatically blocked out. As with the thoughts that will come when one is practicingemptiness meditation, acknowledge that the thought passed, then go back to your meditation. The imagechosen can be anything from a beach scene to matchstick, but it will be a lot easier, if one chooses an imagethat has some of Allah, Buddha, Shiva, a flame or anything that has spiritual significance to the mediator.
Physical Object- This is similar to using a mental image, except that a physical object is chosen on
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which to concentrate. Again meditator can choose anything he or she wishes, but an object that hasspiritual significance will usually be most effective.
Word or Phrase- In this concentration the meditator picks a word or phrase and repeats it over whileconcentrating on it's meaning. It is easiest if a word is used or phrase that embodies a spiritualsignificance or positive quality. For example, one may use 'I am that I am; the Hindu 'Om' or the TibetanOm Mani Padme Hum, a phrase from one's spiritual literature, or a phrase that embodies a quality thatmeditator is trying to build up within his or her own personality. One an start by repeating the word orphrase out loud, but over time evolves doing this meditation silently.
N C B :ATURE HANGE IN REATHING
Subjects were measured for changes in breathing rate during the practice of meditation. Breathrate from 14 breaths per minute to about 11 breaths per minute, indicating meditation produces a state ofrest and relaxation. The change in breath rate is natural, effortless, and comfortable.
M B :EDITATION THROUGH REATHING
Too often we take our breath granted. It is clearly connected to our every life force and vitality. Ouremotion and our state of mind are also intimately connected to our breath. In the Vedas the science of life,it is clearly stated the sense of touch pervade all the other senses. Without it, they cannot function. Thissense of touch is the life force and vitality, principal source of which is carried in the breath awareness isvery essential to any form of meditation. In Buddhist tradition a whole science of breathing meditationhas been developed in the school of vipasana whilst the entire field of kundalini yoga, with its emphasison the chakaras or centers f energy transformation, has arisen through attention to the basic function ofthe breath.
M M :INDFULNESS EDITATION
According to Dr. Borysenko, “ Involves opening the attention to become aware of continuouslypassing parade of sensations and feeling, images, thoughts, sounds, smell, and so forth withoutbecoming involved thinking about them. “ The person site quietly and simply witness whatever goesthrough the mind, not reacting or becoming involved with thoughts, memories , worries or images. Thishelps to gain more color, clear, and non-structure state of mind.
T :RANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION
Is most thoroughly researched in terms of its benefits for mental, physical and social health. TM issimple mental technique; TM is one of easiest meditation technique to learn. When one learns TM, aninstructor gives a word or phrase (personal mantra) which one promise not to divulge. The individual istold to sit quietly with eyes closed and repeat the mantra over and over again for 20 minutes at a time ortwice a day. The mantra functions to focus the mind on single idea, representing the “oneness” of theuniverse. The one is instructed to assume a passive, accepting attitude while repeating mantra. Whendistracting thought intrude, one instructed to simply observe them, accept them and gently returnmental focus to repeating the mantra.
S - :EVEN MEDITATIVE BENEFITS ON THE WAY TO SELF REALIZATION
Even if meditation cannot be taken to the level of blissful states stasis or self realization, itspreliminary, however, leads to:1. A study and uncluttered mind; able to concentrate better.2. Deprivation of unwanted thoughts and emotions.3. Lessening the levels of physical and mental tensions and mental conflicts.
M :EDITATION AS INVESTIGATED IN RENOWNED AND RECOGNIZED LABORATORIES SCIENTIFICALLY
Scientific investigations on individuals practicing meditation have demonstrated exactly oppositeeffects to those induce by stress, such as:1. Reduce heart rate and respiratory rate.2. Reduce blood pressure in the range.3. Rhythmic and regular respiration.4. Decreased blood lactate level.5. Deep muscular relaxation as revealed by electromyography.6. Reduce eye movement as revealed by electro-oculography.7. Vasodilatory effect as reveled by plethysmography.8. Increased alpha activity, a sign of relaxation, as revealed by
electroencephalogram9. Increased skin resistance, a sign of intensity of result fullness, as revealed
by galvanic skin resistance (GSR).
