Is It Possible to Live on Air.doc-libre

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1

Is it possible to live on air

The concept of pneuma in Greek philosophical accounts

By Jordi Crespo Saumell

University College Dublin

August 2013



2

Table of Contents

1) Introduction pp 4 - 6

2) Pre-Socratic accounts

21) Xenophanes of Colophon and Anaximenes pp 6 ndash 8

22) Empedocles pp 8 - 14

23) Pythagorean fragments pp 14 - 16

24) Diogenes of Apollonia pp 16 - 18

3) Plato pp 18 - 23

4) Aristotle pp 23 - 33

5) The Derveni papyrus pp 33 - 35

6) Conclusions pp 36 - 37

7) Addenda and bibliography



3

Abstract

This dissertation has chiefly to do with linguistic processes of polysemy and

metonymy in regard to a Greek concept especially subject to overlap in meaning pneuma

Generally translated into Latin as spiritus pneumaacutes former significations look to be

substantially different to the major one with which the term has come down and stands for the

time being Insofar as it is accounting ancient Greek philosophical and scientific works

religious writings as well as documents of magical content pneuma is a unique term

doubtlessly amid the handful of ideas grounding Western tradition Hence it seems

worthwhile enquiring into its origins and former significations all the more when such an

investigation has yet to be undertaken but namely for only in this way there can be shed

some light upon pneumaacutes latter developments

In order to do so the present thesis dwells on primary Greek texts and follows a

historical outline the interval ranging primer usages of pneuma among Pre-Socratic

physiologists up to the rise of Stoicism Among the former ones there should be mentioned

Diogenes of Apollonia and Empedocles whose salient description on respiration (recently

implemented in light of the Papyrus Strasbourg) is thoroughly addressed However Aristotle

is certainly the pole this including the treatises casted in the Parva Naturalia and more

particularly De respiratione In being a new document and of exceptional importance

attention is finally focused on the occurrences of pneuma in the Derveni papyrus as well as its

cognate terms ether and air



4

Is it possible to live on air The concept of pneuma in Greek philosophical accounts

ΰ Ϊηαθ Ϋα

ζΫΰπ θ θγπθ θα1

1) Introduction

In being a living entity language is also in constant transformation The distinct

realities for a word might stand depend on who when and where that very word is uttered

This is what occurs for example when a Ὀἷὄm aὅ ἵὁmmὁὀ aὅ ldquoὀἷὈrdquo is picked out Back in the

past ldquonetrdquo not only meant a ldquofishing toolrdquo but also a ldquodefensive-throwing weaponrdquo that

gladiators handled in the arena indeed an ldquoanatomical part between the brain and the spinerdquo

for physicians Nowadays tennis player policeman and sociologist make use of the term in

several ways The fact of naming things of different nature by using the same word was early

noticed In the Categories Aristotle defined this phenomenon as homonymy2 Regardless of

the striking of the case this fact does not seem to preclude effective communication but

implications go certainly beyond

For differences in the meaning not only are determined by immediate context

diachronic insights reveal even more astonishing results If compared a Greek fisherman of

the first century AD conceived ldquonetrdquo as something radically distinct to what this might

actually mean for a todayacutes Australian teenager Despite both are making allusion to a tool

net must have been a well-knitted grid which helped the former one in his labor of catching

fishes while a global system by way of which it is possible to get and share information is

the main sense that the young one is likely to give

1 Corpus Hippocraticum De natura hominis 1 3 - 4

2 ἑfέ ldquoηπθτηπrdquo in Categories 1 1a 1 - 4 Aristotelian Logics is built on the ground of homonymy to wit the

disposition by virtue of which a word becomes common and is applied to different things as well as opposite to

synonymous or the coincidence of two things in both name and essence Cf Walters Art Museum 2011 fol

80v + 73r ΰ θθ ΰΫθ ϰα υ ἐἷὅiἶἷ ldquopaὄὁὀymyrdquo ὁὄ Ὀhiὀgὅ ὅaiἶ ἶἷὄivaὈivἷly by a

slight change in a word these three are main linguistic processes that may lead to confusion Hence for the sake

of disambiguation polysemy must be avoided in scientific descriptions as far as possible Cf eg Aristotle De

anima 412b 14



5

To use Aristotleacutes own word then this dissertation has namely to do with homonymy3 (or

polysemy according to the current nomenclature in Linguistics) and more particularly with

metonymy this is homonymypolysemy in its historical extent4 Sense becomes troublesome

as soon as a word is more and more away from its ostensive definition or its deictic reference

As easy as it seems this process comes across over and over and it is known again as

metonymy Beside its cognate procedures of metaphor and allegory metonymy constitutes

one of the key-concepts in Semantics Homonymy and metonymy give account of why

modern available devices fail in translation as well as implement Kuhnacutes notion of ldquoscientific

paradigmrdquo worldviews rely on what some words can stand at a certain moment but also in

the other way round for what is deemed to be unreal is something precisely recounted by

virtue of a vocabulary that no longer holds up its explanatory strength

With all this in mind this theoretical frame briefly expounded heretofore will be

applied to a Greek term especially subject to these phenomena pneuma (θηα) Stemming

fὄὁm θῖθ5 (to blow to breathe) pneumaacutes primary meaning roughly stands for wind In

being straightforwardly related to air thereby to respiration it comes as no surprise that

pneuma became the concern of philosophers and physicians at once As for a number of

important philosophical concepts like ldquoiἶἷardquo ὁὄ ldquohypὁὈhἷὅiὅrdquo pneuma could have been also

borrowed from medical accounts but the point is that pneuma will be found as a terminus

technicus at the basis of a complex system where Medicine Philosophy of Nature and

Theology are intertwined6

As a result this dissertation is intended to point the textual cornerstones of such a

tenet in Greek philosophical literature What is meant by this is that there will be only

considered those sources written in this language belonging to that broad literary genre called

philosophy and more concretely up to Stoicism There are several reasons to do so but to

3

To speak properly of homonymy eight conditions must be given at once being pneuma precisely one of theseinasmuch as related to the homophonic aspect in homonymy Aretas 1994 p 141 22rA 21 - 22 ϰ ῖ αα υθΫξθ θα ΰΫθβα ηπθυηα˙σθθ θ θηα ΰαϕάθ ηΫ ζσΰυ ϑησθ ΰΫθ

υθάϑαθέ

4 ἦhἷ ἕὄἷἷk wὁὄἶ ldquohὁmilyrdquo (ηζα) iὅ a gὁὁἶ ἷxamplἷ of this While in Aristotleacutes treatises that clearly stands

fὁὄ ldquoὅἷxὉal iὀὈἷrcoursἷrdquo - eg θ ηζᾳ in De generatione animalium 717b 19 - in Christian writings the

sense it takes is completely another oneέ IὈ alὅὁ appliἷὅ Ὀὁ Ὀhἷ Ὀἷὄm πβα Ὀhiὅ mἷaὀiὀg the preservation of a

substance or the avoidance from ripening in De generatione animalium 719b 1 - 2 and in De motu animalium

703a 10-1 but salvation or endurance of the soul after-death in Christian texts

5 Hill 1967 p 202

6

Cancik 2000 p 1181



6

mention perhaps the most noticeable the fact that the majority of essays dealing with pneuma

slightly tackle this period as a whole rather are centered on particular authors or lingering its

meaning around Christian sources In addition and as dominant philosophical trend darting

the Hellenistic period one of the consequences the rise of Stoicism brought along is that the

notion of pneuma acquires major relevance and new significations that should be studied

apart in more detail So far albeit being fully conscious of the partial scope of this

dissertation as regards the texts the method and the chronology the pretensions

underpinning the same are far more general and somewhat akin to the radical question once

posited by Kant7 Was ist der Mensch Such an anthropological endeavor will be addressed

fὄὁm aὀ ldquoἷὅὅἷὀὈialiὅὈ appὄὁaἵhrdquo chiming Ancient Greek thinking patterns so that while

mankind is normally defined by its most perceptible and external features say social

embedment and productive activities specific faculty of language knowledge and alike

contrarily and complementarily physiological anatomical and biological descriptions will be

taken into account here for to a considerable extent these latter ones determine the portrait of

human being amid former philosophical attempts in Ancient Greece


21) Xenophanes of Colophon and Anaximenes

Xenophanes of Colophon is seemingly the first to affirm ὈhaὈ Ὀhἷ ὅὁὉl (ουξ) iὅ

pneuma8 Pneuma is not here predicated of psyche yet it is evident that both are nearly

synonymous so that the resultant statement is no other than ldquopsyche is pneumardquoέ9 By this

Xenophanes does not mean that the soul is ldquospiritrdquo rather that everything which comes into

being is subject to extinction and liable to perish and by this general law the soul is

amounted to ldquoaiὄrdquo ὁὄ ldquoἴὄἷaὈhrdquoέ10 Therefore the sense that pneuma takes in Xenophanes is that

ὁf ldquopἷὄiὅhaἴlἷ ἴὄἷaὈhrdquoέ

On the other hand when it comes to discern how pneuma was regarded in Milessian

Physics the remaining fragments attributed to Anaximenes are extremely useful witnesses

chiefly due to the fact of being the first physiologist arguing for the primordial role of air

7 1992 p 538

8 Diogenes Laertius Vitae IX 19 10 σ φάθα ᾶθ ΰθσηθθ φγασθ α ουξ

θηα

9 De Witt 1918 pp 20 - 21

10

Hill 1967 p 203



7

Effectively Anaximenes holds that air is a generative substance and the basic form of

matter11

By virtue of rarefaction and condensation this is to say by the alteration provoqued

on the variable proportion of it that there is to be found in a particular place12

this primordial

air is considered the begetter of the rest of extant elements

The connection of pneuma in the sense of breath with pneuma insofar as wind is

formerly posited by Anaximenes13

To give account of this link there must be recalled that as

our soul - which is air - controls us so the breath and air encompass the whole cosmos14

As

Anaximander had clearly conceived air as an infinite component Anaximenes so did15

but

seemingly definite Anyhow the doxographer Aeumltius16

reports that Anaximenes purposely

maintained that all things were surrounded by pneuma aὀἶ aiὄ (θηα α ) 17 and as it

goes there are arguments to defend that Anaximenes did make no difference between air and

pneumaέ ἦhἷ α jὁiὀiὀg ἴὁὈh ὅὉἴὅὈaὀὈivἷὅ ἶὁἷὅ ὀὁὈ play a paὄὈiὈivἷ ὁὄ ἶiὅὈὄiἴὉὈivἷ fὉὀἵὈiὁὀ -

say the philosopher would have wanted to utter that the whole cosmos was made of pneuma

on the one hand and air on the other - ν ὄaὈhἷὄ Ὀhἷ ἵὁpὉlaὈivἷ ἵὁὀjὉὀἵὈiὁὀ α mὉὅὈ ἴἷ

regarded as taking the value of a non-exclusive disjunction and accordingly both terms air

and pneuma come out as synonymous Then Anaximenes is arguing for the indiscernibility

of air or in other words that it is actually impossible to define air by resorting to features like

ldquoiὀὈὄaἵὁὄpὁὄἷalrdquo ὁὄ ldquoἷxὈὄaἵὁὄpὁὄἷalrdquoέ Wἷ shall stumble upon this fact in Platoacutes Timaeus

meanwhile anybody is likely to deny that this position constitutes an exceptional singularity

in regard to what Greek philosophy had posited up to that moment this being probably why

Aeumltius feels somehow compelled to remark the wrongness of the equation as such

Anaximenesacute proposal this is the identification of air with pneuma will be sooner rejected

11 Aristotle Metaphysica A iii 984a 5 - 7 ἈθαιηΫθβ Ϋα α ΰΫθβ σθ α α ηΪζ

ξθ γΫα θ ζθ πηΪπθ

12 Cf Kirk amp Raven 1957 pp 145 ff

13 In the air which holds us up there is a power which not only converts this inner breath into a synonymous oflife but also into a principle of corporeal cohesion Cf Safty 2003 p 96

14 Anaximenes Diels-Kranz (DK hereafter) 13 B 2 θ ουξά φβθ ηΫα α υΰαῖ ηᾶ

α ζθ θ σηθ θηα α Ϋξ Cf infr Aeumltius Placitis 278 5 ndash 17

15 Simplicius 24 26 ndash 28 ἈθαιηΫθβ υΪυ Μζά αῖ ΰΰθ ἈθαιηΪθυ ηαθ ηθα α θ ηΫθβθ φτθ α σθ φβθ ὥ ῖθ σθ ὥ ῖθ ζζ

ηΫθβθ Ϋα ζΫΰπθ αάθ aὀἶ ώippὁlyὈὉὅ ὁf ἤὁmἷ Refutatio I71-2 ἈθαιηΫθβ Ϋ α α θΜζά υ υΪυ Ϋα θ φβ θ ξθ θαέ

