Irrigation system of Pakistan

Project and Report 1 Irrigation System of Pakistan

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Submitted To Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash

Subject Title Project and Report 1

Subject Code AENG-601

Report Title Irrigation System of Pakistan

By

Zia-ul-Hassan 2011-ag-2717

Pervez Akhtar 2011-ag-2778

Hafiz Ali Raza 2011-ag-2788

M. Waqas Sarwar 2011-ag-2793

Hamza Khalil 2011-ag-2902

Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology

University of Agriculture Faisalabad

Project and Report 1


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Declaration

We hereby declare that contents of this report ―Irrigation System of Pakistan‖ are the product of

our own study and no part as been copied from any published source (Except the references,

tables, figures etc.). We further declare that this work has not been submitted for award of any

other diploma /degree.


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Dedicated

To

Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash

Dean Faculty of Agricultural Engineering & Technology

University of Agriculture Faisalabad.

Our Guide

Who inspired us for this Remarkable work.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise to ALLAH, lord of all the worlds, the most Affectionate, the most Merciful, who

taught writing by pen, taught me what I knew not. After the Almighty Allah, all praise and

thanks to the Holly Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). Who is forever a model of guidance and

knowledge for humanity.

If there were dreams to sell, marry and sad to tell and crier rings the bell, what would you

buy? , we will say that ―University Charming Days‖. Actually it is impossible, but it shows my

blind love to this institution which is homeland of knowledge, wisdom and intellectuality. We

are proud of being the students of this university.

The work presented in this manuscript was accomplished under the sympathetic attitude,

fatherly behavior, animate direction, observant pursuit, scholarly criticism, cheering perspective

and enlightened supervision of Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash, Dean Faculty of Agricultural

Engineering and Technology UAF. His thorough analysis and rigorous critique improved not

only improve the quality of this dissertation, but also our overall understanding in irrigation

system of Pakistan. We are grateful to his ever inspiring guidance, keen interest, scholarly

comments and constructive suggestions throughout the course of our studies.

May Allah almighty infuse us with the energy to fulfill his noble inspiration and expectation and

to further modify our competence. May Allah bless him with long happy and peaceful life

(Aameen).


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Contents History of Irrigation...............................................................................................12

1.1 What is Irrigation? ............................................................................................................................. 12

1.1.1 Objectives of Irrigation: ............................................................................................................. 12

1.1.2 Water Resources for Irrigation: ................................................................................................. 12

1.2 History of Irrigation in World: ........................................................................................................... 13

1.3 History of Irrigation in Sub-Continent: .............................................................................................. 14

1.4 Irrigation in Pakistan: ........................................................................................................................ 15

1.5 Irrigation System: .............................................................................................................................. 15

1.5.1 Components of Irrigation System: ............................................................................................. 16

Indus Basin Irrigation System ..............................................................................18

2.1 Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 18

2.2 Salient Features of IBIS: .................................................................................................................... 19

2.3 Salient Features of Main Rivers: ....................................................................................................... 20

2.3.1 Sutlej River: ................................................................................................................................ 20

2.3.2 Ravi River: .................................................................................................................................. 21

2.3.3 Chenab River: ............................................................................................................................. 22

2.3.4 Jehlum River: .............................................................................................................................. 23

2.3.5 Indus River: ................................................................................................................................ 24

2.4 Disputes on Indus River Water: ........................................................................................................ 27

2.4.1 Controversy over Water Distribution of IRS Between Provinces:.............................................. 27

2.5 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................................ 31

Departmental Structure of Irrigation System .....................................................33

3.1 Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 33

3.2 Federal Level: .................................................................................................................................... 33

3.2.1 WAPDA: ...................................................................................................................................... 33

3.2.2 IRSA: ........................................................................................................................................... 33

3.3 Provisional Level: .............................................................................................................................. 37

3.3.1 Provincial Irrigation and Power Department: ............................................................................ 37


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3.3.2 Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA): ...................................................................... 37

3.3.3 Area Water Boards (AWB): ........................................................................................................ 38

3.3.4 Farmer Organization: ................................................................................................................. 39

3.4 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................................ 39

Dams and Barrages of Pakistan............................................................................40

4.1 Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 40

4.2 Dams of Pakistan: .............................................................................................................................. 40

4.2.1 Dams of Azad Kashmir: .............................................................................................................. 40

4.2.2 Dams of Baluchistan:.................................................................................................................. 40

4.2.3 Dams of FATA: ............................................................................................................................ 43

4.2.4 Dams of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: .................................................................................................. 43

4.2.5 Dams of Punjab: ......................................................................................................................... 44

4.2.6 Operational Small Dams in Punjab: ........................................................................................... 45

4.2.7 Dams of Federally Administered Tribal Areas:........................................................................... 46

4.3 Major Dams in Pakistan: ................................................................................................................... 47

4.3.1 Tarbela Dam: .............................................................................................................................. 47

4.3.2 Mangla Dam: .............................................................................................................................. 52

4.3.3 Chashma Reservoir: ................................................................................................................... 57

4.3.4 Loss of Reservoir Capacities: ...................................................................................................... 57

4.4 Barrages of Pakistan:......................................................................................................................... 58

4.4.1 Chashma Barrage: ...................................................................................................................... 59

4.4.2 Taunsa Barrage: ......................................................................................................................... 60

4.4.3 Jinnah Barrage:........................................................................................................................... 61

4.4.4 Guddu Barrage: .......................................................................................................................... 62

4.4.5 Sukkar Barrage: .......................................................................................................................... 63

4.4.6 Kotri Barrage: ............................................................................................................................. 64

4.4.7 Rasul Barrage: ............................................................................................................................ 65

4.4.8 Marala Barrage: ......................................................................................................................... 66

4.4.9 Khanki Barrage: .......................................................................................................................... 67

4.4.10 Qadirabad Barrage: .................................................................................................................. 68

4.4.11 Trimmu Barrage: ...................................................................................................................... 69


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4.4.12 Panjnad Barrage: ...................................................................................................................... 70

4.4.13 Balloki Barrage: ........................................................................................................................ 71

4.4.14 Sidhnai Barrage: ....................................................................................................................... 72

4.4.15 Sulemanki Barrage: .................................................................................................................. 73

4.4.16 Islam Barrage: .......................................................................................................................... 74

4.5 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................................ 75

Canal System of Pakistan ......................................................................................76

5.1 What is Canal?................................................................................................................................... 76

5.2 Canal System of Pakistan: ................................................................................................................. 76

5.2.1 Types of canals in Pakistan: ....................................................................................................... 76

5.3 Link Canals:........................................................................................................................................ 77

5.3.1 Chashma-Jehlum Link Canal: ...................................................................................................... 77

5.3.2 Tauns-Punjnad Link Canal: ......................................................................................................... 77

5.3.3 Marala-Ravi Link Canal: .............................................................................................................. 77

5.3.4 Upper-Chenab-Ravi Link Canal:.................................................................................................. 79

5.3.5 Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal: ...................................................................................................... 79

5.3.6 Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal: .................................................................................................... 79

5.3.7 Balloki-Sulemanki Link Canal: .................................................................................................... 79

5.3.8 Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal: ....................................................................................................... 79

5.3.9 Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal: .......................................................................................................... 79

5.3.10 Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal: ....................................................................................................... 79

5.3.11 Abasia Link Canal: .................................................................................................................... 79

5.3.12 Bambanwala, Ravi & Bedian Link Canal: .................................................................................. 79

5.4.1 Canals on Ravi River: .................................................................................................................. 80

5.4.2 Canals of River Sutlej:................................................................................................................. 81

5.4.3 Canals on Chenab River: ............................................................................................................ 82

5.4.4 Canals on River Jehlum: ............................................................................................................. 85

5.4.5 Canals on Indus River: ................................................................................................................ 86

5.5 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................................ 91

Telemetry System ...................................................................................................93

6.1 Telemetry System: ............................................................................................................................ 93


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6.2 Applications of Telemetry System: ................................................................................................... 93

6.2.1 Agriculture: ................................................................................................................................ 94

6.2.2 Water Management: .................................................................................................................. 94

6.3 Telemetry System and Pakistan: ....................................................................................................... 94

6.3.1 Benefits: ..................................................................................................................................... 94

6.3.2 Current Status in Pakistan: ......................................................................................................... 95

6.3.3 Causes of Failure in Pakistan: ..................................................................................................... 95

6.4 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................................ 96

Problems of Irrigation System ..............................................................................97

7.1 Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 97

7.2 Major Problems of the Existing System: ........................................................................................... 97

7.2.1 Rigid System Design: .................................................................................................................. 97

7.2.2 Inadequate Drainage:................................................................................................................. 97

7.2.3 Low Delivery Efficiency and Inequitable Distribution: ............................................................... 98

7.2.4 Water-logging and Salinity: ........................................................................................................ 98

7.2.5 Over-exploitation of Groundwater in Fresh Water Areas: ........................................................ 99

7.3 Problems Caused by Inadequate Planning: ...................................................................................... 99

7.3.1 Inadequate Operation and Maintenance (O&M): ..................................................................... 99

7.3.2 Poor Investment Planning: ......................................................................................................... 99

7.4 Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................................... 100

Rainwater Harvesting and Management ...........................................................101

8.1 History: ............................................................................................................................................ 101

8.2 Rainwater Harvesting: ..................................................................................................................... 101

8.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques ................................................................................................... 101

8.3.1 Land-Based: .............................................................................................................................. 103

8.3.2 Roof-Based: .............................................................................................................................. 103

8.4 Factors Affecting on Rainwater Harvesting: ................................................................................... 104

8.4.1 Rainfall: .................................................................................................................................... 104

8.4.2 Land Cover: .............................................................................................................................. 104

8.4.3 Topography and Terrain Profile: .............................................................................................. 104

8.4.4 Soil Texture and Soil Depth: ..................................................................................................... 104


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8.4.5 Hydrology of Area: ................................................................................................................... 105

8.4.6 Social, Economic and Transportation Conditions: ................................................................... 105

8.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Affects:..................................................................................... 105

8.5 Rainwater Harvesting Advantages: ................................................................................................. 105

8.6 Rainwater Harvesting Disadvantages: ............................................................................................ 106

8.7 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Pakistan:..................................................................... 106

8.8 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Punjab: ....................................................................... 107

8.8.1 Focused Area: ........................................................................................................................... 107

8.9 Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................................... 113

Ground Water and Its Quality ...........................................................................115

9.1 Importance of Groundwater ........................................................................................................... 115

9.2 Groundwater Resources of Pakistan:.............................................................................................. 115

9.3 Historical Background: .................................................................................................................... 116

9.3.1 Groundwater Potential in Pakistan Provinces: ........................................................................ 116

9.4 Challenges of Groundwater Management: .................................................................................... 118

9.5 Ground Water Exploitation: ............................................................................................................ 118

9.6 Groundwater Depletion: ................................................................................................................. 120

9.7 Deterioration of Groundwater Quality Due to Salinization and Pollution: .................................... 122

9.7.1 Soil Salinization: ....................................................................................................................... 123

9.7.2 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts: ......................................................................... 123

9.8 SCARP Pilot Projects: ....................................................................................................................... 124

9.8.1 Achievements and Shortcomings of Completed Projects:....................................................... 125

9.9 Conclusion: ...................................................................................................................................... 126


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ABSTRACT

Pakistan is an agricultural country and its irrigation system relies heavily on availability of fresh

surface water. Pakistan has the world largest continuous irrigation system with three major

storage reservoirs, 19 barrages, 12 link canals, 46 main canals and thousands of hydraulic

structures. This was initiated in the last century and continuous to expand with more area coming

under canal irrigation.