Research on the processes and effects of meditation is a growing subfield of neurological research.Modern scientific techniques and instruments, such as MRI and EEG, have been used to see whathappens in the body of people when they meditate and its effects in the long run. Meditation changes thebrain. These studies have shown substantial bodily changes as a consequence of regular meditativepractice, including growth in regions of the brain activated according to the style of meditation, regionsinvolved with compassion and understanding others, being mindfully aware, sustaining focus on asingle object for a long period, and others. Meditation is similar to learning other skills like how to ride abike or play the piano.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
� Bono, cited by Meditation: Techniques And Their Scientific Evaluation, (Haryana, Anubhav
Publications, 1998), p. 178 cited by Lajpat Rai, W. Selvamurthy and R.C Sawhney.
� Campbell, cited by Meditation: Techniques And Their Scientific Evaluation, (Haryana, Anubhav
Publications, 1998), p. 273 cited by Lajpat Rai, W. Selvamurthy and R.C Sawhney.� Lajpat Rai, W.Selvamurthy and R.C. Sawhney, Meditation: Techniques And Their Scientific
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Population Nutrition 2009, 27(2):184-201.� Innovations and Challenges in Reducing Maternal Mortality in Tamilnadu India. Padmanaban P., Raman P.S.,
Mavalankar D.V. Jounal Health Population nutrition 2009, 27 (2):202-19.� Ambpali Hastkargha Evom Hastshilp Vikas Swavlambi Sahkari Samiti Ltd.- “MMR, IMR in Selected Villages in 5
District of Bihar:- Patna, Nalanda, Kangaria, Saharsa and Rohtas, 2009. Magazine (Monthly).� NRHM Report 2011-12.� AHS Report 2010-11.
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International Refereed & Blind Peer-Reviewed Multidisciplinary Research Journal
RECENT RESEARCHES in
SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES&
Issue : 4, Year : 3
Jan.-Feb.-Mar. (2017), Pages : 125 - 128
ISSN 2348 – 3318
- 125 -
ABSTRACT
EFFECT OF YOGA PACKAGEON LUNGS FUNCTION
The Present study aimed to find out effect of yoga Package (Gomukhasana,Simhasana,Shavasana, Dhanurasana, Makarasana, Matsyasana, Bhujangasana,Nadishodhan Pranayam, Suryabhedi Pranayam, Bhastrika and Ujjai Pranayama , JalandharBandha, Kunjal and Jal Neti ) on lungs functioning in which MVV, FVV, FEV, PEFR wereobserved by medspiror. The study conducted at Bhrahmvarchas Research Institute ShantiKunj, Haridwar over 15 students age rang was 20-30 years studying in DSVV , Shanti KunjHaridwar, Uttrakhand, duration of the study was 45 days and the package taken 45 minutesin a day. The result shows that the yoga package caused significant change on lungsfunctioning.
: Yoga Package , Lungs Function.Key words
International Refereed & Blind Peer-Reviewed Multidisciplinary Research Journal
laUnHkZ xzUFk &� ljLorh Lokeh fujatukuUn ljLorh] ?ksj.M lafgrk 1997 fcgkj ;ksx Hkkjrh xaxk n'kZu eqxsj i`0 18 A� HkxoUr ts0 ,e0 ] lkSeu ,0] Hkksys ,e0 oh 1981 ;ksx ehekalk i`0 12 dSoY;/kke yksukoykA� M.M. Gore 1982 Effect of yoga training on some pulmonary Function in asthemetics Y.M. 04, vol 20.
� Kumar Dr. K. Power of breath nature wealth val. 6 page 21-26 April-june 2007. Shankar Ganesh, Pranayamafor Health and Happyness – yoga vigyana vol.1 July-Sep 2006 pg. no.56-66 MDNIY, New Delhi.
� Santoshi Jai Kishan, Effect of Pranayama of Sellected Respiratory variables 5 International Conference Dec.th
28-31,2006 pg. no. 6 kaivalya Dham Lonawala.
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