16 Placitis 278 5 ndash 17 ζΫΰα υθπθτηπ α θηα Cf Kirk amp Raven 1957 p 158 fr 163

17

Kirk amp Raven 1957 p 146



8

amid medical accounts for that does not stand in medical discourse As it seems

Anaximenes simply assumes that some part at least of the atmospheric air is substantial and

indeed the basic form of substance

22) Empedocles

Empἷἶὁἵlἷὅacute Ὀhἷὁὄy ὁf Ὀhἷ fὁὉὄ ἷlἷmἷὀὈὅ (ξθ) ἷxἷὄὈἷἶ ἷὀὁὄmὁὉὅ iὀflὉἷὀἵἷ ὁὀ

medicine and philosophy It is thought that that arrived to Athens through the speculations of

the atomists thereby reassumed by main philosophical schools to come18

If it is to dwell on

Empedoclesacute remaining fragments it could be said that he is against creation ex nihilo19

Empedocles singles out only four observable stuffs (ὁὄ ldquoὄὁὁὈὅrdquo) namely earth water air and

fire though he envisages these as being particulate he does not think that their particles areindivisible or separated by voidness

20

Empedocles is of the opinion that air is a principle of life and intelligence and

accordingly he states that it is precisely by virtue of the air that penetrates in the body

through the veins that thoughts are likewise generated21

The point here is to make clear how

respiration is recounted to take place Empedocles was a physician from Sicily22

the leader of

a mἷἶiἵal ὅἵhὁὁl kὀὁwὀ aὅ ldquoἷmpiὄiἵalrdquo ἴἷἵaὉὅἷ ὁf Ὀhἷ experiments they performed23

The one

we are about to analyse was intended to demonstrate the material character of air24

Despite

being doubtless fond of experimentation it is not known whether Empedocles did ever come

to perform vivisections therefore if the description provided and recollected by Aristotle was

based on real anatomical observations The treatise entitled De respiratione not only bears

18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19

Cf eg DK 31 B11 B1220 DK 30 A 5 31 A 4343a and 44 31 B 1718 For a more detailed account on Empedoclean views on this

subject Cf Millerd 1908 pp 75 - 76

21 Simplicius 1882 p 153 14 - 15 θά ΰθθα Ϋ θ αηα ζθ ηα ααζαηΪθθ θ φζθ Cf Safty 2003 p 104

22 Galen Method of Healing II 105

23 Pliny Natural History 29 I 5 Cf Graham 2010 pp 336 - 337

24 Harris 1973 p 15 This chimes the claim θηα ηα in the un-Aristotelian treatise De spiritu 481a

9-10 when it is discussed whether respiration may constitute a form of nutrition



9

witness of the fact that Aristotle was well acquainted with Empedocles doctrines25

but this

work also furnishes us with the completest portray of Empedoclesacute doctrine on this topic

Before rendering any hasty conclusion however both Empedoclesacute account and Aristotleacutes

refutation of the same will be examined in detail and afterwards supplemented if necessary

with the papyrus so-called Empedocles of Strasbourg The fragment recollected in De

respiratione comes as follows

ldquoἦhὉὅ all Ὀhiὀgὅ ἴὄἷaὈhἷ iὀ aὀἶ ὁὉὈμ all havἷ iὀ Ὀhἷiὄ flἷὅh ἴlὁὁἶlἷὅὅ pipἷὅ ὄἷaἵhiὀg Ὀὁ Ὀhἷverge of the body and these are pierced at their mouths with many passages right through the

surface of the skin so that they keep in the blood but an easy passage is cleft for the air

Thence whenever the gentle blood retreats the rushing air will descend with raging tide but

when the blood leaps up again the air again blows out just as when a maid plays with a

water-clock of gleaming bronze When placing on her shapely hand the channel of the tube

she dips it into the delicate body of water silver white not then does the shower flow into the

vessel the passage and channel being blocked by the human hand the air outside cravingentrance keeps the water back about the gates of the resounding channel holding fast its

surface until the maid lets go with the hand then back again in the reverse way as the air

rushes in the water duly flows away In just this way whenever the gentle blood coursing

through the limbs retreats back again to its recesses at once a stream of air flows in with

rushing tide but when the blood leaps up a like amount of air iὅ ἴὄἷaὈhἷἶ ὁὉὈ iὀ ὄἷὈὉὄὀέrdquo 26

In short Empedocles affirms that inhalation and exhalation occur because there are

certain veins which contain some blood but are not full of blood These vases have openings

to the air outside too small for solid particles but large enough for air Since it is the nature

of blood to move up and down when it is carried down the air flows in and inhalation occurs

but when it rises the air is driven out and exhalation takes place He likens this process to

what happens in water-clocks27

Regarding the arrangement and the form Empedoclesacute

argument could be resumed in these five points28

A) χὀ iὀὈὄὁἶὉἵὈiὁὀμ ldquoὈhiὅ iὅ Ὀhἷ way all Ὀhiὀgὅ ἴὄἷaὈhἷ iὀ aὀἶ ὁὉὈrdquoέ

ἐ) χὀ aὀaὈὁmiἵ ἴaὅἷἶ ἶἷὅἵὄipὈiὁὀμ ldquoIὀ all [aὀimalὅ] Ὀhἷὄἷ aὄἷ tubes of flesh empty of

blood stretched all over the surface of the body and over their openings the outermostsurface of the skin is pierced through with close-packed holes so that the blood is hidden but

a free passage is cut through for the air by thἷὅἷ hὁlἷὅrdquoέ

25 For a detailed list of the references to Empedocles in Aristotleacutes treatises see the Addenda below preceding

the bibliography

26 Aristotle De respiratione 473b 9 - 474a 6

27 Aristotle 1995 p 445

28

It is followed from close the analysis given in Furley 1957 pp 31 - 32



10

C) A physiological account When the blooἶ ὄὉὅhἷὅ away (αΐι) fὄὁm Ὀhἷm Ὀhἷ aiὄὄὉὅhἷὅ iὀ (ααΐα) wiὈh a maἶ gὉὅhέέέaὀἶ whἷὀ Ὀhἷ ἴlὁὁἶ ὄὉὀὅ ἴaἵk(θαγ) Ὀhἷ aiὄ ἴὄἷaὈhἷὅ ὁὉὈέ

D) The iὀὈὄὁἶὉἵὈiὁὀ ὁf a ὅimilἷμ ldquoIὈ iὅ likἷ whaὈ happἷὀὅ whἷὀ a giὄl plays with a

ἵlἷpὅyἶὄardquoν aὀἶ iὈὅ explanaὈiὁὀ ἴy way ὁf aὀalὁgyμ ldquoWhἷὀ ὅhἷ ἵlὁὅἷὅ Ὀhἷ vἷὀὈ aὈ Ὀhἷtop and dips the clepsydra into the water no water enters it is prevented by the

wἷighὈ ὁf aiὄ falliὀg ὁὀ Ὀhἷ maὀy hὁlἷὅ ὁf Ὀhἷ ὅὈὄaiὀἷὄ aὈ Ὀhἷ ἴὁὈὈὁmέέέrdquo

E) A corollary In the same way when the blood in the body ldquorushes back again to the

iὀmὁὅὈ paὄὈrdquo (αζθθ αΐι ηυξθ) a ὅὈὄἷam ὁf aiὄ ἷὀὈἷὄὅ aὀἶ whἷὀ iὈ ὄὉὀὅ

ἴaἵk agaiὀ (θαγ) aὀ ἷὃὉal ὅὈὄἷam [ὁf aiὄ] ἴὄἷaὈhἷὅ ὁὉὈ agaiὀέ

It is now the moment for the analysis of the contents Empedocles simile of the

clepsydra

29

is a crucial document for historians of ancient science Early attempts to elucidatethe passage are marred by two recurrent mistakes The first one is properly embedded in the

clepsydra as such Up to the time that Prof Last proved30

that Empedocles was actually

talking about a device for lifting and perhaps measuring liquids for a long time it was

thought to be a water-clock Thus it is true that this fragment offers a theory of breathing

which includes the notion of breathing through pores in the skin but the theory is explained

by resorting to a familiar kind of water-lifter31

Firstly then there must be remarked that the

clepsydra adduced in the simile is not a water-clock rather a system to convey wine and

other liquids by means of pipes and the difference of pressure within these

The second mistake was made by Aristotle himself at misunderstanding the sentence

ldquoα θ ηυάπθ θαθ ζΫΰπθ α α υα ζΫΰθ θα-

θrdquoέ32 Aristotleacutes contempt against Empedocles has roots in the fact that the latter one

made no difference between breathing through the nostrils on the one hand and breathing

through the windpipe which in AὄiὅὈὁὈlἷὅ viἷw iὅ Ὀhἷ ἵhiἷf fὁὄm ὁf ἴὄἷaὈhiὀg (υα

θαθ)έ ἐὉὈ there is nothing in the quotation properly speaking leading to admit that

Empedocles was speaking only of nostril-breathing Hence the conclusion is that Aristotle

29 DK 6 3I B 100 Cf Wright 1981 pp 128 - 9 or Kirk amp Raven 1971 pp 341 - 342

30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173

31 The so-called clepsydra is in fact a hollow vessel covered at the top except for a narrow vent or tube which

could be plugged with the thumb the bottom was perforated to form a strainer It was used for transferring

liquids from one vessel to another What Empedocles describes is the normal use of the clepsydra except that

normally it would be dipped into the liquid with the vent unplugged Cf Furley 1957 p 31 n 2

32

De respiratione 473a 17 - 19



11

miὅὉὀἶἷὄὅὈὁὁἶ Ὀhἷ phὄaὅἷ ldquoθθ ξαα γαrdquoέ Inasmuch as Empedocles is arguing for

respiration through the pores the term θθ in the fragment is evidently related to θ

ldquoὅkiὀrdquo aὅ Diἷlὅ pὁiὀὈἷἶ ὁὉὈ Followed by many modern scholars Aristotle derived the word

from ῖθ (nostrils) thus missing the whole point Aristotle Ὀὁὁk θθ aὅ Ὀhἷ gἷὀiὈivἷ plὉὄal

ὁf (ὀὁὅὈὄil) ὈhὁὉgh Empἷἶὁἵlἷὅ mἷaὀὈ iὈ fὁὄ Ὀhἷ gἷὀiὈivἷ plὉὄal ὁf θ (ὅkiὀ)έ33 Along

the same token Dielsacute picture is seemingly resorting to several tubes running out to the skin

all over the body and at the ends of the tubes perforated flaps of skin which will allow the

passage of air but not of blood The tubes are furthermore only partly filled with blood This

interpretation has been followed by most scholars since and it appears to derive some

ὄἷiὀfὁὄἵἷmἷὀὈ fὄὁm χὄiὅὈὁὈlἷ whὁ iὀ hiὅ ἵὁmmἷὀὈ ὁf Ὀhἷ paὅὅagἷ ὅayὅ ὈhaὈ ldquoὈhἷὄἷ aὄἷ ὅὁmἷ

(vἷiὀὅ) ὈhaὈ havἷ paὅὅagἷὅ ὈhὄὁὉgh Ὀὁ Ὀhἷ ὁὉὈἷὄ aiὄrdquoέ34 The ldquoὁὉὈἷὄ aiὄrdquo iὅ ἴὉὈ Ὀhἷ air outside the

body so that Aristotle understood that these tubes ended up at the surface of the skin

However if Ὀhiὅ iὅ Ὀὁ ἴἷ ldquoὈhἷ iὀὈἷὄpὄἷὈaὈiὁὀrdquo χὄiὅὈὁὈlἷ ὅἷἷmὅ Ὀὁ contradict himself when he

says ϰα θ ηυϰπθ θαθ ζΫΰπθ α ϰα ϰυα ζΫΰθ

θαθ35 This again is a direct reference to Empedocles and Aristotle makes us to believe

that his predecessor meant nostril-breathing Diels claims that this is due to Aristotleacutes

ldquolaὉghaἴlἷ miὅὉὀἶἷὄὅὈaὀἶiὀgrdquo ὁf θθ iὀ liὀe 4 of the quoted fragment above which

according to the scholar one more time should stand for ldquoὅkiὀrdquo aὀἶ ὀὁὈ ldquoὀὁὅὈὄilὅrdquoέ ἐὉὈ if