This report takes stock of the present situation of water-resources, present needs and future

requirements; the challenges imposed, and suggest short, medium, and long-term strategies to

cope with the situation. The suggested short-term strategies include starting a mass-awareness

campaign, propagation of high-efficiency irrigation systems, changes in cropping-patterns,

identification of feasible surface-water storage sites and dams, and activation of water-user

organizations. The medium-term strategies suggest giving priority to lining of distributaries,

minors and watercourses in saline groundwater areas, construction of small dams and installation

of tube wells in technically feasible areas, improving flood and drought- forecasting methods,

and a much wider application of conjunctive water-use approach and propagation of high-

efficiency irrigation systems. Institutional reforms for better co-ordination and a wider

formulation of a national water-policy are other priority areas under the medium-term strategic

plan. Long term strategies include formulation of a regulatory framework on groundwater

abstraction, construction of large storage dams, better flood and drought-forecasting mechanisms

and resolving water-distribution problems between provinces. It is recommended that a National

Commission on Water, supported by an expert‘s panel, be created to steer the formulation of the

strategies and ensure the implementation of the strategies proposed.


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Chapter No. 01

History of Irrigation

1.1 What is Irrigation?

Artificial application of water to the soil through manually or mechanically managed

system for the purpose to;

Supply moisture essential for plant growth.

Encourage plant root development.

Cool the soil and atmosphere.

Create favorable condition for plant growth.

Transport nutrients from soil to plant.

It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscape

and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.

Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting

plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. In

contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land

farming.

1.1.1 Objectives of Irrigation:

Following are some objectives of irrigation;

To Supply Water Partially or Totally for Crop Need.

To Cool both the Soil and the Plant.

To Leach Excess Salts.

To improve Groundwater storage.

To Facilitate continuous cropping.

To Enhance Fertilizer Application- Fertigation.

1.1.2 Water Resources for Irrigation:

Following are the water resources for irrigation;

1. Surface Water.

2. Rainfall/Precipitation.

3. Groundwater.

Surface water is diverted to the fields by the use of rivers, canals, channels etc.

Rainfall/Precipitation may directly fall into the fields; groundwater is abstracted from soil and

diverted to the fields.


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1.2 History of Irrigation in World:

History of irrigation in the world is very old. Archaeological investigation has identified

evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops. Perennial

irrigation was practiced in the Mesopotamian plain whereby crops were regularly watered

throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small channels formed in

the field.

Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate

land plots which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the fertile

sediment had settled before the surplus was returned to the watercourse. There is evidence of the

ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the

natural lake of the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry

seasons, the lake swelled annually from flooding of the Nile, (Wikipedia).

The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a waterwheel-like device

called a sakia. Irrigation began in Nubia sometime between the third and second millennium

BCE. It largely depended upon the flood waters that would flow through the Nile River and other

rivers in what is now the Sudan, (Wikipedia).

In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and

civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding and

water harvesting, (Wikipedia).

Terrace irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and

China. In the Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists found remains of three

irrigation canals radiocarbon dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the 3rd millennium BCE and

the 9th century CE. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World. Traces of

a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found under the 4th millennium

canal. Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley

Civilization in present-day Pakistan and North India, including the reservoirs at Girnar in 3000

BCE and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Large scale agriculture was

practiced and an extensive network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation, (Wikipedia).

Ancient Persia (modern day Iran) as far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley

was grown in areas where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support such a

crop. The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia in about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known

irrigation methods still in use today. They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North

Africa. The system comprises a network of vertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into

the sides of cliffs and steep hills to tap groundwater. The noria, a water wheel with clay pots

around the rim powered by the flow of the stream (or by animals where the water source was


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still), was first brought into use at about this time, by Roman settlers in North Africa. By 150

BCE the pots were fitted with valves to allow smoother filling as they were forced into the water.

The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300 BCE, in

the reign of King Pandukabhaya and under continuous development for the next thousand years,

were one of the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground

canals, the Sinhalese were the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. Due to

their engineering superiority in this sector, they were often called ―masters of irrigation‖. Most of

these irrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now, in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa,

because of the advanced and precise engineering. The system was extensively restored and

further extended during the reign of King Parakrama Bahu (1153–1186 CE), (Wikipedia).

Following are some historical facts about irrigation;

Joseph Canal (1900 B.C).

Greatest system inherited by Ramses II.

World‘s oldest Dam (3100 B.C).

Alhazen (Aswin Dam).

Community of Saba (Marib Dam).

Kanates/Karez in Baluchistan.

Irrigation in China (Tu-kiang Dam).

Western Jamuna Canal systems.

1.3 History of Irrigation in Sub-Continent:

In the recorded history of Sub-Continent, practices of irrigation can be found back to the

8th

century when Muslim rulers differentiated between irrigated and un-irrigated land for the

purpose of levying tax. There is evidence that irrigation has been practiced in the Sub-Continent

along the Indus system of rivers from 3000 B.C. In the beginning, only the narrow strips of land

along the river banks were irrigated, but with time, irrigation was extended to other nearby areas

by breaching the banks or the natural levies of the rivers to bring water to the low lying fields.

This was done only during high water periods.

The first canal was constructed some five or six centuries ago and extended under the

Mughal Emperors. The early canals were inundation channels and delivered water to the fields

when rivers were in high flow during the summer. They tended to be unpredictable in operation

and subjected both to frequent breaches and serious siltation problems. The next stage in the

evaluation of the Irrigation System was construction of perennial canals having permanent

headworks. These headworks either did not extend across the entire stream or allowed the floods

to pass over their crests. The first evidence of perennial irrigation on any of the Indus rivers dates

back to early seventeenth century when a 80 Km long canal was constructed by the Mughal

Emperor Jahangir (reigned 1605-27) to bring water from the right bank of the Ravi to the

pleasure gardens of Sheikhpura.

The present elaborate system of the Western Jamuna canal is believed to have been

based on a system initiated by Feroze Shah Tughlaq. Hasli canal leading off the Ravi which


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forms the nucleus of Upper Bari Doab canal was constructed by Ali Mardan Khan, an engineer

and governor of Punjab.

Upper Bari Doab canal at Madhopur headwork was constructed in 1858 and started

irrigation about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from

Ravi‖ (Biswas, 1992pp.202).

In the middle of the 19th

century when British took control there were only a few

inundation canals in Sub-Continent. By the end of 19th

century a number of separate inundation

systems were developed for each river. At the end of 19th

century efforts were also made to

construct a weir controlled irrigation system. The inundation systems were merged with various

perennial irrigation schemes when they were completed.

Table 1.1 ―Continent wise Irrigated Areas‖ (Million Acres)*

Continent 1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 1985 2000

Europe 8.6 19.8 24.7 37.1 51.87 74.1 111.2

Asia 74.1 123.5 160.5 333.5 419.90 543.4 574.1

Africa 6.2 9.9 12.35 17.3 22.23 29.6 44.56

North America 9.9 22.2 32.1 42.0 61.75 79.0 86.5

South America 1.2 3.7 7.4 12.0 17.29 24.7 37.1

Australia Oceania 0 0.7 1.24 2.5 3.95 5.4 7.4

*Figures rounded to one place of decimal. Source: Irrigation and Hydraulic Structure by Dr. Iqbal Ali.

1.4 Irrigation in Pakistan:

The irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest integrated irrigation network in the world

serving approximately 18 million ha of cultivated land. There are 3 major storage reservoirs, 19

barrages, 12 inter-river link canals, 45 independent irrigation canal commands and over

140,000 watercourses. The water of the Indus River and its principal tributaries (the Kabul, the

Swat, and Kunar from the West, and the Jehlum, the Chenab, from the East) feed the system. The

concept of participation of a farming community in irrigated agriculture in Indo-Pak

subcontinent is not new as it has been practiced since time immemorial (Gill 1998). The civil

canals in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan are an example of Participatory

Irrigation Management (PIM) and these have been constructed, operated and maintained by the

stakeholders since long (1568-1800). Irrigation development in Pakistan started on a technical

foundation in the latter part of 19 century with major objectives to reduce the risk of famine and

maintain political and social stability (Stone 1984).

1.5 Irrigation System:

The irrigation system was designed with an objective to optimize the production per unit

of available water, ensuring equitable distribution between canals, branches and also among the

off takes (outlets). The duty (area irrigated by unit discharge during the base period) was fixed


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relatively high in order to irrigate more land with low cropping intensities. Another design

objective was to keep the administrative and operational requirements and cost as low as possible

and therefore the number of control structures in the canals was kept to a minimum. The

irrigation intensity was also kept low at an average of 75 percent. This design practice is known

as protective irrigation (Jurriens 1993, Jurriens et al. 1996).

1.5.1 Components of Irrigation System:

Following are the components of an irrigation system,

Watershed

River

Dam

Barrage

Canals (Link, Main, Branch, Major and Minor)

Watercourse

Fig 1.1: ―Components of Irrigation System‖

Watershed receive rainfall and contributes to the formation of river, dams and barrages are

storage structures and rise the head of water, link canals deliver water from one river to another

river, main canal takes its supply from river and water of main canal is used for irrigation

through branch, major, minor and watercourse. In next pages we will discuss these components

of an irrigation system one by one.


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References:

Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September

1993.

Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), ―Ten Year Perspective Development

Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04‖.



http://www.tbl.com.pk/indus-basin-irrigation-system-of-pakistan/

Dillehay TD, Eling HH Jr, Rossen J (2005). "Preceramic irrigation canals in the Peruvian

Andes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (47): 17241

4.doi:10.1073/pnas.0508583102. PMC 1288011.PMID 16284247

Snyder, R. L.; Melo-Abreu, J. P. (2005). "Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and

economics" (PDF). Volume 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations. ISSN 1684-8241

Siebert, S.; J. Hoogeveen, P. Döll, J-M. Faurès, S. Feick, and K. Frenken (2006-11-

10). "Tropentag 2006 – Conference on International Agricultural Research for

Development" (PDF). Bonn, Germany. Retrieved 2007-03-14.

Provenzano, Giuseppe (2007). "Using HYDRUS-2D Simulation Model to Evaluate

Wetted Soil Volume in Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems". J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 133 (4):

342–350.doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(342)

http://www.tbl.com.pk/indus-basin-irrigation-system-of-pakistan/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Dillehay

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1288011


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier

http://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0508583102

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16284247

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/008/y7223e/y7223e00.pdf

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/008/y7223e/y7223e00.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number

http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1684-8241

http://www.tropentag.de/2006/abstracts/full/211.pdf

http://www.tropentag.de/2006/abstracts/full/211.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier

http://dx.doi.org/10.1061%2F%28ASCE%290733-9437%282007%29133%3A4%28342%29


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Chapter No. 02

Indus Basin Irrigation System

2.1 Introduction:

Pakistan‘s Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the strong heart of the country‘s

economy. Its creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original

system (1847-1947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and

institutions (particularly the Water and Power Development Authority [WAPDA] and the

provincial irrigation departments) who have spent the last 60 years adding new dams and

barrages, building new link and branch canals, and modernizing and maintaining the world‘s

most complex and extensive irrigation system. From the 1950s onward, the IBIS has also been

the product of the generosity and intellectual input of a host of international experts and

international institutions, particularly the World Bank (Shahid, 2009).

