I.Scientific Method A.Process 1.Observation Careful; Include as many parameters as possibleCareful; Include as many parameters as possible Observations.

I.I. Scientific MethodScientific Method

A.A. ProcessProcess1.1. ObservationObservation

• Careful; Include as many parameters as possibleCareful; Include as many parameters as possible• Observations Observations Induction Induction Hypothesis Hypothesis

2.2. HypothesisHypothesis• Possible causePossible cause• Reflect past experience (Reflect past experience (educatededucated guess) guess)• Multiple (consider alternative explanations)Multiple (consider alternative explanations)• TestableTestable• FalsifiableFalsifiable

3.3. PredictionPrediction• Hypothesis/Principle Hypothesis/Principle Deduction Deduction Prediction Prediction

4.4. ExperimentExperiment• Experimental group, Control group, ReplicationExperimental group, Control group, Replication

5.5. Results/InterpretationResults/Interpretation6.6. Scientific TheoryScientific Theory

Fig. 1.21

I.I. Scientific MethodScientific Method

B.B. Field Observations vs. Controlled Field Observations vs. Controlled ExperimentsExperiments

1.1. Field Observations (Field Observations (in situin situ))• Natural settingNatural setting• Uncontrolled Uncontrolled variablesvariables

• Examples?Examples?

2.2. Controlled Experiment (usually Controlled Experiment (usually ex situex situ))• Fewer uncontrolled variablesFewer uncontrolled variables• Test one or a few variable(s) at a timeTest one or a few variable(s) at a time• Artificial setting (especially Artificial setting (especially ex situex situ))

Fig. 1.22

II.II. GeographyGeography

A.A. World OceanWorld Ocean1.1. Made up of multiple ocean basinsMade up of multiple ocean basins

• Covers 71% of earth’s surfaceCovers 71% of earth’s surface• N. Hemisphere - 61% oceanN. Hemisphere - 61% ocean• S. Hemisphere - 80% oceanS. Hemisphere - 80% ocean

• Continuous environment, with few barriers to movement - unlike land

• Some barriers in the marine environment isolate organisms or groups of organisms from each other

2.2. Four major ocean basinsFour major ocean basins• Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, ArcticPacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic

3.3. Smaller marginal seasSmaller marginal seas• Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of MexicoCaribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico

Fig. 2.1

II.II. GeographyGeography

4.4. Pacific OceanPacific Ocean• Largest (50%) and deepest basin - shrinkingLargest (50%) and deepest basin - shrinking• Many islands, seamounts, atollsMany islands, seamounts, atolls

5.5. Atlantic OceanAtlantic Ocean• Second largest basin - expandingSecond largest basin - expanding• Best studied, especially North AtlanticBest studied, especially North Atlantic

• Close to European seagoing nationsClose to European seagoing nations

6.6. Indian OceanIndian Ocean• Not well studied (e.g. coelacanth)Not well studied (e.g. coelacanth)

7.7. Arctic OceanArctic Ocean• ShallowShallow• Low salinity (river inputs)Low salinity (river inputs)• Ice cover (rotates with earth but slower)Ice cover (rotates with earth but slower)

II.II. GeographyGeography

8.8. Southern OceanSouthern Ocean• Only ocean that forms continuous circle around Only ocean that forms continuous circle around

earthearth• Produces worst weather on earthProduces worst weather on earth

• Extreme seasonal variabilityExtreme seasonal variability

9.9. Marginal SeasMarginal Seasa.a. AtlanticAtlantic

• North Sea, Baltic Sea, Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean North Sea, Baltic Sea, Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Hudson BaySea, Black Sea, Hudson Bay

b.b. PacificPacific• Bering Sea, Sea of Cortez, Gulf of Alaska, Sea of JapanBering Sea, Sea of Cortez, Gulf of Alaska, Sea of Japan

c.c. IndianIndian• Arabian Sea, Red Sea, Persian GulfArabian Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf

d.d. SouthernSouthern• Ross Sea, Weddell SeaRoss Sea, Weddell Sea

Fig. 2.2

III.III. GeologyGeology

A.A. Internal Structure of EarthInternal Structure of Earth1.1. CoreCore

• Composed mostly of iron and iron alloysComposed mostly of iron and iron alloys• Estimated temperature of > 4000 oC• Solid inner core, liquid outer core - magnetic

field

2.2. MantleMantle• Solid, very hot, flows but slowlySolid, very hot, flows but slowly

3.3. Crust - Crust - Why does crust float on mantle?Why does crust float on mantle?• Solid, thinSolid, thin

Fig. 2.3

III.III. GeologyGeology

B.B. Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics1.1. Continental DriftContinental Drift

• Apparent fit of continents (1620 - Sir Francis Apparent fit of continents (1620 - Sir Francis Bacon)Bacon)

• Similar geological formations on opposite sides of ocean basins

• Related species and similar fossils on opposite sides of ocean basins

• 1912 - Alfred Wegener proposed theory of continental drift but lacked mechanism

• Concrete evidence for continental drift not obtained until 1960s

Fig. 2.4

III.III. GeologyGeology

B.B. Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics2.2. Mid-Ocean Ridge SystemMid-Ocean Ridge System

• Discovered from sea floor mapping with SONAR Discovered from sea floor mapping with SONAR during and after World War IIduring and after World War II

• Largest geological feature on EarthLargest geological feature on Earth• Ridges displaced in some areas by Ridges displaced in some areas by transform transform

faultsfaults

3.3. TrenchesTrenches• Conspicuous sea floor featuresConspicuous sea floor features• Especially common in the Pacific OceanEspecially common in the Pacific Ocean

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/global_topo_large.gif