Aristotle in fact took θθ Ὀὁ mἷaὀ ldquoὀὁὅὈὄilὅrdquo iὈ ὅἷἷmὅ ὁἶἶ ὈhaὈ in other passage he is

alluding to tubes ending up at the surface of the skin The argument accounting for Aristotleacutes

misunderstanding should be sharpened for instance by a thorough examination of the usage

ὁf Ὀhἷ Ὀἷὄm θ iὀ genitive plural in Greek as the same usage in the sense of skin does not

sound really idiomatic in modern languages36

Empedocles means the top vent of the ldquoclepsydrardquo to correspond to the nose and mouth

and the strainer at the bottom to the pores in the skin First he describes the pores and then

33 The term θ ὅὈaὀἶiὀg fὁὄ ldquoὅkiὀrdquo iὅ alὄἷaἶy aὈὈἷὅὈἷἶ iὀ ώὁmἷὄiἵ pὁἷὈὄyέ ἑfέ Laiacuten Entralgo 1987 p 71

34 De respiratione 473b 1 - 5 ϕζΫα θα θαhellipξυ συ θ ιπ Ϋα θ ηθ

ηα (αηας) ηπθ ζΪυ θ Ϋ ηυέ

35 Opcsupr 473a 15

36 Aristotle makes use of the term only once in the De respiratione (473b 12) precisely in occasion of this

commented passage Apart from this θθ iὅ ἶiὅplayed seven more times in the whole of the Corpus

aristotelicum In De generatione animalium 727a 13 the word means indefectibly nostrils and as it seems this

is also to apply to the rest of the occurrences Cf etiam Historia animalium 521a 30 Problemata 899a 4 6 15

18 and 963a 1



12

states their function in breathing when the blood drains away from them (to the interior of

the body) air takes its place and when the blood returns to them the air comes out (into the

atmosphere) So that neither blood nor air can be much compressed but we may wonder

where the blood withdraws to when it leaves the pores Empedocles does not say but he does

say what happens to the water in the clepsydra it takes the place of air which leaves through

the top vent It needs only a very simple interpretation of the simile to see that the blood

withdrawing from the pores is supposed to take the place of air breathed out through the nose

and mouth Correspondingly just as the air enters the clepsydra at the top vent when the

water leaves space for it so air enters through the nose and mouth when the blood moves

from the interior of the body towards the pores Empedocles theory implies that breathing in

through the nose is simultaneous with breathing out through the pores and vice versa and

that this is possible by a sort of oscillation of the blood Empedocles needed a model with two

air vents and liquid oscillating as it were between them hence the choice of the clepsydra

As we breathe out through the nose the blood leaves the surface of the body and air enters 37

In Empedoclesacute view pulmonary inhalation does actually amount to breathe out while the

income of air in the body through the skin does take place through pulmonary exhalation

Such a contrary-to-fact portrait is seemingly against common sense and this is the reason

why after having quoted the whole passage ad pedem litterae Aristotle addresses a sharp

criticism to the argument Empedocles proposed poral respiration theory insofar as depending

on blood interchange (water in the simile) and on the other hand as naturally chiming the

constant movement that takes place in the heart Since blood is distributed throughout all the

body by systole afterwards collected again therein by diastole this is by analogy and

accordingly to the movement ruling over the blood the best way to explain respiration with

which Empedocles could have come up The nose and the mouth correspond to the top vent

of the alleged clepsydra and the strainer at the bottom to the pores in the skin In Empedocles

mind what happens by means of respiration through the mouth and the nostrils is the contrary

to what we may think to occur inspiration leads to exhalation and expiration allows air to

enter in the body through the pores of the skin As a result the simile Empedocles proposes is

not that weird whatsoever the best to which he could have resorted indeed

37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13

Aristotle addresses afterwards a serial of criticisms38

against Empedocles To recap Aristotle

refutes Empedocles by saying that from experience it clearly ensues the contrary to what

Empedocles claims to happen in regard to respiration Aristotleacutes reproach is built up on the

ground of two stances in reliance

1) A contrary - to - fact this is an empirical counterargument Aristotle says that

experience clearly shows that what happens during respiration is just the opposite

reported by Empedocles (φαθα ΰ θαθθ υηαῖθθ) Moreover the

Stagirite adds that in speaking only of breathing through the nostrils Empedocles is

caught in a grave error

2) ἤἷὅὁὄὈiὀg Ὀὁ Ὀhἷ ldquoὀaὈὉὄal plaἵἷ ὁf Ὀhiὀgὅrdquoέ χὄiὅὈὁὈlἷacutes refutation is in this occasion

merely theoretical

It is quite difficult to state how far Empedoclesacute views influenced descriptions on

respiration to come39

There must be pointed out that Diocles of Charystos40

could have been

acquainted with Empedoclean theory41

Noteworthy in spite of the fragmentary state are the

documents on papyrus coming from El Hibah and referring to pneuma and to poral theory

This is the reason for the papyrus 3842

is either attributed to Diocles of Carystus or to

Chrysippus of Cnidos this latter one also an acknowledged physician of the fourth century

BC and the master of Erasistratus

In addition the outstanding Strasbourg papyrus43

has shed new light upon Empedoclean

extant fragments The document dates to the first or second century AD and preserves 74 new

lines while 20 coincide with hexameters previously known The papyrus is to all evidence a

text of Empedocles not a quotation thus a valuable firsthand document attesting

Empedoclesacute textual transmission44

After having read the transcription of the Greek text

38 De respiratione 474a 10 ndash 24

39 Cf eg Plato Timaeus 79c 2 ndash 4 or the pseudo-Aristotelian treatise De spiritu 483b 15 - 18

40 Physician of the fourth and third centuries BC of whom it is said to have belonged to the Dogmatic

(Hippocratic) medical school

41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62

42 Cf Andorlini 2003 pp 468 - 469 Pap 38 is P Gren II7b + PRyl I 39 + Pap Heidinv 401+ PHibeh II 190

r cart Pack 3 23431 found in El Hibeh third century BC this dealing with ocular physiology Cf Andorlini

2003 p 488

43 This is P Strasb gr Inv 1665-1666 Cf Martin amp Primavesi 1999 p 339 The poem originally was

composed of 2000 lines of hexameter verse and was addressed to Pausanias

44

Treacutepanier 2003 p 1 Cf Martin amp Primavesi 1999 ch IV



14

preserved in the papyrus45

the term pneuma as it goes is not employed therein but air

()46 Despite being featured as the highest (unreached) of the elements it does not seem

that the Strasbourg papyrus is to provide any novelty in regard to the query of this

dissertation notwithstanding

23) Pythagorean fragments

Two fragments recollecting the opinions of the Pythagoreans bear witness of the

usage of pneuma in this sect Both passages belong to the domain of Physics but perhaps

more interesting is the recurrence of a verb related to air and respiration ζθ This section

will deal with these topics in this respective order

Contrariwise to Plato

47

and Aristotle

48

as we shall see Pythagoreans upheld theexistence of the vacuum

49 and applied the term pneuma to vὁiἶὀἷὅὅ (ϰθσθ) iὀaὅmὉἵh aὅ

they conceived it as pervading the cosmos In another passage50

it is recounted that

Pythagoreans banked and demonstrated such a convenciment in a logical way (Ϋηθ

ξβηα) They posited that vacuum penetrated in the cosmos by the inhalation and

exhalation of this latter one as if the cosmos would have breathed the vacuum from the out

It is important to indicate that Aristotle pictures Pythagorean cosmogony by analogy with the

formation of the embryo in the womb In thinking of the cosmos as if it was breathing

Pythagoreans did also conceive the One as a living being

45 Janko 2005 pp 14 ndash 22

46 This actually corresponds to column IX 9 and should be casted in Empedoclesacute Physics book I line 249 The

contents in this column are in reliance with Dielsacute fragment B 179 the longest one coming down so that

column IX continues the extant fr17 with 33 new lines Cf Inston 2009 p 43

47 Cf Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

48 Cf eg Walters Art Museum fol 78v + 75r lines 20 ndash 28 For the sake of the Principle of Non-contradiction

Aristotle could not have affirmed the existence of the vacuum In being conceived as a spot lacking of bodies

(things ob jἷἵὈὅ ἷὀὈiὈiἷὅhellip) Ὀhἷ Ὀἷὄm ϰθθ (voidness) in the text of the commentary to Aristotleacutes Categories

takes a spatial connotation ndash analogous to the platonic ξα - The typical Greek philosophical assumption

aἵἵὁὄἶiὀg Ὀὁ whiἵh ldquoὈhἷὄἷ aὄἷ Ὀhiὀgὅrdquo ἵὁὉlἶ havἷ ὁὀly ἴἷἷὀ ἷxpὄἷὅὅἷἶ ὀἷgaὈively by postulating voidness in thefigure of a real container enabling the absence of things this is as condition of possibility for voidness so that

the idea of complete vacuum was so to speak alien to Greek mind theretofore

49 Aristotle Physics 213b 22-7 (= DK 58 B 30)μ θα φααθ α Πυγαΰσ θσθ α Ϋθα α

αθ υ θηα θαθΫθ α θσθ φτ θ θ

ξπη θ θ φι α [] π α ᾽ θα θ θ ῖ γηῖ ΰ θθ θ

θ φτθ αθ

50 Simplicius On Physics IX 651 25-κμ θ Πυγαΰπθ θιθ Ϋηθ ξβηα θ σιαθ

αθ ααγα θα θσθέ ζΰθ ΰ ῖθ θθ Ϋθα ση θ θαθΫθ θΫθ α ὥ θηα ιπγθ ξυηΫθυ



15

In the fragment above drawn from the Physics51

pneuma is amounted to a ldquoὅὉἴὅὈaὀἵἷrdquo

inhaled from the out Aristotle equates it to vacuum and Simplicius compares this vacuum to

breathe The One inhalἷὅ ἴὄἷaὈh (θηα)52 from the surrounding indefinite whence nature of

things becomes differentiated and multiplicity is generated53

Pneuma is thus the primordial

substance which is credited to have been respired by the cosmos before anything resembling

to air would ever have existed namely and chiefly due to elements had yet to be separated

It is in regard to these former stages that Aristotle precisely alluding to Pythagoreans reports

ὈhaὈ ldquoὈhἷ ἡὀἷ ἴὄἷaὈhἷἶrdquo (ζ)έ54 The verb ζπ iὀ Ὀhἷ ὅἷὀὅἷ ὁf lsquoἴὄἷaὈhiὀgrsquo iὅ a Ὀἷἵhὀiἵal

term which corresponds to θαθθ iὀ χὄiὅὈὁὈlἷacuteὅ fὄagmἷὀὈ aὀἶ Ὀὁ θαθθ

θθ55 in Simpliciusacute commentary on Aristotelian Physics

56 According to its technical

meaning this verb is also featuring some medical treatises57

as well as presenting astonishing

parallelisms with some of the contents in the Derveni papyrus Hence momentarily and on

account of its afteruse there should be noticed that the paὄὈiἵipial fὁὄm ζθ iὅ iὀ

Pythagoreanism analogous to what a fertile soil does in getting the solar light so as to respire

then ζθ is deemed to mean ldquoto attract to absorb to draw inrdquoν Ὀhἷὅἷ being what plants and

trees do to obtain the water and the humidity from the earth

51 Aristotle Physics 213b 22 - 27(DK 58 B30) Cf Bernabeacute amp Mendoza 2013 pp 35 ndash 36

52 That an indiferentiated One existed as well as this very One respired both facts show striking parallels with

some Vedic cosmogonic accounts Cf Bernabeacute amp Mendoza 2013 p 46 Bremmer (1989 p 200) names this

ἢyὈhagὁὄἷaὀ Ὀhἷὁὄy ldquoiὀfiὀiὈἷ ἴὄἷaὈhrdquo (θ θηα)έ

53 Bernabeacute amp Mendoza 2013 p 37

54 Metaphysics 1091a 17 This verb also oftens in the fragments ascribed to Diogenes of Apollonia In the

Hippocratic treatise entitled De natura hominis 520 ζ comes out as referred to pneuma Aristotle will

make use of this verb in De respiratione 471a 3 20 23 De generatione animalium 737b 31 771b 27