The Indus River rises in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar. It flows

in Tibet for about 200 miles before it enters Ladakh, (part of Kashmir under Indian control) and

then flows on towards Gilgit in Pakistan. Flowing through the North in a southerly direction

along the entire length of Pakistan, it falls into the Arabian Sea near Pakistan‘s port city of

Karachi. With a total length of 3,200 km (1,988 miles), the river‘s estimated annual flow is

approximately 207 billion m3. The Indus River feeds ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and

arid countryside. Its five major tributaries are the Jehlum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the

Sutlej (also having origin in Tibetan plateau). Another two tributaries of the Indus, the Kabul and

the Kurram, rise in Afghanistan. Most of the Indus basin lies in Pakistan and India, with about 13

per cent of the total catchment area of the basin situated in Tibet and Afghanistan. The Indus

drainage basin area is shared by Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and China.

Table 2.1 ―Co-riparian States in Indus River Basin‖

Basin Name Total Area of

Basin in Km2

Country Name Area of

Country in

Basin in Km2

Per cent area of

country in basin (%)

Indus

1,138,800 Pakistan 597,700 52.48

India 381,600 33.51

China 76,200 6.69

Afghanistan 72,100 6.33

Chinese control

claimed by India

9,600 0.84

Indian control

claimed by China

1,600 0.14

Nepal 10 0.00

Source: ASIA: International River Basin registers.


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The Indus River system is the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world with a

command area of 20 million hectares and an annual irrigation capacity of over 12 million

hectares. Irrigation in the Indus River basin dates back centuries; by the late 1940s the irrigation

works along the river were the most extensive in the world. These irrigation projects had been

developed over the years under one political authority that of British India, and any water

conflict could be resolved by executive order. The Government of India Act of 1935, however,

put water under provincial jurisdiction, and some disputes did begin to crop up at the sites of the

more extensive works, notably between the provinces of Punjab and Sindh.

2.2 Salient Features of IBIS:

Pakistan, with a Geographical area of 796,095 square kilometers, possesses large rivers,

like Indus which, along with its 5 tributaries, namely Chenab, Jehlum, Ravi, Kabul and Sutlej,

forms one of the mightiest River-Systems of the world. The River-System comprises 2 storage

reservoirs, 19 large rivers Headworks, 45 Canal Systems measuring 58,000 kilometers, some 1.6

million kilometers of water-courses and field Irrigation Channels. Pakistan has big rivers like

Indus, Chenab, Ravi, Jehlum and Sutlej, where discharges in summer season vary from 100

thousand Cusecs to 1,200 thousand Cusecs (3 thousand to 34 thousand comics) and can cause

tremendous loss to human lives, crops and property. Due to limited capacity of storage at Tarbela

and Mangla Dams on river Indus and Jehlum, with virtually no control on Chenab, Ravi and

Sutlej, devastating problems are faced between July and October in the event of excessive

rainfall in the catchments.

The Irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest integrated irrigation network in the world,

serving almost 18 million ha of contiguous cultivated land. The system is fed by the waters of the

Indus River and its tributaries. The salient features of the system are three major storage

reservoirs, namely, Tarbela and Chashma on River Indus, and Mangla on River Jehlum, with a

present live-storage of about 15.4 BM3 (12.5 MAF), 19 barrages; 12 inter-river link canals and

45 independent irrigation canal commands. The total length of main canals alone is 58,500 Km.

Water courses comprise another 1,621,000 Kms.

Indus Basin Irrigation System is the largest irrigation network of the world. Salient

Features of the system are given below;

Pakistan‘s Indus River Basin System comprises five main rivers, namely the Indus,

Jehlum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej.

IBIS is also aided by a number of smaller rivers (Kabul, Swat, Haro, Kunhar, Chitral,

Tochi, Shah Alam, Naguman, Adezai, Soan etc.) and streams/Nullahs, these five

rivers supply water to the entire Indus Basin Irrigation System.

These rivers have their origin in the higher altitudes and derive their flows mainly

from snow-melt and monsoon rains.

Catchment area of Indus is most unique in the sense that it contains seven (7) of the

world‘s highest peaks after Mount Everest. Among these include the K2 (28,253 ft.),

Nanga Parbat (26,600 ft.), Rakaposhi (25,552 ft.) etc.

Further to above, seven (7) glaciers situated in the Indus catchment are among the

largest in the world, namely, Siachin, Hispar, Biafo, Baltura, Baltoro, Barpu and

Hopper


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Fig 2.1: ―Rivers of Pakistan.‖

2.3 Salient Features of Main Rivers:

Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, Jehlum and Indus are the main rivers of Pakistan. Following are the

main features of these rivers;

2.3.1 Sutlej River:

Origin Western Tibet in the Kailas Mountain range and near the source of Rivers

Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra.

Length 960 miles/1536 Km

Catchment Area 47,100 Sq. miles/75,369 Sq.km (70% in India)

Pakistan portion Flows into Pakistan (Punjab) near Ferozepur and eventually joins Chenab 3

miles u/s Punjnad Barrage

Tributary Rivers Eight major tributaries (all except Rohi Nallah join Sutlej in India)

Largest Tributary River Beas (290 miles/464km), catchment area (6,200 Sq. miles/9,920

Sq.km)

Dams on the River Bhakra, Nangal, Pong, Pandoh (all in India),

Barrages on River Rupar Barrage, Harike Barrage, Ferozepur Barrage (India), Sulemanki &

Islam in Pakistan


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Fig 2.2: ―Schematic Diagram of Sutlej River Basin‖

2.3.2 Ravi River:

Origin Originates from the lesser Himalayas Range in India


Length of River Ravi

in Pakistan

422 miles

Catchment Area 15,600 Sq. miles/24,960Sq.km

Pakistan portion Runs almost along the Indo-Pak Border -15km d/s Madhopur to 20

miles u/s of Shahdara (58 miles)

Tributary Rivers Five major tributaries (Ujh, Bein, Basantar, Deg,

Hudiara nullahs – upper catchments lie in India)

Largest Tributary Deg Nullah (160 miles/256km), catchment area (456 Sq. miles/730

Sq.km)

Barrages on River Madhopur Headwork (India), Balloki & Sidhnai (Pakistan)

Annual Average Flow 1.47 MAF (0.93 kharif and 0.54 rabi)


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Fig 2.3: ―Schematic Diagram of Ravi River Basin‖

2.3.3 Chenab River:

Origin Forms at the confluence of streams Bhaga & Chandra which join at a

place called Tandi in Occupied Jammu & Kashmir state.

-Upper most part is snow covered and forms the North East part of

Himachal Pradesh

-From Tandi to Akhnur the river traverses through high mountains

Length 770 miles/1,232 Km

Catchment Area 26,100 Sq. miles/41,760 Sq.km

Pakistan portion The river enters Pakistan a little over Head Marala with very sharp

changes in slope (130 ft./mile above Tandi reduced to 2 ft./mile close to

Trimmu)

Tributary Rivers Twelve major tributaries (6 each in occupied Jammu & Kashmir and

Pakistan). Doara, Dowara, Halsi, Bhimber, Palku and Budhi join close to

Marala

Largest Tributary Palku Nullah (75 miles/120km), catchment area (793 Sq. miles/1,269

Sq.km)

Dams on the River Salal, Baglihar (India),

Barrages on River Marala, Khanki, Qadirabad, Trimmu, Punjnad (Pakistan)


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Fig 2.4: ―Schematic Diagram of Chenab River Basin‖

2.3.4 Jehlum River:

Origin Originates in the Kashmir Valley about 34 miles (54 km) east of Anant Nag.


Catchment Area 24,500 Sq. miles/ 39,200Sq.km

Pakistan portion -From Mangla to Jehlum city it moves southwards and then turns westwards

up to Khushab;

-Beyond this it moves south up to its confluence with River Chenab and

Trimmu;

-Slope up to Muzaffarabad is 35 ft./mile, 60 ft./mile up to Kohala, 10

ft./mile up to Mangla

Tributary Rivers Ten major tributaries (including Neelum/Kishan Ganga, Kunhar, Poonch,

Kanshi)

Largest Tributary Kishan Ganga/Neelumh (165 miles/264km), catchment area (2,480 Sq.

miles/3,968 Sq.km)

Barrages on River Mangla Dam, Rasul Barrage


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Fig 2.5: ―Schematic Diagram of Jehlum River Basin‖

2.3.5 Indus River:

Origin -One of the largest rivers of the world and the main river of the Indus

valley;

-Originates near lake Mansarovar on north of Himalayas range in the

mountain of Kailash Parbat in Tibet at an elevation of 18,000 ft.;

Length 925 miles/1,489 Km above Tarbela

Catchment Area 1,80,000 Sq. miles/2,88,000 Sq.km

Tributary Rivers Twenty seven (27) major tributaries above Guddu Barrage

Largest Tributary Shyoke river (400 miles/640km), catchment area (12,600 Sq.

miles/20,160 Sq.km)

Dams on the River Tarbela

Barrages on River Kalabagh, Chashma, Taunsa, Guddu, Sukkar, Kotri, Jinnah


Page 25 of 127

Fig 2.6: ―Schematic Diagram of Indus River Basin‖

Fig 2.7: ―Structures on Indus River System‖


Page 26 of 127

Fig 2.8: ―Schematic Diagram of Indus Basin Irrigation System‖


Page 27 of 127

2.4 Disputes on Indus River Water:

There was no question over water sharing in Sub-Continent till early 20th

century.

However, the situation changed after World War-I. There were several new projects like Thal,

Haveli, Bhakra Dam and Sutlej Valley canals in Punjab and Sukkar Barrage in Sindh were

proposed. It was first time in the history that some regions particularly Sindh as lower riparian,

felt that their river rights were threatened (Malik, 2011).The dispute of Indus Waters sharing

began long before the partition of India and Pakistan in the form of interstate differences

between the Punjab, Sindh, Bahawalpur, and Bikaner(Michal,1967).

Government of India acted as neutral third party and facilitated through negotiations.

Independent commissions were appointed to arbitrate in case of negotiation failure. ―The

situation was serious when Upper Bari Doab Canal was completed in 1858 and started irrigation

about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from Ravi‖

(Biswas, 1992pp.202).

2.4.1 Controversy over Water Distribution of IRS Between Provinces:

The dispute over water distribution of Indus River System (IRS) between provinces was

started in 1921 when British rulers started developing irrigation system with construction of new

barrages, canals and dams. Government of India appointed various committees to resolve the

water issue between provinces. Following committees & commissions were set up for

distribution of the Waters of the IRS between provinces:

Tripartite Agreement (1921) Indus Discharge Committee (1921)

SVP Inquiry Committee (1932)

Anderson Committee (1937) Rao Commission (1945)

Indus Water Treaty (1960)

Akhtar Hussain Committee (1968)

Fazle-e-Akbar Committee (1970)

Chief Justices Commission (1977)

Haleem Commission (1983)

a) The Tripartite Agreement (1921):

The first contract between Punjab province, Bahawalpur and Bikaner States was signed

in 1921. It was for distribution of waters of the Sutlej and Beas rivers. Bahawalpur State

protested against the provision of water supplies to the non-riparian Bikaner State on the ground

that the water was insufficient to meet the needs of the two riparian Punjab and Bahawalpur

State. The Government of India convinced the Punjab, Bahawalpur and Bikaner States to sign

the tripartite agreement. The agreement was based on three widely recognized water-right

principles as below:

A. Priority of existing use

B. Recognition of claims of riparian owners, and

C. Equitable apportionment regardless of history of use or of geographical location.


Page 28 of 127

b) The Indus Discharge Committee (1921):

Government of Bombay (Sindh was also part of Bombay presidency till 1935) objected

to Punjab‘s proposals for new projects. States of Bahawalpur and Bikaner were also demanding

for more water provisions. Different claims from Punjab and Sindh were referred to the

Secretary of State London. He sanctioned construction of Sutlej Valley Project (SVP) and

Sukkar Barrage with seven canals. Decision on the other projects was postponed till after more

reliable river flow data was available (Federal Planning cell, 1990).