55 The belief in the transmission of the virtue by means of sexual intercourse is deeply rooted in Ancient Greece

It is worth saying that the verb θĩθ was integrated in a sort of formula that young ephebes used in order to

appeal for amorous encounter

56 It is also to be found in Diogenes of Apollonia DK 64 A 31 and Empedocles DK 31A 74 It has somewhat to

do with the idea of ascension by way of a rotatory motion

57

Eg Galen De semine 25 22 - 28



16

24) Diogenes of Apollonia

Diogenes of Apollonia maintains that air is an element58

permeating reality in fact the

ὅὉἴὅὈaὀἵἷ ὁf Ὀhἷ Ὁὀivἷὄὅἷ (θ αθ φθ α)59 as well as he claims the existence

of innumerable worlds and the infinitude of the vacuum Theophrastrus devotes many

ἵhapὈἷὄὅ Ὀὁ ὄἷpὁὄὈ Diὁgἷὀἷὅ´ ὁpiὀiὁὀὅ ὁὀ pἷὄἵἷpὈiὁὀέ60 The Peripatetic philosopher says that

in his eagerness for ascribing all kind of phenomena to air Diogenes makes several mistakes

among others the claim that all things are but modifications of one and the same The most

interesting however is the picture that Diogenes provides in regard to the air This is credited

to be intelligent ruling over all things and accordingly likened to a god61

The divinisation

of natural elements is not alien to Greek mind - as it is for example in the Derveni papyrus -

albeit this attribution is normally done by way of a personification

62

It is by virtue of this air that animals are bestowed with a soul (ie life-principle) and

man with intelligence Τhiὅ is as certain as the fact that if they are deprived of air they die or

intelligence fails That air is intelligence is on the one hand an inference issuing from having

it been characterized as all-pervading and somehow divine and on the other hand it might be

a reasonable development of a view akin to Heraclitus to whom the intelligent substance

(Logos or Fire) was inhaled by breathing 63

Along the same line since air is credited to be

purer than moisture and to have the power to dry the humidity these are the reasons that

58 Diogenes Laertius IX 57 Ἐσ α Ϊ ξῖθ θα θ Ϋα σηυ υ α θθ

θ σθ Ϋα υθτηθθ α ατηθθ ΰθθβθ θα θ σηπθ Cf Kirk amp Raven 1957 p

432

59Simplicius In Aristotelis physicorum libros commentaria IX 25 5μ θ αθ φθ α α

φβθ θ θα α θ ι υθηθυ α ηαθυηθυ α ηαζζθ ῖ γ θ θζζπθ ΰθγα ηφθέ DK ἄἂ χ ἃ fὄέ ἄί1 iὀ Kiὄk amp ἤavἷὀ μ 1λἃἅ ppέ ἂἀλ ndash 430

60 Theophrastus De sensibus 39 - 48 Cf Stratton 1917 pp 100 - 109

61 DK 64 B 5 and 8 Simplicius 1882 p 152 24 reads ΰΪ η γ ῖ θα and not ΰΪ η

γ ῖ θα as it comes in Kirk amp Raven 1957 fr 606 p 435 Despite being between a secluitὅymἴὁl (ό) Ὀhἷ majὁὄiὈy ὁf sources present γ iὀὅὈἷaἶ ὁf γέ ἦhἷ Ὀἷὄm γ could have been subject to

metathesis or parablepsy The reason for is unclear but in being described as an all-ruling principle themistaken transcription is comprehensible We take Simpliciusacute text as lectio bona atque recta so that what

seemingly is recounted is the fact that air main character and natural disposition is to command over all things

It is certainly different than to say that air is a god It does not mean that in several passages attributed to

Diogenes there cannot be inferred that air is effectively conceived and attributed with lineaments ascribable to

divinities

62 Cf Aristotle De motu animalium 698b 21 - 699a 2

63 Simplicius says θγπ α ζζα α ξ ατβ θ ά α α ουξθ ξ α

θσβθ ζΫΰπθ π It is particularly relevant the fragment in Physicorum I 4 1882 pp 152 16 - 153 23 Cf

Kirk amp Raven 1957 fr 605 - 606 pp 434 - 436



17

Diogenes gives to affirm that moisture64

clogs the intellect thereby the inferior

understanding observed in some creatures and the same argument applies to account the

entire lack of thought in plants as well as to explain why young children are somehow

sluggish and witless65

To summarize the intelligence allotted to a particular animal depends

on three facts First on the amount of aspired air secondly on the nature of the conducts and

pipes enabling the expansion and circulation of the air within the body and lastly that has

also to do with the purity and the dryness of such an intellectual principle for Diogenes

thought that an excessive humidity in the air darkened the spirit and obstructed intellectual

activity

If the Apolloniate does really deserve to be mentioned in this dissertation

nonetheless it is due to the fact that his views forestall the theoretical basis that Aristotle

eventually will assume66

By this it is meant that in Diogenesacute opinion the heart is the place

where pneuma and the principle of nourishment are settled ( θ φ α

θτηα τα αα) Herewith he puts pneuma and blood in rapprochement for the

first time up to the extent that it is difficult to tell one apart from the other From Diogenesacute

fragments it follows that he regards pneuma and food as nutrients but contrariwise to what is

upheld in Hippocratic theory67

Diogenes does not separate nor ascribes these nutritive

sources to different apparatus say digestive and respiratory rather he is stuck in allocating

indistinctively both in the heart

To all purpose and with no room for a doubt it appears to be the degree of heat in the

air rather than its purity what is to be the dominant in Diogenesacute biological theory Life and

the different levels of consciousness that that embraces are directly related to the amount of

heat in the veins The air of which the soul of all animals is said to be composed is deemed to

be hotter than the outer respired air but colder than the air surrounding the Sun Therefore

Diogenes resorts to variations in temperature not only in order to give account of the

differences among individuals belonging to the same species but also of their varieties

64 The Greek word for moisture is the Ionic term η as if in this way the witness of Diogenes was to be

stressed Cf Stratton 1917 p 186 n 125

65 Theophrastus De sensibus 44-45 Cf Stratton 1917 pp 104 ndash 5

66 According to Galen De Placitis Hippocratis et Pla tonis II 8 401 - 485

67

Opcsupr II 8 394 - 401



18

But it is in the way Diogenes describes the generation of the sperm in animals where the link

between the external and the internal68

air seems to be of the utmost interest Diogenes

affirms that semen is of pneumatical nature (θυηαΫ) pneuma-like or plenty of

breath69

He states that the air introduced in the body through aspiration promotes and makes

blood to ascend while some of this blood is consumed in the flesh the rest overflows and

passes to the seminal conducts producing the sperm which is the resultant steamed blood that

has been shaken by the breath (this opinion will be latterly reassumed70

by Vindician and is

likewise recollected by Clement of Alexandria)71

In sum there could be stated that the external air is heated when it is inhaled and in

being mixed with the blood some of this aspired air is transformed into sperm Diogenes is of

the opinion that soul is air in particular warm air Then in a way since both are composed

of heat and air there is room to amount soul to sperm the difference lies in the fact that while

soul is within the body sperm on the contrary is external air overheated in the body

3) Plato

By judging the contents of the Axiochus72

there should be found some divine breath

in the soul by which it possesses intelligence and knowledge Since being dated in the first

century BC this work is spurious so that we are obliged to bind ldquoὈhἷ iὅὅὉἷ ὁf pneumardquo in

proper platonic dialogues chiefly the Phaedo and the Timaeus and to a lesser extent also in

the Laws the Theaetetus and the Phaedrus

68 Aristotle De anima I 2 405a 21-26

69 Simplicius in Physicorum I 4 1882 p 153 13-16 Ϋηα θ πθ θυηαΫ α θά

ΰθθα Ϋ θ αηα ζθ ηα ααζαηΪθθ θ φζθ θ α θαηθ θ φζθ ααπθ

70 Alexander Amator veri appellatus discipulus Asclepiadis libro primo De semine spumam sanguinis eius

essentiam dixit Diogenis placitis consentiens As regards Diogenes it is reported Diogenes autem

Apolloniates essentiam ltseminisgt similiter spumam sanguinis dixit libro physico etenim spiratione adductus

spiritus sanguinem suspendit cuius alia pars carne bibitur alia superans in seminales cadit vias et semen facit

quod ltnongt est aliud quam spuma sanguinis spiritu collisigt Cf Wellmann 1901 pp 208-10 It is worth

remarking that Diocles of Charystos did not think that sperm was such a foamy substance made of blood Ibid

p 212 17

71 Paedagogus I64821 - 36

72

370c η γῖθ θπ θθ θηα ουξ



19

There is a fragment73

at the end of the Phaedo coming forth a reference to Homer in regard

to the netherworld where Plato is giving an account of the Tartar Pneuma means there the

steam produced by the streams in the waterfalls74

In gathering some of the main

significations with which pneuma will be latterly featured these lines are particularly

interesting ἦhἷ Ὀἷὄm iὀ Ὀhiὅ ὁἵἵaὅiὁὀ ἵlἷaὄly ὅὈaὀἶὅ fὁὄ ldquowiὀἶ ήaiὄ iὀ mὁὈiὁὀrdquo75 or at least

this does not show any evidence of being used in a technical sense

Regarding the picture of the cosmos in project that Plato provides in the Timaeus76

the world (τζ ᾶθ) encompasses and encloses within it all the extant things77

The reason

for such a claim is because it is said that it is bereft of air in the out and accordingly out of it

nothing at all has been left therefore the world is devoid of air outside thereby there is no

need of respiration Thus whaὈ iὅ ἵallἷἶ ldquoaiὄrdquo iὅ ἴὉὈ Ὀhἷ pneuma in regard to demiurgeacutes

creature If not for having been twice processed first by the cosmos and later on by us what

is actually respired is properly speaking the universal pneuma (say that pneuma is here taken

cursory as the extant air that might be within a living body) Later on Plato comes to grips

with the features and the nature of the universe He claims78

that pneuma and air (Ϋα) are

the resultant elements from the dissolution of water this being the primordial substance

whereof the rest of the elements come to be by virtue of a cyclic process Pneuma and air are

synonymous in this occurrence perhaps with the only difference that while pneuma is

depicted with a motional sense air in contrast is not This very passage might well lead to

think that pneuma could also mean vapour for water is said to become earth and stone by

condensation and these latter ones in their turn to become pneuma and air (θηα ϰα )

73 Phaedo 112 b - c

74 It is quite different if compared with the meaning that pneuma takes in Phaedrus 229b 1 where the term pὄἷἵiὅἷly ὅὈaὀἶὅ fὁὄ ldquowiὀἶrdquo iὀ paὄὈiἵὉlaὄ mὁἶἷὄaὈἷ aὀἶ milἶ ἷὀὁὉgh so as to recommend a place as suitable for

sitting down and taking rest

75 Respublica III 394d

76Timaeus 33c 3 - 4 θηΪ θ σηθθ θαθ α θ θ ΰΪθυ ξῖθ ᾧ

θ ηθ αυ φθ Ϋι θ σθ ιηαηΫθβθ Ϋηο Ϊζθ

77 Since Timaeusacute description clearly states that nothing is left out of the grand vivant when created and

assembled by the demiurge ΰ θ θ α γθ ndash ΰ θ ndash Timaeus 33c ndash d

78 Timaeus 49c 1 - 5 For a detailed account of the term in the Corpus platonicum see the Addenda below

preceding the bibliography



20

by melting and being dissolved lastly and in so long as it would have been heated enough

air becomes fire again79

In pursuing pneumaacutes traces back in the Timaeus80

Plato expounds that deities ndash and

not the demiurge - decided to set in human body more particularly between the diaphragm

and the navel a sort of independent animal (ὥγ θ θ θα) in order to save the just

created living being from the combined action of fire and air It is by virtue of this implanted

element that we are alive as well as resembling plants for this psyche epithymetike (ουξ

γυη ὁὄ γυηβσθ) does not partake in reason nor is able to move81

It is

important to retain that this primordial form of soul could be somewhat the origin of what

Aristotle will name connatural pneuma82

At any rate what is certainly undeniable is that

both pneuma and fire are regarded as extant elements within the body or almost in this

occasion as not taken from the out 83

In moving on through the dialogue we come across Platoacutes account on respiration84

This is entirely embedded in the logical axiom according to which there cannot be vacuum

and as a consequence any kind of body in motion can ingress into such an inexistent space85

Along this theoretical assumption aiὄ (θηα) iὅ standing for the so-ἵallἷἶ ldquoἴὁἶy iὀ

mὁὈiὁὀrdquo It is also said that this airpneuma moves from within us towards the out thereby

pneuma is but exhaled air In addition to this it is stated that after having expired the chest

79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c

81 Cf Galen De placitis Hippocra tis et Platonis V 2 362 - 383 Thus while Plato distinguished three different

kinds of soul - aὀ immὁὄὈal ὅὁὉl haviὀg ὅἷaὈ iὀ Ὀhἷ ἴὄaiὀ ( ζΰθ) ἵὄἷaὈἷἶ ἴy Ὀhἷ ἶἷmiὉὄgἷ itself besidetwo mortal ones created by lesser divinities the so-ἵallἷἶ iὄaὅἵiἴlἷ ( γυηβ) lὁἵaὈἷἶ iὀ Ὀhἷ Ὀhὁὄax aὀἶ ὈhἷappἷὈiὈivἷ ( γυηβθ) in charge of vitalising the abdominal viscera (Cf Τ imaeus 70d) - Aristotle posited

only one soul but he attributed to it three functions In renaming and standing platonic souls for pneumata the

Stagirite reformulated Platoacutes threefold psychology in a reductionist way Plato could have even postulated a

fὁὄὈh Ὀypἷ ὁf ὅὁὉl whiἵh ἵὁὉlἶ ἴἷ ἵallἷἶ Ὀhἷ ldquogἷὀiὈal ὅὁὉlrdquo whiἵh it is said to preside love during the erotic

intercourse Cf Timaeus 91a This could be the reason for Aristotle will say that sperm pours out as if it were an

animal Cf De motu animalium 703b 26

82 Albeit Reiche (1960 p 9) is of the opinion that Empedocles could well be the ultimate source for the

ἴiὀὁmial ldquoηφυθ θηαrdquoέ

83 Cf Timaeus 78a 4 et 78b 1 respectively This internal lineament becomes blatant in light of the further usage

of Ϋ aὀἶ θηαέ In the same passage where Plato claims that the relationship between internal parts of the

body and the head is due to a pair of conducts a visible fibrous and membranous one composed of the pharynx

and the trachea and an invisible one composed of air and fire which taking the format of a net entwists the

former ones all along

84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85

θθ Ϋθ θ θ φηΫθπθ τθα θ ζγῖθ



21

and the lungs are refilled with the external air (Ϋ) surrounding the body There must be

addeἶ mὁὄἷὁvἷὄ ὈhaὈ Ὀhἷ ἢhyὅiἵὅ ὁf Ὀhiὅ pὄὁἵἷὅὅ ὁf pὉὅhiὀg aὄὁὉὀἶ (π)86 ndash somehow

recalling Empedoclesacute doctrine on respiration - is one of the hindrances preventing the

discovery of the proper circulation of the blood

Pneuma is conceived as an internal air-like substance necessary to live but not the

breath of life whereas air is the way to make appellation to an extracorporeal element taken

through respiration This particular distinction in the usage is the main and the most frequent

in all the major writers from Aeschylus onwards87

Unless Plato is to belie himself such a

lineament does not stand nor can be taken as definitive for few lines thereafter when Plato

reports that in going out from the body the air ( ) also draws in the breath (θ

θαθθ) the terms do not follow this suggested distinction There should be tentatively

accepted then that Platoacutes usage of the term pneuma in the Timeus is a bit random or not

that technical so as its emplacement (ie inout the body) is to provide a clear criteria for its

definition On the other hand the creation of the world is addressed in the Timaeus by

equating the cosmos to a living organism and accordingly this is bestowed with a soul and a

body Diogenes of Apollonia had stated that heavenly bodies were the orifices through which

the world respired88

so in comparing the world to a huge living being Plato is not genuine

rather more likely borrowing the image as fortunate

As soon as Timaeus comes to deal with the creation of man the dialogue he features

experiences a sudden change and what was a cosmological description turns into a medical

treatise89

When Plato scrutinizes the possible causes behind certain kinds of illness he

mentions alterations in the bile the phlegm and what is most important in the air

(θτηα) The Theory of Humours evincing Platoacutes acquaintaince with Hippocratic

medicine90

becomes here blatant In his etiological enquiry Plato sets air beside the other

corporeal humours and in doing so airacutes internal character comes out as unquestionable

Likewise it is also stated that flesh generates air in its process of putrefaction (θ ηα

αγβ α θηα ΰΰθσηθθ) this being the alleged agent of a number of

86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202

88 Aeumltius Plac II 13 5 - 6

89 Timaeus 84d ndash 85a

90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22

diseases By the same token since lungs are credited to administrate the air (θ θυηΪπθ)

through the body the obstacles that the air ( θ θηα) may find on the way

issuing from the lungs to the rest of the parts of the body is likely to produce many sufferings

Then pneuma is also in this passage equated to an internal air in the body but of a different

nature

It is now time to have a quick look at some minor occurrences to complete the picture

in the whole of Platoacutes work In a passage of Theaetetus91

Plato tries to make clear whether

predicates and qualities attributed to things do stand by themselves or depend on whom is

perceiving Pneuma is there clearly amounted to wind (θΫηυ) As regards the Phaedrus92

pneuma comes there put beside its homologous rheuma (ηα)93

but it is also denoting the

idea of air in motion or wind Concerning the Philebus94

inasmuch as it is counted beside

fire water and earth pneuma is taking there the sense of air the same air that to some extent

is thought to inform the nature of all living beings95

In addition to this signification it is

worth saying that the use of the notion in plural (θτηαα) tends to stress this particular

sense96

When attention is shifted to the Laws97

pneuma means strong wind rages ndash and

sunbeams - by virtue of which some are able to foresee and predict the future Elsewhere98

in

recounting different ways to kill someone Plato explains that one of these is by asphyxia this

is by leaving someone deprived of air (ά θτηα) The fact that Plato regards

respiration and nutrition as two independent functions is also interesting he does not give

room to pose that air could be a source of nourishment99

ndash as Aristotle will do -

91 Thaetetus 152b

92 Phaedrus 255 c ndash d

93 Both are nouns formed by addition of the abstractive suffix ndash ηα Ὀὁ Ὀhἷiὄ ὄἷὅpἷἵὈivἷ vἷὄἴal ὅὈἷmὅέ ἦhiὅ iὅ ὁὀἷ

of the ways ancient Greek displays to generate new vocabulary On the one hand θπ means to respire to

inhale to take breath to blow and so forth on the other hand π stands for to flow (generally a liquid) to

emanate to be carried or born by a stream As a result two new abstract substantives have been formed and it

could be said that what pneuma is to air rheuma is in regard to fluids or liquids

94 Philebus 29a

95 There must be born to mind that in Timaeus 55b 7 - 55c 6 Plato equates the fifth regular geometrical shape

the dodecaedrus to the fifth element the quinta essentia or ether

96 Eg Leges 747d ndash e or 845d ndash e

97 Opcsupr 747d ndash e

98 Ibid 865b ndash c

99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle

The first point that there should be put forward is the feature of subordination and the

special treatment given to respiration in Aristotleacutes treatises Unlikely to current views

Aristotle conceives respiration as a non-voluntary movement (ξ υυ)100this is to

say not motivated by an intentional purpose nor imagination or desire and what is more

important as casted into what could be called the circulatory system This section will start

up by reporting some details on the heart - insofar as the organ to which Aristotleacutes natural

philosophy ascribed major preponderance - and in light of these the tenet of pneuma will be

addressed with regard to blood and nutrition on the one hand and to air and respiration on

the other

101

The order in the formation of the parts in a body has a functional and a structural

reason hence in sanguineous animals102

the heart is duly credited to be formed first

Accordingly the progressive development occurring in the matter of the embryo begins with

the formation of the organ where the vital activity has prevalence and priority103

As regards

cardiac movements there can be distinguished three different ones palpitation else the

iterated impact of the heart against the thoracic cage pulsation or the constant succession of

diastole and systole and respiration104 The movement of the heart moreover is considered

involuntary (υ θ)105

because the agent of movement deals with blood a vital

liquid Because of pertaining to a broader system the heart is likewise named a dissimilar

organic part (θηηά)106

this being applied to the brain as well To take this brief report

100 De motu animalium 703b 5-9 ξ υυ θ θθ α ΰάΰθ α θαθάθ α α ζζα

αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164

102 In Aristotelian terminology sanguineous stands for vertebrate

103 De juventute et senectute 468b 28 ndash 469a 1

104 De respiratione 479b 17-9 Τα υηαθθα θ ααθ ῖ θ αθ φτθ ξθ ξ

θ αάθ άβ α φυΰη α θαθά

105 De motu animalium 703b 5-9 ζΫΰπ υυ ηθ θ θ αα α θ αυ (ζζΪ

ΰ φαθΫθ θσ ηΫθ ζταθ θ θθα)

106 De respiratione 478b 31 - 479a 1 As opposite to the skin or other so- ἵallἷἶ ldquoἵὁὀὈiὀὉὁὉὅrdquo paὄὈὅ ὁf Ὀhἷ ἴὁἶy

in Aristotleacutes nomenclature an organ or θηηά is almost considered as an independent living entity a sort

of animal as such eg De motu animalium 703b 24 - 26



24

to an end the heart is in sum and namely related to four functions to incite the movement to

produce and distribute the blood to serve as the centre to sensations107

and to be the seat of

two innate principles the heat and the pneuma

Regulation of temperature and nutrition are doubtless primordial physiological

functions Both are said to be equally achieved by virtue of respiration ( θαθ) as well as

mediation of blood How far and the way these take place is what needs to be thoroughly

recounted and this is what will be treated hereafter Thus the extant implications that

respiration might have with the regulation of the temperature in the body will be expounded

first and it will be followed by those that may be found between breath and nutrition In

general terms respiration is the movement that has namely to do with refrigeration whereas

pulsation is the one in reliance with nutrition

Given its very medial emplacement in the body the heart is deemed to be the source

of heat in sanguineous animals108

Furthermore in being the spot wherein such heat is

regulated and reaches the highest temperature in perfect animals death owes to a failure in

the heart109

this being the difference between a dead and a living animal110

Therefore life

must coincide with the conservation of this heat and there must be indeed something cooling

down the heat in its source111

In disagreement with Alcmeonacutes112

discoveries and latter

Hippocratic theories Aristotle was of the opinion that psychical activity - the mind 113 or the

soul ndash was not connected with the brain but allocated in the heart the diaphragm and

107 Laiacuten Entralgo 1987 pp 134 - 136

108 De respiratione 478a 29 - 30

109 De longitudine et brevitate vitae 466a 18 - 20

110 De juventute et senectute 467b 11 - 13

111 Opc supr 470a 5-7

112 The physician Alcmaeon of Croton is said to have performed anatomical experiments and also the originator

of the postulates upheld in Pneumatic school Cf Harris 1973 pp 8 - 9 Theophrastus in De sensu et

sensibilibus 25 1 - 8 reports that Alcmaeon maintained that pneuma was breathed in directly into the brain

through the nostrils as well as being the instrument of thought and sensation The two major consequences that

could be pulled out of this witness are first that as it seemed also to Aristotle Alcmaeon conceived the faculty

of thinking as other than that of perception (for Empedocles identified both) and in second place the fact that

pneuma was at this stage entirely comparable to external air before being aspired Cf Stratton 1917 pp 88 - 9

113 De motu animalium 703b 23 ndash 24



25

breathing ( θ ααθ)114

In allotting to the brain the function of cutting down the

ebullition occurring in the heart115

by way of the extant sanguineous connexion between these

two organs Aristotle regarded the humid and cold grey matter as a mere thermoregulator116

If not for the all-important fact that the process is conceived as purely coolant Aristotleacutes

description of the mechanics of respiration is close enough to the truth and calls for little

comment All creatures that have lungs117

charged with blood spongy and full of tubes need

rapid cooling (ααοτιπ)118 this being why they admit the air and breath in and out

(θαθῖθ α θῖθ)119

for these parts contain more blood than any other of the internal

organs Sanguineous animals are so warm that they are in need of external air or water120

to

cool down the temperature of their bodies

But the core of the issue appears to be when it comes to explain how ndash and even

where - respiration does take place One more time Aristotle says that in its primary form

respiration is a movement that proceeds from the chest through the windpipe121

Since

respiration through the mouth is also possible nature uses the same organ for both purposes

alimentation and respiration In its turn and by contrast De spiritu122

reads that breath

(θηα) iὅ ὀὁὈ ἵὁὀvἷyἷἶ Ὀὁ Ὀhἷ ἴἷlly ὈhὄὁὉgh Ὀhἷ mὁὉὈh (τθαθ) but there is a passage

along the lumbus through which that is carried by respiration from the windpipe into the