In response to petitions and counter claims by Sindh and Punjab, Government of India

appointed the ―Indus Discharge Committee‖ in 1921. The committee scheduled to observe daily

discharge at several sites on the rivers and canals in Indus Plains. To improve the availability of

hydrological data for these and other concerned projects, Government of India suggested to the

provincial government a comprehensive network of gauge and discharge observation sites at all

important sites along Indus and its tributaries. Arrangements were also made between Sindh and

Punjab to cooperate in discharge observations and in procedures of keeping their record. Sindh

was also allowed to appoint resident engineers to observer river and canal discharge in Punjab.

The committee recommended project of Haveli Canal and pointed out that future projects

proposed by Punjab should be considered by taking into account the possible effect on Sindh

water rights. A two member ‗Nicholson Trench Committee‘ was appointed to study the

feasibility of Bhakra dam. In 1930, the committee in its report cleared Bhakra for construction.

c) SVP Inquiry Committee (1932):

Actual operations of SVP canals exposed that there was storage of supplies, especially in

early Kharif because actual river flows fell short of requirements. A committee was chosen in

1932 to look into the problem. It recommended exclusion of some areas in Bahawalpur State,

construction of new feeder canals and adjustment in the command areas of certain canals

(Federal Planning cell, 1990).

d) Anderson Committee (1937):

By the 1932, all the 11 SVP canals with four barrages and Sukkar Barrage project were

completed. A number of problems arose with the operation of these canals network. Bahawalpur

and Khairpur States wanted extra supplies. Punjab also asked for extra water for Haveli project.

In 1935, Government of India formed ―Committee of the Central Board of Irrigation on

Distribution of Waters of the Indus and Tributaries‖, known as the ―Anderson Committee‖. It

comprised representatives of K.PK, Bikaner, Khairpur and Government of India. It had eight

authorities to look into the matter and find a solution. Committee submitted its report in 1937. It

increased irrigation water supplies for Haveli and Thal projects. As regards Bhakra Dam, a

contract had already been reached between the governments of Bombay and Punjab in 1934. The

report cleared Haveli canal project which was started in 1934 and finished in 1939. Construction

of Kalabagh Barrage and Thal canal was started in 1939. But due to outbreak of World War II, it

was not commissioned till January, 1947.

e) Rao Commission (1945):

After the implementation of Government of India Act 1935, the development of river

waters became a provincial matter. Provinces were allowed to plan and start any work for

advancement of river waters passing through its territory. The Governor-General could interfere

only on receiving complaint by one province in contradiction of the other.


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On receipt of complaint by Government of Sindh against Punjab‘s proposal for increased

extractions of water from the rivers passing through its region, Government of India appointed a

Commission named ―Rao Commission‖ in September 1941. The commission had two chief

engineers namely ―P.B Hickey‖ and ―E.H Chave‖ as its members. Terms of reference of the

commission were to ―examine effects of water withdrawals on lowering of water levels in Sindh

to result from storing water in Bhakra Reservoir and from withdrawals allowed for Haveli, Thal

and Sutlej Valley Canals‖ (Malik,2011 pp. 70).

Rao Commission submitted report in July 1942. The commission established priority for

the water allocation for Paharpur canal and also confirmed allocations for the Thal and Sukkar

schemes as recommended by Anderson Committee. The commission found that upstream

extractions of water would harmfully affect operation of inundation canals in Sindh, especially

during September. The best way to counteract this effect was to build barrages at Guddu and

Kotri. The Commission also suggested that ―compensation should be paid to the Sindh from

Punjab province for damages likely to result from upstream withdrawals‖ (Malik, 2011, pp.70).

Its findings and recommendations were neither accepted by Punjab nor by Sindh. At this stage

negotiation were opened between the two chief engineers of Sindh and Punjab to find a solution

and reach on an agreement. After prolonged negotiations between Sindh and Punjab, a draft

agreement was drawn in September 1945. It was matter to settlement of the financial phase of

the dispute with respect to sharing of waters of the Indus and Punjab rivers.

f) Indus Water Treaty (1960):

On 14 August 1947, when Sub-Continent was divided into two independent countries,

there existed one of the most highly established irrigation systems in the world. The boundary

line between two countries was drawn without any consideration of irrigation work. Just after the

creation of Pakistan, India stopped water on April 1, 1948, in Pakistan Canals off-taking from

rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, who‘s Headwork, were situated in India (Ali, 1973). This gave rise

to a serious first water dispute with India, which was ultimately resolved through the good

offices of the World Bank and Indus Water Treaty (IWT) was signed with India in 1960.

The Treaty gave exclusive water rights of the three eastern rivers namely Ravi, Beas and

Sutlej to India, while the water rights of the three western rivers namely; Indus, Jehlum and

Chenab were allotted to Pakistan except for some specified uses in the occupied State of Jammu

& Kashmir. Pakistan was required to meet the needs of eastern river canals from the western

rivers by constructing the suitable replacement works comprising storage dams and inter-river

transfer links. These works were to be completed by Pakistan in a period of ten years i.e., from

1960 to 1970, then after that period, India was given right to stop water flowing to Pakistan in

the three eastern rivers (Ghani, 2009).

Briefly, the Indus Water treaty, having discarded the joint development plan for

developing the Indus Basin as suggested by some international bodies, allotted the three western

rivers of the Indus basin- the Indus, the Chenab and the Jehlum to Pakistan and the three eastern

rivers Sutlej, Beas and Ravi to India. The Treaty in its Annexures acknowledged certain rights

and privileges for agricultural use of Pakistan drawing water from eastern rivers and similarly

India drawing water for similar reasons from the three western rivers.

The treaty permitted India to draw water from the western rivers for irrigation up to

642,000 acres that is in addition to another entitlement to irrigate 701,000 acres. India has so far

not made full use of its rights to draw this quantity of water from the western rivers. These

allocations were made based on the water flows and usage as existed on April 1960. While India


Page 30 of 127

is not permitted to build dams for water storage purposes (for consumptive uses) on the western

rivers passing through India, it is allowed to make limited use of waters including run of the river

hydroelectric power projects.

g) Akhtar Hussain Committee (1968):

A Water Allocation and Rates Committee were constituted by the Government of West

Pakistan (one unit) in May 1968. It was called ―Akhtar Hussain Committee‖ after the name of its

chairman (Government of the Punjab, 2002). Its terms of reference included:

Review barrage water allocations.

Reservoir release patterns.

Drawdown levels and use of ground water in relation to surface water deliveries.

However the committee submitted report on 30 June, 1970. One Unit was dissolved

splitting West Pakistan into four provinces. And this report could not attain any attention.

h) Justice Fazle Akbar Committee (1970-71):

Government of Pakistan set up a committee on October 15, 1970, chaired by former

justice Fazle Akbar of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. The Committee was to recommend

allotment of water allocations of groundwater and its coordinate use with flow supplies and

sensible water requirements of the provinces for agriculture, industrial and other uses.

The committee submitted report to the government in 1971. No decision was taken on the

report. In the meanwhile ad hoc distribution of waters stored by Chashma Barrage and later

Tarbela Reservoir was ordered among provinces. Seasonal ad hoc distribution of waters stored

by two reservoirs continued till coming into effect of Water Apportionment Accord in 1991 as

noted presently.

i) Chief Justices’ Commission (1977):

Government of Pakistan in 1977 established a commission to observe the issue of water

apportionment. The commission contained all chief justices of the four provincial High Courts

and was chaired by the chief Justice of Supreme Court of Pakistan. Its report however remained

pending with the government till the Water Apportionment Accord came into effect in 1991.

j) Haleem Commission (1983):

This commission conducted the hearing of the case within limited framework and

submitted report to the president of Pakistan in the end of the April 1983 (Siddique, 2003). The

issue of water distribution could not be resolved and provinces received irrigation supplies

through ad hoc distribution of Indus waters notified by Federal Government for each

period/season of the year.

k) Water Apportionment Accord (1991): The government of Pakistan appreciating the urgency of the matter approved ―Water

Apportionment Accord‖ on March 16, 1991. It was approved by the Council of Common Interest

on March 21, 1991. According to the Water Apportionment Accord, share of each province, both

for Kharif and Rabi and allocation of balance supplies was allocated in MAF as given in Table 1.

The main clauses of Water apportionment Accord (1991) are given as follow:


Page 31 of 127

It supersedes all previous sharing arrangements and agreements arrived at in this

regard.

It protects the existing uses of canal water in each province.

It apportions the balance river supplies including flood surpluses and future storage

amongst the provinces.

It recognizes the need for constructing new storages wherever feasible on the Indus

and other rivers for planned future agriculture development.

It also recognizes the need for certain minimum escapee to sea below Kotri to check

sea intrusion for which further studies are to be undertaken.

It lays down the procedures for sharing shortage and surpluses on all Pakistan bases.

The need to establish an Indus River System Authority for implementation of the

Accord was recognized and accepted. It would have representation from all the four

Provinces.

The balance river supplies including flood supplies and future storages are allocated

as: 37% for Punjab, 37% for Sindh, 14% for K.PK and 12% for Baluchistan.

Table 2.2 ―Water shares of provinces according to water accord 1991‖

Province

Water Shares

Total

Balance Supply

Shares (%) * Kharif Rabi

Punjab 37.07 18.87 55.94 37

Sindh 33.94 14.82 48.76 37

K.PK 3.48 2.30 5.78 14

Civil Canals ** 1.80 1.20 3.00

Baluchistan 2.85 1.02 3.87 12

Total 77.34 37.01 114.35 100

Source: Save Water Save Pakistan by B.A Malik.

*Including flood flows & future storage

** Ungagged civil canals in K.PK

2.5 Conclusion:

In short we can say that Indus river system is the largest system of irrigation. It includes

five main rivers with their tributaries. It is the strong heart of the Pakistan‗s economy. Its

creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original system (1847-

1947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and institutions

who maintained the system. There were no disputes on the shearing of I.R.S water till 20th

century, however the situation changed after the World War-I. In-order to resolve these disputes

several commissions and committees were made as we discussed in previous pages. In next

pages we will discuss about departmental structure of Pakistan irrigation system.


Page 32 of 127

References:

―World Water Assessment Programme,‖ The United Nations World Water Development Report

3: Water in a Changing World, (Paris: UNESCO, and London ―Earthscan, 2009), p.29.

M. Zeitoun and N. Mirumachi, "Trans boundary Water Interaction I: Reconsidering Conflict and

Cooperation", International Environmental Agreements, 8: 4, 2008, p. 298.

Pacific Institute initiated a project in the late 1980s to track and categorize events related to water

and conflict which have been continuously updated ever since. See, Dr. Peter H. Gleick, ―Water

Conflict Chronology,‖ Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security,

2009, at <http://www.worldwater.org/conflict/list/>. Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2009-10, op.cit. (ref.21), p.13.