114 De partibus animalium 656a 28 Ὅ ηθ θ ξ θ αγάθ θ θ ααθ σ α

σθ θ ῖ αγάπ Cf Schroumldinger 1996 pp 51 - 52

115 As a matter of fact pulsation is but the result of the expansion of the blood in the heart by heat

116 De partibus animalium 652b 26 - 27 ηθ θ ΰΫφαζ αθ ῖ θ θ αᾳ γησβα α

Ϋθ

117 According to De respiratione 476a 7 - 10 the Greek term for lung θηπθ seemingly recalls a receptacle

fὁὄ ἴὄἷaὈh (θηα)έ

118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19

120 Cf De juventute et senectute 470b 1 - 5

121 Cf De respiratione 473a 15ff

122 Opcsupr 476a 20 - 22 π ῖ ξυ θ θτηθα αζυηΫθ σηα σ θ φ

ΰααθ α θ θθ α θ θαθάθ According to the pseudo-Aristotelian writing De spiritu it seems

clear that respiration has its origin within the body eg 482b 21 - 22 θαθ ζθ θ ξ θξάθ It should be either proved if this inner principle at the origin of respiration is a function of the soul or the

soul herself



26

belly and once there breath is exhaled out again123

In this same work there can be found the

opinion that respiration is possible by virtue of the air ducts in the skin (ι βα

αθθ ξ) 124 thereby poral respiration was presumably neither alien to Greek thought

nor an exclusive Empedoclean oddity

On the other hand since blood is the ultimate source of nourishment the heart is also

ὈhὁὉghὈ Ὀὁ ἴἷ Ὀhἷ ὅἷaὈ ὁf Ὀhἷ ὀὉὈὄiὈivἷ ὅὁὉl (γ ουξ)125

In De spiritu it is reported the

existence of a particular movement of the breath in the trachea straightforwardly acting upon

the food126

Beside another one with which there will be dealt next the swallowing of food is

a physiological function that cannot be given while breathing The windpipe lies in front of

the oesophagus through which the food passes into the belly In quadruped vertebrates and in

man the windpipe has a cartilaginous lid called epiglottis127

precluding respiration and

deglutition at once otherwise the peril of dying by suffocation would be real and often

Blood is the natural substance from which animals directly derive their growth128

and

the definite nutriment for the organs and the different parts of the body129

The primary

nutritive soul must reside therefore in that part of the body where this nutritive principle is

emplaced Contrarily to what occurs with respiration ingestion and nutrition belong to the

embryo both during and after its formation so that pulsation (φυΰησ) begins at the very

outset of the formation of the embryo Aristotle uses two names for embryo kuema (βηα)

and embryon (ηυθ)έ ώἷ iὅ ὅἷἷmiὀgly ἵὁὀἵἷἶiὀg a highἷὄ ἶἷgὄἷἷ ὁf pἷὄfἷἵὈiὁὀ ndash ie

formation - to embryon than to kuema130

Anyhow by both ways there is referred to a living

entity which does not breathe external air for respiration properly speaking starts as soon as

123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18

125 In De anima 411b 18 or 413b 1 Aristotle affirms that the other faculties of the soul could not exist without

this nutritive soul

126 De spiritu 482b 14 - 16 Ἐ ῖ α θά θ βᾳ θτηα θαθά φυΰησ β

θ φθ Ϊΰυα α αΰαηΫθβέ

127 Birds and oviparous quadrupeds lack of epiglottis so that they achieve the same result by contraction of the

windpipe

128 De respiratione 474b 3 - 5

129 Opcsupr 469a 1 - 2 αηα ῖ θαη ζυαα φά ι ΰθα ησα

130 Morel 2006 p 44 βηα ὅὁmἷὈimἷὅ ὅὈaὀἶὅ fὁὄ ὅἷἷἶ (ΰθ) therefore this could be equated to the zygotic

ἵἷll ἵὁmiὀg fὁὄὈh Ὀhἷ ὅὉἵἵἷὅὅfὉl Ὁὀiὁὀ ὁf Ὀhἷ gἷὀἷὄaὈivἷ pὄiὀἵiplἷὅ (ηαα)έ



27

the embryo is released from the mother and on the other hand to a living being that gets the

ultimate nourishment (ie blood) through a vein called umbilical cordon ergo the foetus is in

possession of the nutritive soul only in potency131

Since prior in origin and basic activity of

the heart pulsation is thus accounting for nutrition in the body

Time has come to put respiration in reliance with the physiological domain of

reproduction By judging their respective qualities Aristotle sets blood and sperm below the

same label for both are considered as soft and humid similar parts (ηαζα α ΰΪ

ηηῖ)132 But first nonetheless there must be brought up the second activity beside

the aforementioned act of swallowing in that is said to be incompatible with respiration

ejaculation A passage in the treatise De generatione animalium133

refers to this point The

argument indefectibly expounds that men stop breathing before emitting the semen (θΪΰβ

ααξσθα θηα γα θ ΰθάθ) this being consequently an act incompatible

with respiration or more concretely with inhalation This assumption furthermore

contributes to discard the theory on stage by the time of Aristotle according to which sperm

was expulsed out through an aerial discharge134

as well as to bank the alternative theory

proposed by Aristotle The aforementioned treatise135

is to all purpose the most representative

of the Aristotelian works in regard to the query heading this dissertation136

though this very

fact might well raise several questions say what a term that apparently has to do withrespiration and air is doing in a work devoted to the reproduction of animals The reasons for

will be suggested hereafter

131 Opcsupr p 56

132 Cf De partibus animalium 647b 10 - 14 Cf Laiacuten Entralgo 1987 p 125

133 717b 33 - 718a 5

134 Aristotle could have criticised this passage in De generatione animalium 737b 31 - 32 ὥ θΫ φαθ

ζθ αῖα φΪθ ὥ τα θτηα αηΫθπθ

135 θηα is employed in several occasions throughout all the treatise 718a 3732b 30 735b 19232433 736 a

1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11

θηαμ ἅἀκa 11ν 728b 28 735b 101625 736a 1 737b 30 738a 4 744a 3 761b 11 768b 35 778a 2 781a

ἁἃν ἅκἄa ἄν ἅκκa ἁἁέ θηαμ ἅἁἃἴ 1ἂν ἅἁἄἴ ἁἅν ἅἁἅἴ ἁἀ ἁἃν ἅἂ1ἴ ἁἅν ἅἄἀἴ 1ἅν ἅκκa ἀ1ν ἅκλἴ κν θυηααμἅἅἅἴ ἁἁν ἅκἃa ἀκν ἅκἃἴ 1ἃέ θυηπθμ ἅἅἅἴἴ ἁἁν ἅκἃἴ 11έ

136 For a deὈailἷἶ aἵἵὁὉὀὈ ὁf Ὀhἷ Ὁὅagἷ ὁf θηα in the Corpus aristotelicum see the Addenda below preceding

the bibliography



28

One of the causes could respond to a primordial fact underlying reproduction seminal

emanation137

The pleasure which accompanies coition is not only due to the emission of

semen but also of a spiritus the coming together of which precedes the emission as such

This is plain in the case of boys who are unable to emit semen but are near the proper age138

and of men who are impotent for all these are capable of pleasure by attrition Then pneuma

iὅ iὀ Ὀhiὅ paὅὅagἷ ἵlἷaὄly Ὀakiὀg Ὀhἷ ὅἷὀὅἷ ὁf ldquoplἷaὅaὀὈ yἷll ὁὄ ἷxhalation brought along with

ἷjaἵὉlaὈiὁὀrdquoέ

According to De spiritu moreover sperm and pneuma would rush through the same

sort of vessels (βα)139 Both differ in the fact that while pneuma could be equated to

ldquohὁὈ aiὄ wiὈhiὀ Ὀhἷ ἴὁἶyrdquo ( γηθ) - inasmuch as outside the air is mild but when

enclosed condensed and distributed in a certain way it is breath -140

sperm is the result of

Ὀhἷ ldquohὁὈὈἷὅὈ ἴlὁὁἶ iὀ Ὀhἷ ἴὁἶyrdquoέ

Then there could be momentarily conceded that pneuma is to air what sperm is to

blood To clarify this point there will be next shed insight upon the essence whereof sperm is

said to be generated141

137 De generatione animalium 728a 9 - 14

138 In addition to this in De generatione animalium 728b 30 Aristotle claims that due to the fact of being plenty

of porous those parts distinguishing male and female are filled with air ( θτηα) during puberty

this being the agent that has ultimately to do with sexual distinction Cf etiam Wellman 1901 p 215

139 De spiritu 484a 14 - 17 Praxagoras of Cos was the first one to tell apart veins from arteries (the Greek term

βα ὁὀἵἷ alὅὁ mἷaὀὈ ldquoὈὄaἵhἷardquoέ ἑfέ δὁὀgὄigg μ 1λλἁ pέ 1ἄἅ) and to attribute specific functions to each oneAfterwards Erasistratus posited systematically the transmission of pneuma through the arteries Cf Galen De

foetuum formatione IV 671 Harris (1973 p 8) argues that such a damnosa hereditas could have been firstly

proposed by Alcmaeon of Croton Moreover this is seemingly in reliance with Aristotleacutes views according to

which sensation and movement are communicated through the body by means of the blood vessels in particularthe pneuma therein contained In this theory veins ὈὄaὀὅpὁὄὈ ἴlὁὁἶ aὀἶ aὄὈἷὄiἷὅ ὁὀly aiὄ (θηα)έ In being

hὁllὁw iὀὅiἶἷ Ὀhἷὄἷἴy liaἴlἷ Ὀὁ ὈὄaὀὅpὁὄὈ ldquoἷlἷmἷὀὈὅrdquo ὈhὄὁὉgh ὀἷὄvἷὅ aὄἷ ἶἷἷmἷἶ Ὀὁ ἴἷ ὁf Ὀhἷ ὅamἷ ὀaὈὉὄἷ Ὀhaὀveins and arteries This is the reason why in the De spiritu 483b 13 nerves are the ldquoἶἷviἵἷrdquo ὈhὄὁὉgh whiἵhpneuma is transported and transmited Cf etiam 484a 33 ndash 37 Aristotleacutes treatises on Biology do not bear

witness of this feature as such this being a sufficient reason so as to exclude De spiritu from the Corpus

aristotelicum Another evidence for this discard is the way by which the anonymous author refers to his own

opinions in De spiritu ἂκἂa ἁἀ ldquowἷ ὁὉὄὅἷlvἷὅ ὅayrdquo as if these were distinct from the ones of those numbering

either in the Lyceum or Peripatetic school (perhaps because Erasistratusacute distinction had yet to be undertaken)

140 De spiritu 483b 2-8

141 De generatione animalium 716a 7 - 8 ηΪζ θ τ γπθ ΰΰθα Ϋηα α

σγθ



29

There are three main orientations accounting the origin of the sperm in Greek philosophical

sources Known as encephalo-mielogenic theory142

(perhaps preconized by Plato)143

Alcmeon and Diocles of Carystus144 were of the opinion that sperm was originated in the

brain and the marrow Common belief by the end of the fifth century BC Anaxagoras and

Democritus145

defended the theory of pangenesis146

whereby sperm came forth the

assemblage and the synergy of the whole parts of the body Facing these two finally and

likely to have been first suggested by Pythagoras there must be mentioned the so-called

hematogenic theory to wit the hematic origin of the sperm147

as Parmenides Diogenes of

Apollonia and Aristotle maintained148

Masculine sperm and feminine menstruation149

are both a very subtle and fine matter

resulting from digestion and have their immediate origins in the blood the humour at which

point food is transformed in such a way that it is said to achieve its maximal quality As a

matter of fact Aristotle refers to sperm in terms of a residual ( π or πηα)150

a

ὅὉpἷὄflὉὁὉὅ ἷxἵὄἷὅἵἷὀἵἷ ἵὁmpὁὅἷἶ ὁf Ὀhἷ ὄἷmaiὀiὀg ldquolἷfὈὁvἷὄὅrdquo afὈἷὄ ἶigἷὅὈiὁὀέ151 Despite

having a clear utility for sperm is to ensure to human species the eternity (θ) which is

precluded in individuals Aristotle regards semen as something that does not properly belong

142 DK 24 A 13 This is the theory to which Plato resorts to give account of feminine genre this resembling to

that of animals Cf Timaeus 91a ndash d (especially 91a 4 ndash 91b 2) That the emission of semen is accompanied with

aὀ ἷxhalaὈiὁὀ (θηα) - herewith coition is something pleasant - is of common domain and even a Hippocratic

doctrine Aristotle 1912 728a 9 - 11 or it seems to be the most reliable meaning in De semine 2414-5