Ahmer Bilal Soofi, Dawn (Islamabad), February 20, 2010,

http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-contentlibrary/dawn/the

newspaper/editorial/water-war-with-india-020

Ali, C. M. (1973). Emergence of Pakistan. Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan,

University of the Punjab, Lahore.

Biswas, Asif, K. (1992) Indus Water Treaty: the Negotiating process, water

international.P.202.

Government of the Punjab Effects of water Regulation, irrigation and power department,

2002. P.4

Haider.Ghulam, Dr.(2002).Water Resources Development, Conservation and

Management, The Environ Monitor,(vol.11, No.6).

Malik, B. A. (2005). Indus water treaty in retrospect. Brite Publishers, Lahore.

Malik, B. A. (2011). Save Water Save Pakistan (First Ed.). Islamabad-Lahore-Karachi

(Pakistan): Ferozsons

Rajput, Muhammad Idris (2007) Water problems: perspective from Sindh. Problems and

politics water sharing and management in Pakistan. Edited by Parvez Iqbal Cheema,

Rashid Ahmad Khan, And Ahmad Rashid Malik, Islamabad Policy Research Institute.


Page 33 of 127

Chapter No. 03

Departmental Structure of Irrigation System

3.1 Introduction:

Irrigation system of Pakistan is the world largest system. Different departments are made

to manage this system. Success of this system totally depends upon the performance of these

departments. There are two levels of these departments;

Federal Level

Provisional Level

The irrigation system of Pakistan is primarily managed and operated by the Provisional

Government. At Federal level, a separate ministry of water and power exists for management,

planning and development of irrigation system. Now we will discuss about these departments in

details.

3.2 Federal Level:

At federal level following are the two departments;

WAPDA

IRSA

3.2.1 WAPDA:

Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) was established in 1958. Following are

the responsibilities of WAPDA.

The responsibility of large scale construction and water resources facilities such as

storage dams, barrages, and link canals lies within WAPDA.

It is responsible for planning and execution of ground water development and

management schemes such as pipe drainage, tube well drainage and reclamation projects.

After the completion of these projects, transfer to the provisional Irrigation departments

for operation and maintenance.

3.2.2 IRSA:

IRSA is the abbreviation of Indus River System Authority.

a) When and why it was formed?

21st March, 1991, will go down in the history of Pakistan as a pivotal breakthrough in its

leap towards the 21st century and turning point in its march towards national consolidation. On


Page 34 of 127

that day was unraveled a dispute that had been festering in this part of the subcontinent for the

past seventy years.

As a follow-up to the meeting of the Chief Ministers at Lahore on March 3, 1991, a

meeting of the representatives of the four provinces was held at Lahore on March 04, 1991.

Another meeting was held at Karachi on March 16, 1991. The list of participants is attached.

The participants agreed on the following points:

There was an agreement that the issue relating to Apportionment of the Waters of

the Indus River System should be settled as quickly as possible,

In the light of the accepted water distributional principles the following

apportionment was agreed to;

Table 3.1: ―Distribution of Water among Provinces‖

PROVINCE KHARIF (maf) RABI(maf) TOTAL(maf)

PUNJAB 37.07 18.87 55.94

SINDH 33.94 14.82 48.76

N.W.F.P.

(a) CIVIL CANALS**

3.48

1.80

2.30

1.20

5.78

3.00

BALOCHISTAN 2.85 1.02 3.87

TOTAL 77.34

+ 1.80

37.01

+1.20

114.35

+3.00

b) Aims and Objectives:

Water release from dams and barrages to the main irrigation system is assessed and

controlled by Indus river system Authority (IRSA) and received by the provincial irrigation

departments for further operation& maintenance.

To resolve disputes among the provinces pertaining to their share of water

To monitor , regulate and distribute the available water resources of the country

among the provinces

The monitoring of water resources withdrawn by each canal system is done

through telemetry system. The data collected through telemetry system is

transferred to central unit of IRSA for analysis

Each province prepared its indents for release and sends it to IRSA .The

statements of withdrawals are also prepared and verified by the provinces.


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c) Current Situations:

Following are the current situations of IRSA including discharge from different dams and

barrages.

Table 3.2: ―Current Situation of major reservoirs‖

Sr# Dams/Barrage Mean Inflow(Cs) Mean outflow(Cs)

1 INDUS @ TARBEL 20300 35000

2 CHASHMA 37193 30000

3 JEHLUM @

MANGLA:

10334 42000

Table 3.3: ―Current Situation of Different Barrages‖

Headwork /Barrage U/S Discharge (Cs) D/S Discharge (Cs)

KALABAGH 5878 51285

TAUNSA 29376 29376

GUDDU 40698 34411

SUKKAR 32590 4790

KOTRI 6087 0

CHENAB @ MARALA: 7058 3000

PANJNAD

Total Rim Station inflow = 45762Cs

Total Rim Station Outflow= 95748Cs

d) Water Allocation to the Provinces:

Punjab = 57,900cs

Sindh = 3,500cs

Baluchistan = 4,800cs

KPK =3,100cs

Reference (http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)

http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/


Page 36 of 127

Fig 3.1: ―Organizational Chart of IRSA‖


Page 37 of 127

3.3 Provisional Level:

Following departments are worked on provisional level;

3.3.1 Provincial Irrigation and Power Department:

The Provincial Irrigation Departments exercise their management over the irrigation

system below dams, comprising Barrages, Headwork‘s, main canals, and distributaries, minor

and main watercourses. The On Farm Irrigation System below canal outlet comprising main

watercourses is managed by the provisional Irrigation Department of Irrigation (PIPD) but

constructed and maintained by the cultivators or shareholders of the command. The field

watercourses or Farmer Branches are constructed and maintained by the farmer themselves

PIPD also administers water Distribution and resolution of conflicts among water users.

Water distribution among the shareholders is implemented through Warabandi schedule issued

by the PIPD that predefined the location and time of each user‘s turn.

3.3.2 Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA):

a) When and why it was established?

On cognizant of the problems in irrigated agriculture and water management in the

province, Government of the Punjab decided to adopt the institutional reforms in irrigation

sector. Hence, during june-1997, the Punjab provincial assembly passed the ―Punjab Irrigation &

Drainage Authority act‖. The Government of the Punjab established PIDA as autonomous body

under act 1997 to take over the functions of the irrigation and Power department pertaining to

irrigation, drainage and flood control. Under this act PIDA has been vested with control over;

Rivers

Canals

Drainage

Streams

Hill torrents

Springs

b) Responsibilities:

Perform all the duties and functions of the irrigation wing of irrigation and power

department.

Plan, design, construct, operate and maintain the irrigation, drainage and flood

control infrastructure located within the territorial jurisdiction of PIDA.

Introduce the concept of participatory management through the pilot AWB and

FO‘s and to adopt and implement policies aimed at promoting growth and

development of FO‘s monitoring of their performance planning.

It will also be responsible for its own finances including the collection charges

from the clients (Government of the Punjab for flood control and other public

services corporation and district councils) and from AWBs and for negotiating

transfer payments and subsidies from the Government of the Punjab.


Page 38 of 127

c) Current Situations:

Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA) is pursuing the implementation of

Institutional Reforms in irrigation sector of Punjab. After the transfer of Irrigation Management

to 85 Farmer Organizations in pilot areas; Lower Chenab Canal (East) Circle Faisalabad, 67 FOs

in Lower Chenab Canal (West) Circle, 30 FOs in Chashma Right Bank Canal Circle, 10 FOs in

Lower Jehlum Canal Circle and 3 FOs in Bahawalnagar Canal Circle, PIDA has also initiated the

reforms implementation process in Lower Bari Doab Canal Circle and Dera Ghazi Khan Circle.

3.3.3 Area Water Boards (AWB):

a) When and why it was formed?

The first AWB was set up on the lower Chenab canal (east) circle Faisalabad that

commands for 1.6 million acre. The second Area Water Boards has been established at lower

Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) circle Sahiwal that commands about 0.07 million acres of land. The

Area Water Boards was formed to assume the responsibilities of managing and progressively

financing the operation and maintenance cost of irrigation and drainage network within its

jurisdiction Preliminary the Area Water Boards was responsible for management of the canal

command and its branch system from Barrage to district heads drainage and flood control

infrastructure. Under the act 1997, the Area Water Boards are expected to perform the following

functions

Approve and monitor the operation and maintenance work plan of FOs.

Recommend the development Schemes for annual development programs.

Approve rotational program of the water distribution

Checking water thefts and other offences

Monitor expenditures and budget allocations.

Assist the authority and Govt. in the formation, promotion and development of FOs

and Monitor their work.

b) Current Situations of AWBs:

PIDA Authority shall appoint a registrar for an Area Water Board and a registrar at its

Head Office who shall perform all functions relating to the registration of the farmer

organizations

Lower Chenab Canal (East)

Lower Chenab Canal (West)

Bahawalnagar Canal

Dera Jaat Canal

Lower Bari Doab Canal

http://pida.pitb.gov.pk/lower_chenab_canal_east

http://pida.pitb.gov.pk/lower_chenab_canal_west

http://pida.pitb.gov.pk/bahawalnagagar_canal

http://pida.pitb.gov.pk/dera_jaat_canal

http://pida.pitb.gov.pk/lower_bari_doab_canal


Page 39 of 127

3.3.4 Farmer Organization:

It was formed for the management of system at the minor distributary level which are

owned and controlled by the farmers. The Farmer Organization is responsible for managing the

minor distributaries that fall into branch drains. It is also responsible for manage fresh ground

water tube wells, on farm tile drains& off farm sub drains.

Functions:

To manage, operate and maintain the irrigation infrastructure including any hydraulic

structure located on it, for which it has been established.

To obtain irrigation and water supplies from the authority or relevant area water board &

its head regulator and consequently pay the agreed amount to the AWB concerned or

between Farmer Organization concerned & the authority

To supply the irrigation water equitably to the farmers and other water users within the

area.

To assess the water rates and other irrigation charges to be collected from the water users.

3.4 Conclusion:

This was all about different departmental structures of irrigation system of Pakistan.

Every province has its own irrigation and drainage authority to manage its irrigation system.

Success of our irrigation system is totally depends upon the performance of these departments. In

next pages we will discuss about different barrages of Pakistan in details.

References:

―Irrigation & Drainage Practices for Agriculture‖ by Dr. Muhammad Rafique Chaudhary

(http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)


Page 40 of 127

Chapter No. 04

Dams and Barrages of Pakistan

4.1 Introduction:

Pakistan is an agriculture country so, agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan‗s economy

and more than 50% population depends upon agriculture. As Pakistan is an agriculture country

so irrigation is necessary for agriculture. The irrigation system of Pakistan comprises of 2 major

storage reservoirs, 19 large rivers Headworks and a number of small dams. In this chapter we

will discuss in details about these dams and barrages of Pakistan.

4.2 Dams of Pakistan:

There are many smaller and larger scale dams are in Pakistan. Following is a list of

different dams in Pakistan with their storage capacity and location.

4.2.1 Dams of Azad Kashmir:

Table 4.1: ―Dams in Azad Kashmir‖

Name Location/Nearest

city

Impounds Height

(ft.)

Storage

Capacity

(Acre ft.)

Year of

Completion

Kakra Dam Mirpur District,

Kakra

Saddle Dam 138 n/a 1967

Mangla

Dam

Mirpur District Jehlum River 453 5,879,139 1967

Shukian

Dam

Mirpur District Saddle Dam 144 n/a 1967

Jari Kas Dam Mirpur District Saddle Dam 276 n/a 1967

Jari Rim

Works

Mirpur District Saddle Dam 138 n/a 1967

4.2.2 Dams of Baluchistan:

Table 4.2: ―Dams in Baluchistan‖


city

Impounds Height

(ft.)

Storage

Capacity

(Acre ft.)

Year of

Completion

Akra Kaur Dam Gwadar Akra Kaur

River

69 17,025 1995

Amach Dam Mastung Amach River 50 1,358 1987


Page 41 of 127

Baghak Dam

Band-e-Chaman

Dam

Turbet Band-e-Chaman

River

49 2,000 1994

Bisialla Dam

Bostan Darra

Dam

Quetta Darra Manda

River

66 170 1987

Brewery Dam

Kuchnai Darra

Dam

Quetta 2008

Duz Durg Dam Mastung Duz Dur River 50 40 1984

Galangoor Dam

Ganj Dara Dam

Ghargi Dam Pishin n/a 50 100 1986

Ghat Amoon

Dam

Ghunza Dam Pishin n/a 50 178 1984

Ghuti Shela

Dam

Giwari Dam

Gogi Dam Ziarat Gogi River 54 400 1981

Gokar Dam

Gur Dam Kalat n/a 50 404 1982

Haero Dam

Hingi Dam Quetta Hingi 49 163 1995-96

Hub Dam Malir Hub River 157 856,924 1979

Khad Koocha

Dam

Mastung Kad Koocha

River

50 95 1984

Khajeer Dam Qila Saifullah Khajeer River 49 250 1991

Khori Dam

Kohar Dam Loralai

Nari Kach Dam

Kullan Dam

Lalai Dam

Machka Manda

Dam

Mana Storage

Dam

Ziarat Mana River 62 1,480 1961

Mangi Dam Ziarat Boin Viala

River

59 105 1982

Mirani Dam Makran Dashat River 128 302,396 2007

Morinko Dam

Murghai Check

Dam

Murghai Kotal

Dam


Page 42 of 127

Nail Mirdadzai

Storage Dam

Nishpa Dam Mastung Nishpa River 49 93 1994

Nousahr Dam

Nundra Kapper

Dam

Palian Dam

Pinakai Dam Qila Saifullah Pinakari River 50 39 1994

Rindak Storage

Dam

Sabakzai Dam Zhob Zhob River 114 32,700 2007

Sasnak Mana

Storage Dam

Ziarat Sasnak River 62 220 1993

Sassi Punnu

Dam

Shadak Dam Pishin Shadak River 50 70 1983

Sgadi Kaur

Storage Dam

Shagai Dam Quetta n/a 50 309 1993

Sherran Manda

Dam

Shiker Dam Pishin Shiker River 62 49 1988

Spin Dam

Spinkarez Dam Quetta Nar River &

Murdar River

95 5,513 1995

Tabai Dam Quetta Tabai River 49 142 1994

Takhtani Dam

Tang Storage

Dam

Tanga Dam

Tangi Dababari

Dam

Tangi Dam Qila Saifullah Tangi River 50 61 1997

Thamarak Dam Pishin n/a 50 195 1986

Tooth Dam Kalat Tooth River 52 397 1991

Torkehezi Dam

Trikh Tangi

Dam

Under Base

Dam

Qila Saifullah Under Base

River

50 70 1985

Walitangai Dam Quetta Walitangai 79 413 1961

Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Garuk Dam, Pelar

Dam, Winder Dam, Hingol Dam, Sukleji Dam, Naulong Dam and Darawat Dam.


Page 43 of 127

4.2.3 Dams of FATA:

Table 4.3: ―Dams in FATA‖


city

Impounds Height

(ft.)

Storage

Capacity

(Acre ft.)

Year of

Completion

Dandy Dam Miranshah 82 4,820 2011

Dargai Pal Dam Wana 98 4,780 2008

Gomal Zam

Dam

Wana Gomal River 436 1,134,998 2012

4.2.4 Dams of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa:

Table 4.4: ―Dams in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa‖


city

Impounds Height

(ft.)

Storage

Capacity

(Acre ft.)

Year of

Completion

Allai Khwar

Dam

Battagram Allai Khwar

River

167 2012

Auxiliary

Kandar Dam

Kohat Dargai Algada

River

75 2004

Aza Khel Dam Peshawar n/a 75 2004

Baran Dam Bannu Barran River 79 1962

Chaatri Dam Haripur Nain Sukh

River

85 1971

Chanda Fateh

Khan Dam

Kohat n/a 82 2004

Changhoz Dam Karak Changhoz

River

141 2007

Darwazai Dam Kohat Sodal Algada

River

49 1976

Gandially Dam Kohat Taru Algada

River

72 2002

Kahal Dam Hazara Kahal River 72 1971

Kandar Dam Kohat Dargai Algada

River

89 1970

Khal Dam Haripur Khal Kass

River

75 1971

Khan Khwar

Dam

Besham, Shangla Khan Khwar

River

151 2012

Khanpur Dam Haripur Haro River 167 1985

Mang Dam Haripur Haro River 52 1970

Naryab Dam Hangu Naryab River 105 2006

Warsak Dam Peshawar Kabul River 220 62,013 1960


Page 44 of 127

Zaibi Dam Karak Zaibi Algad

River

82 1997

Tanda Dam Kohat Kohat River 115 1967

Tarbela

Auxiliary -1

Dam

Ghazi Indus River 344 1974

Tarbela

Auxiliary -2

Dam

Ghazi Indus River 220 1974

Tarbela Dam Haripur Indus River 470 11,098,664 1974

Sharki Dam Karak Tem River 130 2006

Duber Khwar Pattan, Kohistan Khan Khwar

River

320.1 2013

Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Munda Dam and

Kalam Dam.

4.2.5 Dams of Punjab:

Table 4.5: ―Dams in Punjab‖


city

Impounds Height

(ft.)

Storage

Capacity

(Acre ft.)

Year of

Completion

Ghazi Barotha

Dam

Indus River 2002

Gurab Dam

Haji Shah Dam Attock Sil River 72 1,459 2013-14

Jabbi Dam Jehlum District

Jamal Dam Gujar Khan

Jammargal

Dam

Jehlum District Jehlum River

Jawa Dam Rawalpindi

District

Jawa Stream 82 1,571 1994

Jurash Dam

Kahuta Dam Kahuta Ling River

Kanjoor Dam Attock District

Khasala Dam Rawalpindi

District

Lehri Dam Jehlum District

Mailsi Dam Mailsi

Mirwal Dam Attock

Misriot Dam Rawalpindi

District

Namal Dam Mianwali District


Page 45 of 127

Nirali Dam Rawalpindi

District

Qibla Bandi

Dam

Attock

Rati Kassi

Dam

Rawal Dam Islamabad Capital

Territory

Korang River 102

Salial Dam

Shahpur Dam Attock Nandana River 85 14,285 1986

Shakardara

Dam

Attock

Tain Pura Dam

Simly Dam Islamabad Capital

Territory

Soan River 262 28,750 1983

Dhok Sandy

Mar Dam

Chakwal District

Dhok Tahlian

Dam

Chakwal District

Dungi Dam Gujar Khan

Bhugtal Dam 1990

Channi Bor

Dam

Chabla Bano

Dam

Chichali Dam

Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Punjab i.e. Akhori Dam and

Kalabagh Dam.

4.2.6 Operational Small Dams in Punjab:

Following is a list of operational small dams in different districts of Punjab.

a) Attock District:

Following is a list of operational small dams in Attock district;

Basal Dam

Thatti Syedan Dam

Sawal Dam

Talikna Dam

Jabba Dam

Jalwal Dam


Page 46 of 127

b) Chakwal District:

There are 12 small dams in Chakwal District having storage capacity of 26,411 in acres

feet irrigating 11,089 acres of area.

Khokher Zer Dam

Surlah Dam

Dhoke Talian Dam

Kot Raja Dam

Dhoke Qutab Din Dam

Nikka Dam

Walana Dam

Khai Gurabh Dam

Pira Fatehal Dam

Bhagtal Dam

Dhurnal Dam

Mial Dam

c) Jehlum District:

Tain Pura Dam

Jammergal Dam

Garat Dam

Salial Dam

Domeli Dam

Shah Habib Dam

Gurha Utam Singh Dam

Fatehpur Dam

Lehri Dam

d) Dams of Sindh:

In Sindh there are two dams Karoonjhar Dam and Chotiari Dam, Also there are two

under construction dams in Sindh, Darawat Dam in Jamshoro District and Nai Gaj Dam in Dadu

District

e) Dams of Gilgit Baltistan:

Diamer Bhasha Dam, Bunji Dam and Dasu Dam are under construction in Gilgit

Baltistan. Satpara Dam is completed in 2013 in Gilgit Baltistan.

4.2.7 Dams of Federally Administered Tribal Areas:

Kurram Tangi Dam is proposed in Federally Administered Tribal Areas.


Page 47 of 127

4.3 Major Dams in Pakistan:

The major reservoirs/dams of the Indus River System are given below;

Tarbela dam

Mangla dam

Chashma reservoir

4.3.1 Tarbela Dam:

Tarbela dam is world's biggest earth and rock fill dam and was completed in 1974-75 and

is located on the Indus River. The dam is 485 feet high and 9000 feet long. A 100 sq. mile lake is

capable of conserving gross quantity of 11.7 MAF of water. Installed power generation capacity

is 3500 MW. It has two spillways), four tunnels for power generation on the right bank and one

for irrigation on the left. The gross capacity has now reduced to 9.745 MAF from its original

capacity 11.7 MAF (WAPDA and NEAC, 2004). Elevation – capacity curves of the reservoir are

one of the important input parameters in reservoir simulation.

a) Objectives of Tarbela Dam:

The main objectives of the Tarbela dam are given below;

To augment and regulate the supply of Indus River water to irrigate the land of

Indus Basin System.

Hydropower generation.

Incidental Flood Regulation.

Based on the irrigation demands, reservoir operation studies were conducted by WAPDA

to develop operating rule curves for the dam operation (Tippetts-Abbett McCarthey-Stratton

consulting engineers, 1984).

b) WAPDA Operation Rule:

Tarbela reservoir should be lowered to reservoir elevation (El.) 1300 feet by 20 May

of each year.

The reservoir should be held at El. 1300 feet until 20 June unless inflows exceed low

level outlet capacity and after that allowed to fill El.1505 feet.

Above El.1505 feet, the reservoir should be filled at a rate of 1 foot per day in so far

as permitted by inflows and irrigation demands. Minimum maximum rule curve is

shown in Figure 4.4.

Drawdown of the reservoir should be in accordance with the irrigation demands

balanced against the amount of water available from inflows plus storage.


Page 48 of 127

Figure 4.1: ―Tarbela Dam Auxiliary Spillways‖

Figure 4.2: ―Tarbela reservoir‖


Page 49 of 127

Figure 4.3: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Tarbela (WAPDA, 2004)‖

Figure 4.4: ―Minimum Maximum Rule Curve at Tarbela (WAPDA, 2004)‖


Page 50 of 127

c) Reservoir Levels:

The minimum reservoir level is 1300 feet. This level will assure the required

minimum net head of 179 feet on the turbines with a margin of safety open and the

tailwater level is at El. 1115 feet or lower.