143 Timaeus 86c 4-5 Ϋηα ζ α υ θ ηυζθ ΰΰθα

144 Cf Wellmann 1901 p 211

145 DK 58 B 10 and 68 A 141 respectively

146 Cf De generatione animalium 729a 6 ᾗ α ζθ αθ ξα ΰθά Pangenetic theory is

also supported in the Hippocratic treatise De generatione

147 Openly rejected by Diocles of Carystus Cf Wellmann 1901 p 212 sect 7

148 DK 28 B 18 and 51 B 6 respectively Cf Laiacuten Entralgo 1987 pp 86 - 87 and Morel 2008 p 46 n 16

149 Democritus argued for the existence of a feminine sperm this being why Aristotle addresses a criticism

against this idea in the Generatione animalium 721a 32 ff

150 De generatione animalium 736b 26 - 27 ΰ Ϋηα πηα ηααζζτβ φ θ or

more blatant indeed in 776b 10 - 11 σ θ Ϋθπθ πηα α ααηάθα ῖ γάζθ

151 This being defined in De genera tione animalium 724b 26 as φ σζηηα this is the remnant

(secretion) of nourishment



30

to the nature of the genitors So far thus sperm has its ultimate origin in the blood which

after having been highly concocted turns into sperm152

In Aristotleacutes opinion the foamy

substance called semen pours and comes out by the combined effect of friction and

overheating this being somewhat comparable to the steamy substance overflowing from a

pot (body) filled with milk (blood) that gets too hot because of having been shaken As it

goes then sperm is but an excess153

by virtue of which the formal principle of life is

contained and transmitted this being properly speaking the pneuma154

In containing the soul

it might well be affirmed that sperm is somehow ensouled but not in act155

In the last

instance the ultimate agent of motion of life is the ensouled sperm breath bearer

Since it is thought that sperm is composed of water and pneuma this latter being by

definition warm air and recalling the query whether there is to find some sort of nutritional

power in pneuma thereby if it is possible to live on air it seems fair and convenient to nail

down the concept of connatural pneuma (ηφυθ θηα)156 for this is likely to bridge the

aforesaid gap between hot air and hot blood Connatural pneuma is also especially connected

with semen inasmuch as the fertility of sperm is attributed to the presence of a hot substance

which is not fire but the pneuma enclosed in or that semen is deemed to bear 157

It would

seem then that pneuma is to be found in all liquids and characterized by heat and associated

to ebullition

158

The author of the De spiritu had to be necessarily acquainted with the Aristotelian

notion of connatural pneuma the tenet is there every so often displayed varying it at times

by the apparently equivalent expressions emphyton pneuma (ηφυθ θηα) aὀἶ physikos

152 Μorel 2008 p 47

153 Especially De partibus animalium 650a 32 ndash 650b 2 Cf etiam Wellmann 1901 pp 210 - 211 sect 4 Since

blood is the ultimate nutritional principle an excess of this could be pernicious Therefore for the sake of

healthiness and hygiene the resulting leftover of digestion is not consumed by the organism but transformedinto another sort of residual that finally becomes sperm because of being heated and shaken enough

154 According to Aristotle the matter with which the embryo is formed after the conception is namely furnished

by the female Masculine sperm is said to bring along the form whereas the feminine one the matter Cf Laiacuten

Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82

157 De generatione animalium 736b 34-737a 1

158

De respiratione 479b 32



31

aer (φυϰ )ν ἴὉὈ Ὀhἷ mἷaὀiὀg iὅ Ὀhἷὄἷ aὅ ὁfὈἷὀ aὅ ὉὀἵἷὄὈaiὀ fὁὄ Ὀhἷ aὉὈhὁὄ ὅἷἷmὅ Ὀὁ

confuse the two in his own mind159

The anonymous writer claims that there are two only

possible forms of nutrition food and respiration Pneuma iὅ whaὈ iὅ hὁὈ iὀ Ὀhἷ aiὄ ( γηθ)

which helps in digestion Respiration is a kind of nutrition insofar as involved in the

maintenance and the increase of such an inherent instance called emphyton pneuma But this

treatise puts a number of obstacles when it comes to consider breath as a possible form of

nutrition so that it could be inferred that food is the one and only source for the maintenance

of the connatural pneuma

Unfortunately Aristotle never states clearly what he means by this kind of pneuma

Adding difficulty the attachment of the epithet symphyton which would make it easier is

often omitted Even so there can be taken for granted that connatural pneuma is denoting

something other than ordinary breath To all purpose the philosopher uses the expression

connatural pneuma to make allusion to the air that belongs to or is born in the body a sort

of air distinct from which is inhaled In De motu animalium160

for instance Aristotle claims

that all animals have such a pneuma and pull their powers thereof161

ll paὄὈὅ aὀἶ iὀἶἷἷἶ Ὀhἷ

whole body of living creatures contain some connate heat162

Hence one might think that

pneuma is peculiar to living organisms but in Generatione Animalium163

we are told that

ldquowaὈἷὄ iὅ pὄἷὅἷὀὈ iὀ ἷaὄὈh aὀἶ pneuma in water and soul-heat in all pneuma so that in aὅἷὀὅἷ all Ὀhiὀgὅ aὄἷ fὉll ὁf ὅὁὉlrdquoέ 164


160 703a 9 - 10 Ϊθα φαθα α α ξθα θηα τηφυθ α ξτθα τ

161 This point is addressed in De somno et vigilia II 456a 4 - 11

162 De juventute et senectute 469b 3-8

163 762a 20

164 This substance is analogous to the ether the element in the stars (θΪζΰθ α θ πθ ξ)

De generatione animalium 736b 39- 737a 1 Cf Morel 2008 p 52 Cf De Caelo 269a 31 270a 12 b 10 289a

15 where we are told that ether is ungenerated indestructible ( φγαθ α φγασθ θ θπ)

divine and endowed with circular motion Cf etiam De longitudine et brevitate vitae 465b 1 - 3



32

In any case connatural pneuma is by definition not brought in from outside (

ασθ)165

herewith there could be pressumed that this air is drawn or arising from

digestion instead166

In De respiratione as well it is recounted that some buzzing insects

make the noise they emit by means of collapsing the pneuma that these animals withhold167

as if they were panting or breathing violently168

Insects and the rest of animals lacking of

blood provide another argument for the existence of this connatural pneuma Contrariwise to

what occurs in vertebrates it is said that non sanguineous animals actually cool down the

temperature in their bodies just with the connatural pneuma 169

whereas sanguineous animals

require air or water to do so

Connatural pneuma seems to allude also to soulacutes basical function since that is put in

motion when the soul ndash insofar as sufficient and efficient cause for embryonary development

- originates movement170

The growth of the embryo in utero is considered a movement too

ἴὉὈ ὁf a ὃὉaὀὈiὈaὈivἷ ὅὁὄὈ (αιβ α φγ)έ171 Pneuma is the motional constituent of the

soul Since in her primer form soul is said to be set and located in the heart172

then pneuma

or else named arche (ξ) is iὀ ὄappὄὁἵhἷmἷὀὈ wiὈh hἷaὈ aὀἶ Ὀhἷ ldquocirculatoryoscillatory

ὅyὅὈἷmrdquo hἷὄἷwiὈh iὀ ἵhaὄgἷ aὀἶ ὄἷὅpὁὀὅiἴlἷ ὁf mὁvἷmἷὀὈ iὀ aὀimalὅέ χὄiὅὈὁὈlἷacuteὅ ἵὁὀἵἷὄὀ iὅ

to know how soul does actually set the body in motion and which is the principle of

movement within an animal

165 De partibus animalium 659b 17-1λμ (ὅἵέ ηφυθ θηα) Ϊξ φτ ᾶ α γταγθ

ασθ θέ ἑfέ Jaἷgἷὄ μ 1λ1ἁ pέ ἂἄέ

166 Reiche 1960 p 9

167 475a 8-14 α ΰ θ οσφθ θτηα θ γηαθθα θ α ΰ ηα ηφτ

θτηα αηΫθ α υθθ υηαθ θ ηΫθα ΰθγα οθ

168 This is expressed by the participial form υθθ which is also used in 479a 27

169 De partibus animalium II 16 659b 13-18 Τ η θαηα α υηφτ θτηα τθαα ααοτξθ

ἈθΪΰβ ααοτξθ ιπγθ α Ϋέ

170 De motu animalium 703a 28-9 ᾧ ηθ θ θῖ θυηΫθ η ουξά βα α θ ααθ

171 Beside the other basic forms of motion ie lὁἵal mὁvἷmἷὀὈ ὁὄ ὈὄaὀὅlaὈiὁὀ (φ) generation and corruption

(ΰθθβ α φγ) and qualitative or alteration (ζζπ)έ ἑfέ δaiacuteὀ EὀὈὄalgὁ μ 1λκἅ pέ 1ἀ1έ

172 De motu animalium 703a 9-22 ξ ῖ ηθ θ αᾳ ῖ θ θΪζΰθ α

θηα τηφυθ θαγα φαθα θέ



33

ΙὀaὅmὉἵh aὅ Ὀhἷ fὉὀἵὈiὁὀὅ ὁf movement are thrusting and pulling the organ of movement

must be capable of expanding and contracting and this is precisely the characteristic of the

heart173

In the introduction to De anima Aristotle says that the function of the connatural

breath is to transmit psychical stimuli to the physical parts of the organism To put a

phyὅiὁlὁgiἵal θαη iὀ mὁὈiὁὀ iὀ ὁὈhἷὄ wὁὄἶὅ ὅὁ aὅ Ὀὁ havἷ aὀ ὁὄgaὀ ἴἷἷὀ pἷὄfὁὄmiὀg aὀ

activity according to what this very organ may actually be it is required of a stimulating

agent acting upon the same and pneuma is such an agency174

5) The Derveni Papyrus

Dating between 340 and 320 BC the Derveni papyrus is both the only papyrus-find

in Greece up to the present and the oldest known papyrus with Greek prose175

There is

widespread agreement that the Derveni papyrus - in fact a textual commentary - preserves a

work composed near the turn of the fifth century BC176

that can be plausibly thought to come

from hexameters attributed to Orpheus177

Prof West argues that the poem is but an abridged

version of a lost Orphic theogony composed around 500 BC the Protogonos Theogony178

Moreover in the opinion of Prof West again the cremated corpse withholding the roll was

that of an initiate in religions of mysteries179

a religious specialist who might have peddled

salvific rites in exchange of money180

So that the contents on the papyrus could well be a

reasoned report of the things said in the Derveni authoracutes initiation 181

173 De partibus animalium 669a 13-17

174 Laiacuten Entralgo 1987 p168

175 Tsantsanoglou et alii 2006 p 14

176 Opc pp 8 ndash 10

177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25

179 Ibid pp 3 ndash 4

180 Ibid pp 46 - 7

181 There are reasons to believe that the commented poem was used during Orphic ritual celebrations Cf

Bernabeacute 1999 p 310 Furthermore the grave of the finding is close to shrines devoted to Demeter and Kore



34

Having said this it would be really interesting to undertake this section contrasting the

perusal of pneuma in the papyrus alongside the same one but in regard to its cognate terms

air and ether For the sake of conciseness this is impossible but to put it all in a nutshell

there should be pointed out that according to columns XVII 3-5182

and XIX 3 ndash 7 183 the god

Zeus is an allegorical personification of air The main point notwithstanding is that AirZeus

is called Fate (Μῖαθ) ὁὀ aἵἵὁὉὀὈ ὁf Ὀhἷ wiὅἶὁm (φθβv) iὈ pὁὅὅἷὅὅἷὅ iὀ Ὀhἷ ὅἷὀὅἷ ὁf

divine providence or forethought184

This is the reason why Fate is amounted to Zeusacute

wiὅἶὁm (lsquoΜῖαθrsquo ᾽ lsquoζαrsquo ζΫΰθ θ φσθβθ) this being essentially

pictured as aeriform

As regards the ether the clue is to be found in column XIV 1-2 When particular

sentences like ldquohe swallowed the phallus who first ejaculated the etherrdquo185 are conjointed

beside claims such ldquohaving been (Uranus) separated from himself the brightest and the

hottestrdquo 186

and this altogether is considered in light of the Orphic mythical account whence

and as far as it goes first the Sky-god Uranus would have created ether by ejaculating

afterwards Zeus would have swallowed Skyacutes phallus herewith getting pregnant of the

cosmos187

then ether is undoubtedly deemed to mean heavenly or cosmic sperm for

somehow recalling Aristotleacutes views188

on the origin of the semen for the most refined

subtle (ζαησαθ) and the warmest (γηαθ) that a body may spring out is but sperm

182 Tsantsanoglou et alii 2006 pp 217 - 225

183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231

184 Col XVIII6 ndash 10 XIX4 - 7 In the fourth century BC the comic Menander uses the term pneuma in a way

suggesting that some of his contemporaries employed it to designate the power controlling human affairs