The maximum operating reservoir level is El. 1550 feet (normal full pool level). The

maximum water level for spillway design flood is El. 1552.2 feet which allow

adequate free board.

After satisfying irrigation requirement, the reservoir may be kept as high as possible

to maximize power production.

The rate of filling should not exceed 10 feet per day. The allowable rate of rise should

be determined according to operation experience. The normal releases for irrigation

should be made through the turbines whenever possible so that power can be

generated. Each turbine can produce 175,000 KW (or 239,000 Horse-power) when

the wicket gates are 95% open and the net head on the turbine is 378 feet. Under these

conditions discharge from each turbine is 6,450 cfs making a total of 25,000 cfs for

the four.

The irrigation tunnel will be used when the irrigation demand is higher than the

turbine discharge.

The irrigation tunnels should not be used with water level above El1505 when the

spillway provides sufficient release. Minimum discharge is 50000 cfs for the service

spillway and 70,000 cfs for the auxiliary spillway.

The sill level of irrigation tunnel is El.1160, 65 lower than the power intakes. Thus

until the delta encompasses the intakes, most of the heavier suspended sediment

would go through this tunnel and not through the power waterways.

Rapid variations in the downstream flow should be avoided.

Every year the reservoir should be drawn down to El.1300, (minimum pool level) to

effect sediment flushing.

d) Previous Benefits from the Reservoir:

The project has been instrumental in achieving self-sufficiency in food through timely

water releases for irrigation. Billions of units of electrical energy generated at Tarbela dam saved

the country's foreign exchange required otherwise for thermal power generation. The total

project cost was Rs.18.5 billion. During the past 18 years of its operation, the dam contributed

over 68.332 billion in terms of direct benefits from water releases and power generation. The

total cost has been repaid three times and over.

e) Benefits from Water:

From 1975 to 1993 about 154.65 MAF of water has been released from the dam for the

development. The benefits obtained from these releases were Rs.31, 561 million. About 6.31

MAF of water was released from the storage during 1992-93 which is worth Rs.1893 million

calculated at a rate of Rs.300 per acre feet.


Page 51 of 127

f) Flood Mitigation Benefits:

Additional benefits were achieved from the project with incidental flood control. Most of

the floods occur during the summer monsoon season. The flood discharge is composed of

snowmelt flood (base flow) plus storm flood. It has been estimated 1,773,000 cfs (a constant

snowmelt flood, 6000 cfs + PMF, 1,173,000 cfs). Assuming discharge through the turbines and

one irrigation tunnel, the probable maximum flood, when routed through the reservoir, showed

surcharge of 2 feet above full reservoir level of 1550 feet AMSL. The maximum discharge over

the spillway is 1,495,000 cfs. The maximum and minimum design curves ensure to take care of

incidental floods.

On the basis of flood predictions, the reservoir can be lowered to a pre-determined

elevation considerably below the normal pool level. Drawdown to El.1505 for example, would

provide storage of about 2.4 MAF of flood water, equivalent to a flow of 400,000 cfs for a period

of 3 days. Since immediate refilling is assured, this lowering of reservoir water level would not

result in loss of water to irrigation and power.

Table 4.6: ―Water Benefits from Tarbela Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)‖

Year (Jun-July) Storage (MAF) Benefits (Rs. Million)

1975-76 3.33 666

1976-77 9.07 1814

1977-78 10 2000

1978-79 8.71 1724

1979-80 9.91 1982

1980-81 10.63 2126

1981-82 11.33 2266

1982-83 9.12 1824

1983-84 9.18 1836

1984-85 9.24 1848

1985-86 9.76 1952

1986-87 9.98 1996

1987-88 7.52 1504

1988-89 11.12 2224

1989-90 7.32 1464

1990-91 6.19 1238

1991-92 5.93 1186

1992-93 6.31 1893

1993-94 9.41 2823

1994-95 5.39 1617

1995-96 8.17 2451

1996-97 9.15 8235

1997-98 8.06 7254

1998-99 9.04 8136


Page 52 of 127

1999-2000 8.708 7837

2000-01 2.689 7820

2001-02 8.3 7470

2002-03 9.1 8190

2003-04 8.7 7830

Total 247.4 101224

4.3.2 Mangla Dam:

Mangla dam on river Jehlum which is a 12th largest earth fill dam in the world has been

completed in 1967. Jehlum River at Mangla has a catchment area of about 12,870 sq. miles. Dam

height is 380 feet. The original gross storage capacity of the reservoir was 5.35 MAF in 1967.

Live storage capacity was 4.81 MAF which was about 90 percent of gross capacity whereas dead

storage capacity was 0.54 MAF. Capacity of main spillway is 1,100,000 cusecs while of

emergency spillway is 2,300,000 cusecs. The lake area of reservoir at maximum pool level (1202

feet. above sea level) is estimated to be 100 sq. miles. Reservoir of Mangla dam is shown in

Figure 4.10. The main objectives of the dam are (i) water storage for supplementing irrigation

supplies (ii) hydropower Generation (WAPDA, 1989). Before 1991 hydropower capacity of

Mangla dam was 800 MW with 8 units. In 1991, hydropower capacity of the dam was increased

to 1000 MW with 10 units. Figure 4.11 shows power house and Bong canal at Mangla dam.

The primary objectives from the reservoir are assured water releases for agriculture and

hydropower generation therefore, no space is particularly reserved for flood control. However

storage between reservoir levels 1202 feet and 1228 feet (1.5 MAF) is reserved to achieve

incidental flood benefits. Recreation and fish production are additional benefits from the

reservoir.

Reservoir capacity is depleted due to sediment inflows which were averaged 73 MST

(million short ton) per year from 1967 to 2002 (WAPDA and MJV, 2003). Elevation capacity

curves showing depletion in storage due to sediments are shown in Figure 4.7.

a) WAPDA Operation Rule:

Mangla reservoir should be lowered to reservoir elevation (El.) 1050 feet by 10

May of each year.

The reservoir should be held at El.1050 to El 1040 feet until 31 March unless

inflows exceed low level outlet capacity and after that allowed to fill El.1202 feet.

Mangla reservoir should be filled upto its maximum conservation level 1202 feet

before 1 September if permitted by inflows and irrigation demands. Minimum

maximum rule curve is shown in Figure 4.8.

Drawdown of the reservoir should be in accordance with the irrigation demands

balanced against the amount of water available from inflows plus storage.


Page 53 of 127

Figure 4.5: ―Mangla Reservoir at 1040 ft. AMSL‖

Figure 4.6: ―Mangla Dam Power House and Bong Canal‖


Page 54 of 127

Figure 4.7: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)‖

Figure 4.8: ―Minimum Maximum Rule Curves at Mangla (WAPDA, 2004)‖


Page 55 of 127

b) Benefits from Water:

The Mangla reservoir has been impounded in 1967. According to an estimate on water

releases for agriculture, industrial or domestic use from the reservoir, total benefits have been

computed about Rs.24,179 million from 1967 to 1993 (WAPDA 1993). Therefore, average

annual benefits from water, estimated from 26 year operation (1967-1993) comes to be about

Rs.930 million whereas the benefits during (1991-92) and (1992-93) have been estimated to be

Rs.936 million and Rs.969 million respectively. These estimates, as reported, were carried out on

the basis of a unit return of Rs.200.00 per acre foot volume of water.

Table 4.7: ―Water Benefits from Mangla Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)‖


1967-80 58.32 17046.3

1980-81 4.15 1458.8

1981-82 5.30 1881.5

1982-83 4.82 2210.8

1983-84 5.35 2587.8

1984-85 5.39 2961.6

1985-86 4.56 2821.8

1986-87 4.84 3083.4

1987-88 4.88 3220.5

1988-89 4.97 3821.8

1989-90 5.03 3952.5

1990-91 3.76 3343.0

1991-92 4.68 4232.9

1992-93 3.23 3490.7

1993-94 5.37 5939.8

1994-95 5.10 6282.9

1995-96 3.94 5684.9

1996-97 4.98 7888.7

1997-98 4.36 7805.9

c) Flood Mitigation Benefits:

Incidental flood control is an additional benefit which was achieved from the project.

Most of the floods occur during the summer monsoon season. Their duration is short but their

rate of rise and fall can be extremely rapid. The maximum and minimum design curves (Figure

4.13) ensures to take care of incidental floods. Available storage (1.5 MAF) between reservoir

level 1202 feet and 1228 feet is reserved to achieve incidental flood benefits. The project was

designed on a Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) of 2,600,000 cusecs. Total benefits from water

and power activities from Mangla dam comes to Rs.55,101.89 million since 1967 whereas total

benefits in financial years 1991-92 and 1992-93 from water and power has been estimated to be

Rs.2719.21and Rs.2703.03 million respectively.


Page 56 of 127

Although these benefits are quite high, recovering the total cost of the project several

times over, but it is however, a limited source. The country has been facing the major problem of

rapidly increasing population and food requirements. These problems seriously affected the

existing policies and it is essentially needed to design a policy which may overcome these issues

by expanding irrigated agriculture and increasing power generation.

d) Mangla Raising Project:

At the time of construction of Mangla Dam, Government of Pakistan requested the World

Bank that a provision should be made in the design and construction of the Mangla Dam to

facilitate its raising at a later stage by another 30-40 ft. The Government of Pakistan agreed that

the incremental cost of the provision for rising would not be charged to the Indus Basin

Development Fund. The World Bank accepted this proposal and hence, all the impounding

structures of the Mangla Dam Project were designed and constructed in 1967 for raising it by

another 30 ft. In year 2003, work on Mangla rising was started. It was proposed to raise the

Mangla dam by 30 feet. (WAPDA and Mangla Joint Venture, 2003). This will raise the present

maximum reservoir conservation level of 1202 ft. to 1242 ft. The work on Mangla rising is in

progress as shown in Figure 4.14. About 70% construction work has been completed on Mangla

rising till May 2008. The project is expected to be completed in year 2009. This would increase

the average annual water availability by 2.9 MAF. Power generation from the existing power

plant would also increase by about 11%. Elevation capacity curves after Mangla raising showing

depletion in storage due to sediments for the period 2007 to 2082 are shown in Figure 4.15

(WAPDA and MJV 2003).

Figure 4.9: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla Raising (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)‖


Page 57 of 127

4.3.3 Chashma Reservoir:

Located on the Indus River downstream of Tarbela dam, this reservoir acts as a buffer

reservoir to re-regulate the releases from Tarbela. It was constructed in 1971 as barrage cum

reservoir providing diversion facilities for Chashma Jehlum link Canal on its left side and

Chashma right bank canal on the right side. The reservoir acts as a re-regulatory storage for the

releases from Tarbela which enable the reservoir to store 2.59 MAF of water and releases 2.52

MAF during 1992-93. According to 1986-87 hydrographic survey by WAPDA, the gross storage

capacity of Chashma reservoir has been reduced from 0.87 MAF (originally in 1971) to 0.497

MAF.