Fragmenta 482-3 θ ΰ ζΫθ θγθ θ θ ζζ τξβ ( θηα γῖθ

θ) υθθ αθα α Ϋφθ α θ σθα γθβ αθ α φζάθαφ Plato

does also resort to the image of αθ when in the Phaedo 70a is discussed the destiny of the soul

185 Column XIII4 in Tsantsanoglou et alii 2006 p 87 ldquoαῖθ αθθ αγα γ rdquoέ

186 It is said that ether is []γβ θ ζαησαθ α γηαθ ξπγθ φ᾽πυ Cf Opcsupr p

197-8

187 Col XIII 4 Ibid p 194 This is the interpretation that Bernabeacute shares with Burkert this latter translating

ldquowhὁ fiὄὅὈ ἷjaἵὉlaὈἷἶ Ὀhἷ ἷὈhἷὄrdquoέ ἑfέ ἐἷὄὀaἴeacute μ 1λλλ pέ ἁἀἁέ ἦhiὅ pὁiὀὈ iὅ ὈhὁὄὁὉghly ἶiὅἵὉὅὅἷἶ iὀ Tsantsanoglou

et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66

188 It might be worth bringing up what Aristotle says in De generatione animalium 716a 15 - 16 α θ

ζ θ ΰ φτθ γζυ α ηβΫα θηυθ αθθ α ζθ θ ζζπθ θ τπθ

ΰθθθα α αΫα αΰτυθ



35

Anyway when it comes to study the signification and the usage of pneuma in the papyrus a

novelty is what firstly one may stumble upon Before the finding it was thought that

Posidonius of Apamea (ca 135 ndash 51 BC) was the first philosopher to liken God to pneuma189

The Derveni papyrus bears new witness of the fact that such a equation could have been

posited much earlier even though not in that far individualised manner Pneuma is displayed

twice and consecutively in column XVIII 3-4190

θ Ϋ [θ] ηα σθ ᾽ θ

θηα φ θσηαθ Μῖαθ What Orpheus calls Fate (Μῖαθ) is the pneuma (᾽

θ θηα φ θσηαθ Μῖαθ) which is all other things that are situated in the

air (this having been previously amounted to Mind) If all other things that are situated in

aiὄήεiὀἶ ldquoaὄἷrdquo Ὀhἷ wiὀἶ ἵallἷἶ ἔate in the sense that they are causally determined by this

wiὀἶ aὀἶ aὄἷ ὈhὉὅ ὅaiἶ ldquoὈὁ ἴἷrdquo ὈhaὈ whiἵh ἶἷὈἷὄmiὀἷὅ Ὀhἷm Ὀhἷ mὁὈiὁὀ ὁf aiὄήε ind which is

called Fate does actually frame and shape the cosmos Then pneuma can be plausibly

aὅὅὉmἷἶ Ὀὁ mἷaὀ ldquowiὀἶrdquo ὅὁ ὈhaὈ Ὀhἷ aiὄ iὀ mὁὈiὁὀ iὅ ὄἷὅἷmἴlἷἶ Ὀὁ Ὀhἷ ἷὈἷὄὀal aὀἶ all-

pervading mind of the divine (Μῖα φσθβ γ α [] αθσ)

189 Stobaeus Eclogae 1129b20 ltΠθgt θηα θθ α υ ξθ ηθ ηφάθ

ηαΪζζθ τζα α υθιητηθθ ᾶθ This is what Stobeus reports to be Posidoniusacute

answer to the question Τ υΪπθ θ θπθν or Τ γσ this is What is God Cf Hill 1967 pp 204 -

205

190

Tsantsanoglou et alii 2006 pp 222 - 228



36

6) Conclusions

Despite diverging into dramatically modified versions there could be easily traced

back in the bygone Greek thought a trend betting on air as the most suitable element

accounting metaphysical principles to wit god the cosmos and man or what is more it

seems indeed that it was precisely the fact of holding another principle than air what did

actually constitute the exception

It suffices to take a look at the opinions the Pre-Socratics maintained to pose that at a

certain stage air ceased to be regarded as a mere worldly element to give up to a somewhat

interiorized sense The signification that pneuma takes among Pre-Socratics basically

depends on two factors which element is considered the preeminent and which part of the

body is the most important (for that is also likely to be the emplacement of the soul) It looks

that from the sixth century BC pneuma was predicated of the soul meaning a substance

identical or akiὀ Ὀὁ ldquoaiὄrdquo aὀἶ that from the fifth century at least the idea of life was

associated with the term So that respiration movement breath and motion are set forward as

being in reliance from the very beginning Movement implies life what is prone to move is

alive and what is alive is liable to perish In none of the passages cited however is the term

individualised so as to denote the soul of a person or the human spirit assumed as the seat or

organ of psychic life Pneuma remains a term of substance constituting the soul and a sort of

reservoir of soul-stuff or life-principle It would seem that pneuma remains as the name of a

substance refined ethereal penetrating the whole cosmos but not yet immaterial the

substance of which God and the human soul are composed it denotes neither the human

spirit nor personal divine spirit

With the concept of pneuma happened just the opposite to which W Nestle argued in

his classic Vom Mythos zum Logos for despite having been mainly forged and displayed

amid scientific accounts pneuma will end up taking a religious connotation completely other

than the one it had in origin In his propensity to turn it all upside down for the sake of

material causes Aristotle is perhaps the capstone of such a process By contrast the Derveni

papyrus appears to bear witness against the mainstream



37

Thus religious accounts to come resorting to pneuma might have borrowed the Orphic-

Platonic signification therein or else banished its medical meaning At any rate what cannot

be denied from a rational stance is the fact that when it comes to explain how generation

respiration or movement take place it is resorted to pneuma this standing for life and the

different ways by which this is conceived Hence again our heading query is it possible to

live on air

The question as such was chosen obviously due to its challenging chrematistic

resonances but also on purpose and in light of the ambivalence that pneuma brings along

between alimentation on the one hand and respiration on the other ambiguity that this

dissertation has evinced all through But before giving any hasty conclusion and by way of

contrast we see that when pneuma this internal and warm air related to blood is put

alongside its proper kindred concepts it comes out that in general air is external cold - or

neither warm ndash nor necessarily mixed with blood whereas ether is entirely external warm

unchangeable and unmixed with blood

Finally there should be reminded that the dissertation has brought light to a pair of

incompatible functions in regard to respiration deglutition and ejaculation To argue for

which one is the primer would be pointless since it has been sufficiently vindicated that the

second follows the first thus the diatribe is bound to make clear which is prevalent nutrition

or respiration Thereby the importance of Empedocles as well as some points in this way

seemingly suggested in De spiritu but as a matter of fact Aristotle is who once again nails

the issue the best In being the heir of a long tradition dealing with it he has more elements to

hinge pneuma according to his own theoretical convenience In nuce there could be

reasonably affirmed that pneuma accounts for respiration this is the maintenance and

perseveration of life precisely when animals cannot and do not breathe (for being in utero

sive in ovo) Having said all this if we were to be asked our answer would be a categorical

affirmation it is definitely possible to live on pneuma up to the extent that it would be

impossible to live without






2

Table of Contents

1) Introduction pp 4 - 6


21) Xenophanes of Colophon and Anaximenes pp 6 ndash 8

22) Empedocles pp 8 - 14

23) Pythagorean fragments pp 14 - 16

24) Diogenes of Apollonia pp 16 - 18

3) Plato pp 18 - 23

4) Aristotle pp 23 - 33

5) The Derveni papyrus pp 33 - 35

6) Conclusions pp 36 - 37




3

Abstract






















4


ΰ Ϊηαθ Ϋα


1) Introduction

























anima 412b 14



5

























3


υθάϑαθέ






5 Hill 1967 p 202

6

Cancik 2000 p 1181



6




























7 1992 p 538


θηα

9 De Witt 1918 pp 20 - 21

10

Hill 1967 p 203



7


matter11



this primordial






As


but

























17




8




22) Empedocles








20






the leader of


The one


Despite




18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19










9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























3

Abstract






















4


ΰ Ϊηαθ Ϋα


1) Introduction

























anima 412b 14



5

























3


υθάϑαθέ






5 Hill 1967 p 202

6

Cancik 2000 p 1181



6




























7 1992 p 538


θηα

9 De Witt 1918 pp 20 - 21

10

Hill 1967 p 203



7


matter11



this primordial






As


but

























17




8




22) Empedocles








20






the leader of


The one


Despite




18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19










9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























4


ΰ Ϊηαθ Ϋα


1) Introduction

























anima 412b 14



5

























3


υθάϑαθέ






5 Hill 1967 p 202

6

Cancik 2000 p 1181



6




























7 1992 p 538


θηα

9 De Witt 1918 pp 20 - 21

10

Hill 1967 p 203



7


matter11



this primordial






As


but

























17




8




22) Empedocles








20






the leader of


The one


Despite




18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19










9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























5

























3


υθάϑαθέ






5 Hill 1967 p 202

6

Cancik 2000 p 1181



6




























7 1992 p 538


θηα

9 De Witt 1918 pp 20 - 21

10

Hill 1967 p 203



7


matter11



this primordial






As


but

























17




8




22) Empedocles








20






the leader of


The one


Despite




18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19










9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























6




























7 1992 p 538


θηα

9 De Witt 1918 pp 20 - 21

10

Hill 1967 p 203



7


matter11



this primordial






As


but

























17




8




22) Empedocles








20






the leader of


The one


Despite




18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19










9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























7


matter11



this primordial






As


but

























17




8




22) Empedocles








20






the leader of


The one


Despite




18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19










9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























8




22) Empedocles








20






the leader of


The one


Despite




18 Jaeger 1963 pp 212 - 213

19










9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























9


but this






























the bibliography



28




10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























10









clepsydra

29



















30 Last 1924 pp 169 - 173





32




11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























11





























35 Opcsupr 473a 15





18 and 963a 1



12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























12






























37

Furley 1957 pp 32 - 33



13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























13












merely theoretical




could have been



















41 Jaeger 1963 pp 61 - 62



2003 p 488



44




14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























14












47

and Aristotle

48

























θ φτθ αθ





15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























15


































57




16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























16











The divinisation



62











432










divinities







17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























17











activity
























67




18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























18





breath69





by Vindician and is







3) Plato
















p 212 17


72




19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























19











The reason















73 Phaedo 112 b - c












20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























20










It is












79De Witt 1918 p 16

80 Timaeus 77a - c















84 Timaeus 79a 5 - 79e 3

85




21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























21























treatise89




medicine90





86 Harris 1973 p 120

87 Hill 1967 p 202



90

Jaeger 1945 p 20



22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























22





nature














sense96




in






91 Thaetetus 152b







94 Philebus 29a






99

Jaeger 1945 p 18



23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























23

4) Aristotle









the other

101






As regards










αα θ

101 Harris 1973 p 164












24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























24

















the heart109


Therefore life











111 Opc supr 470a 5-7











25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























25














to





Since



reads that breath







Ϋθ



118 Opcsupr 478a 11 - 16

119 Ibid 475b 15 - 19






soul herself



26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























26










the food126








and


The primary









123 De spiritu 483a 18 - 23

124 Opcsupr 483b 15 - 18


this nutritive soul




windpipe







27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























27






















though this very



131 Opcsupr p 56


133 717b 33 - 718a 5




1 9 736b 37 737b 36 742a 14 747a 8 762a 20 775b 1 781a 24 33 787b 416 788a 19 789b 11




the bibliography



28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























28


emanation137
































σγθ



29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























29






Democritus145













a























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























30












In the last









It would


to ebullition

158




152 Μorel 2008 p 47






Entralgo 1987 p 120

155 Morel 2008 p 45

156 Cf supr n 82


158




31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























31






















we are told that






163 762a 20







32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























32


ασθ)165


















then pneuma







166 Reiche 1960 p 9













33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























33



heart173









There is

















177 Ibid p 20

178 Ibid p 24 - 25


180 Ibid pp 46 - 7





34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























34















hottestrdquo 186




cosmos187






183 Opc supr pp 229 - 231








197-8



et alii 2006 p 26-27 esp n 66






35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























35



















205

190




36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























36

6) Conclusions






























37






live on air



























37






live on air




























Is It Possible to Live on Air.doc-libre

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