Upto 1993, about 100.44 MAF of irrigation water was received in the reservoir. About

94.97 MAF was released downstream of Chashma barrage and 3.794 MAF in Chashma Jehlum

Link Canal (CJ Link) and 1.607 MAF in Chashma right bank canal (CRBC) The benefits

obtained from the reservoir are listed in Table 4.8;

Table 4.8: ―Water benefits from Chashma Reservoir‖


Upto

1967-80

8.41

1682

1980-81 0.74 148

1981-82 0.70 140

1982-83 0.49 98

1983-84 0.49 98

1984-85 0.49 98

1985-86 0.49 98

1986-87 0.49 98

1987-88 0.49 98

1988-89 0.45 90

1989-90 0.28 56

1990-91 0.46 92

1991-92 2.72 540

1992-93 2.52 756

4.3.4 Loss of Reservoir Capacities:

One of the important factors for future water scarcity in Pakistan is due to loss of existing

reservoir capacities by sediment inflows. It is a natural process and every reservoir has its useful

life. The solution is to make new dams to overcome water crisis. Hydrographic surveys were

carried out time to time by WAPDA to determine the loss of reservoir capacities. Following table

shows the depletion in gross capacities in Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma.


Page 58 of 127

Table 4.9: ―Loss of Reservoir Capacities in MAF (WAPDA, 2004)‖

Reservoir Gross Storage Capacity Gross Storage Loss

Original Year 2014 Year 2004 2012 2025

Tarbela 11.62 8.36 3.28 4.17 5.51

(1974) 72% -28% -36% -47%

Mangla 5.88 4.64 1.24 1.72 1.97

(1967) 78% -22% -29% -34%

Chashma 0.87 0.48 0.39 0.48 0.5

(1971) 55% -45% -55% -57%

Total 18.37 13.48 4.89 6.37 7.98

73% -27% -35% -43%

4.4 Barrages of Pakistan:

Irrigation system of Pakistan consists of 19 barrages. Following is the list of these

barrages.

Chashma Barrage

Taunsa Barrage

Jinnah Barrage

Guddu Barrage

Sukkar Barrage

Kotri Barrage

Rasul Barrage

Marala Barrage

Khanki Barrage

Qadirabad Barrage

Trimmu Barrage

Panjnad Barrage

Balloki Barrage

Sidhnai Barrage

Sulemanki Barrage

Islam Barrage

Mailsi Barrage

Ghazi Brotha Barrage

Munda Barrage


Page 59 of 127

4.4.1 Chashma Barrage:

Chashma barrage is a barrage on Indus River in Mianwali District, Punjab, 304km NW

of Lahore and 56km downstream of Jinnah barrage. The Contract for Chashma Barrage works

was awarded on 10 February 1967 to French Consortium Society Dumez and Society Borie and

was successfully completed by 25 March 1971. The total cost of Chashma Barrage works was

Rs.399 million but power generation started later in 2001. The installed capacity of power

Station is 184 MW, from eight Kaplan type bulb turbine units each with a 23 MW capacity. The

bulb turbines have been installed for the first time in Pakistan. The first unit was commissioned

in January 2001, while final commissioning of all units was completed in July 2001. The

8 Kaplan type turbines and synchronous generator units were made by Fuji, Japan. Chashma

Barrage is used for irrigation, flood control and power generation.

Figure 4.9: ―Chashma Barrage‖

Salient Features:

Length between abutments: 3556 ft.

Total Bays: 52

Standard Bays: 41

Undersluce Bays: 11

Normal Pond Level: 642 feet

Maximum Storage Level: 649 ft.

Maximum Flood Discharge: 950000 Cusecs

Maximum Intensity of Discharge: 300Cs. Per ft.

Width of Carriage Way: 24 ft.

Length of Navigation Lock: 155 ft.

Width of Navigation Lock: 30 ft.

Area of Reservoir: 139 Sq.m

Initial Capacity: 0.87 MAF

Date Commencement: 10 February 1967

Date of Completion: 25 March 1971

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan


Page 60 of 127

4.4.2 Taunsa Barrage:

Taunsa barrage is a barrage on Indus River in Muzaffargarh district, Punjab. It is situated

20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast of Taunsa Sharif and 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Kot Addu.

This barrage controls water flow in the Indus River for irrigation and flood control purposes.

This barrage serves 2.351 million acres (951,400 hectares) besides diverting flows from Indus

River to the Chenab River through Taunsa-Panjnad (TP) Link Canal. The barrage also serves as

an arterial road bridge, a railway bridge, and crossing for gas and oil pipelines, telephone line

and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines.

Salient Features:

Table 4.10: ―Silent Feature of Taunsa Barrage‖

Barrage Taunsa

Year of Completion 1959

Max. Design Discharge (cusecs) 750,000

No. of Bays 53

Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) 26

Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs) 36501

Figure 4.10: ―Taunsa Barrage‖

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taunsa_Sharif


Page 61 of 127

4.4.3 Jinnah Barrage:

The Jinnah Barrage is a barrage on the Indus River near Kalabagh, Pakistan. It is part of the

Thal Project which helps irrigate 770,000 ha (1,900,000 acres) in the Sindh Sagar Doab east of the

Indus. Planning for the project dates back to the nineteenth century but final plans for the barrage

were made in 1919 and it was constructed between 1939 and 1946. The barrage diverts an

average of 283 m3/s (10,000 cu ft./s) of water into the 51.5 km (32.0 mi) long Thal Canal where it

serves areas in Bhakkar, Khushab, Layyah, Mianwali and Muzaffargarh Districts with 3,362 km

(2,089 mi) of additional canal branches and distributors. It has a maximum flood height of 8.5 m

(28 ft.) and it spans 1,152 m (3,780 ft.) over the river. The barrage can discharge upto

950,000 m3/s (34,000,000 cu ft/s) downstream with 42 spillway gates which are each 18.2 m

(60 ft) wide. Between 2006 and 2012, a 96 MW hydroelectric power station with four 12 MW pit

turbine-generators was added on the right bank. In June 2012 a major rehabilitation project for

the barrage began. The project includes the construction of a weir 244 m (801 ft) downstream to

help dissipate energy from the spillway upstream of it. New guide banks will be built and

existing ones repaired. The railway bridge upstream will be rehabilitated as well. The project is

expected to be complete in June 2016.

Salient Features:

Table 4.11: ―Silent Feature of Jinnah Barrage‖

Barrage Jinnah



No. of Bays 42


Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs) 7500

Figure 4.11: ―Jinnah Barrage‖

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrage_(dam)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakkar_District

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzaffargarh_District

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spillway


Page 62 of 127

4.4.4 Guddu Barrage:

Guddu Barrage is a barrage on Indus River near Kashmoor in Sindh. President Iskander

Mirza laid the foundation-stone of Guddu Barrage on 2 February 1957. The barrage was

completed in 1962 at a cost of 474.8 million rupees and inaugurated by Field Marshal Ayub

Khan. Guddu Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for irrigation and flood

control purposes. It has a discharge capacity of 1.2 million cubic feet per second (34,000 m³/s). It

is a gate-controlled weir type barrage with a navigation lock. The barrage has 64 bays, each 60

feet (18 m) wide. The maximum flood level height of Guddu Barrage is 26 feet (8 m). It controls

irrigation Supplies to 2.9 million acres (12,000 km2) of agricultural land in the Jacobabad and

Larkana districts of Sindh and Naseerabad district of Baluchistan province. It feeds Ghotki

Feeder, Begari Feeder, Desert and Pat Feeder canals.

Salient Features:

Table 4.12: ―Silent Feature of Guddu Barrage‖

Barrage Guddu


Max. Design Discharge (cusec) 1200000

No. of Bays 64

Length of Barrage 3840 ft.

Off taking canals 5

Figure 4.12: ―Guddu Barrage‖


Page 63 of 127

4.4.5 Sukkar Barrage:

Sukkar Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus near Sukkar city, Sindh. The Barrage was

built during the British Raj from 1923 to 1932 and named Lloyd Barrage. It was constructed

under the overall direction of Sir Charlton Harrison, CIE. On its completion it was opened by the

Viceroy of India, Lord Willingdon. The scheme had been launched by the Governor of Bombay,

Sir George Ambrose Lloyd (later known as Lord Lloyd) and it was named against his name.

Sukkar Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for the purposes of

irrigation and flood control. The barrage enables water to flow through what was originally a

network of canals 6,166 miles (9,923 km) long, feeding the largest irrigation system in the world,

with more than 5 million acres (20,000 km²) of irrigated land. The retaining wall has 66 spans

each 60 feet (18 m) wide. Each span has a gate weighing 50 tons.

Salient Features:

Table 4.13: ―Silent Feature of Sukkar Barrage‖

Barrage Sukkar



No. of Bays 54


Off taking canals 7

Figure 4.13: ―Sukkar Barrage‖

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Indus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation


Page 64 of 127

4.4.6 Kotri Barrage:

Kotri Barrage is a barrage on the Indus River near Hyderabad, Sindh. The barrage was

completed in 1955. Kotri Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for irrigation

and flood control purposes. It has a discharge capacity of 875,000 cusecs. It is a gate-controlled

weir type barrage with a navigation lock. The barrage has 44 bays, each 60 feet (18 m) wide. The

maximum flood level height of Kotri Barrage is 43.1 feet. It feeds Fulleli, Pinyari, Linned and

Kolari Canals.

Salient Features:

Table 4.14: ―Silent Feature of Kotri Barrage‖

Barrage Kotri



No. of Bays 44

Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) 43.1

Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs) -

Figure 4.14: ―Kotri Barrage‖


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindh


Page 65 of 127

4.4.7 Rasul Barrage:

Rasul Barrage is a Barrage on the River Jehlum between Jehlum District and Mandi

Bahauddin District, Punjab. It is situated 72 km downstream of Mangla Dam. Rasul Barrage is

used to control water flow in the River Jehlum for irrigation and flood control purposes. Rasul

Barrage was constructed in 1968 and has a discharge capacity of 24070 cubic meters per second.

Water is diverted from this point to Chenab River at Qadirabad through Rasul-Qadirabad link

canal and then ultimately transferred to Sulemanki Barrage on the Sutlej River. Rasul-Qadirabad

link canal has the second largest water discharge capacity after Chashma-Jehlum link canal. It

has 538-m³/s discharge capacity while Chashma-Jehlum link canal has 615-m³/s capacity.

Salient Features:

Table 4.15: ―Silent Feature of Rasul Barrage‖

Barrage Rasul



No. of Bays 42


Off taking canals 2

Figure 4.15: ―Rasul Barrage‖


Page 66 of 127

4.4.8 Marala Barrage:

Marala headworks is headworks situated on the River Chenab near the city Gujrat and

Sialkot in Punjab. Marala Headwork‘s is a large hydro engineering project and is used to control

water flow and flood control in the River Chenab. After cutting across the Pir Panjal Range,

Chenab River enters the Sialkot District. Here the Marala Barrage was built across the river in

1968 with a maximum discharge of 1.1 million ft³/s (31,000 m³/s). Two major water channels

originate at the Marala headworks—the Marala-Ravi Link Canal and the Upper Chenab Canal.

Proposals are under consideration to build Mangla Marala Link Canal to overcome any shortage

of water in future.

Salient Features:

Table 4.16: ―Silent Feature of Marala Barrage‖

Barrage Marala


Max. Design Discharge (cumec) 31,000

No. of Bays 66


Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cumec) 31000

Figure 4.16: ―Marala Barrage‖


Page 67 of 127

4.4.9 Khanki Barrage:

Khanki Headworks is a headwork situated on the River Chenab in Gujranwala District,

Punjab. It was constructed in 1889 and is considered to be the oldest headworks in Pakistan.

Khanki Headworks is used for irrigation and flood control. It is also used to provide water to

tributaries such as the Lower Chenab Canal, which originates from Khanki Headworks. Khanki

controls water distribution over 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of agricultural lands by one main

distributary, the Lower Chenab Canal, and 59 minor distributaries.

Salient Features:


Barrage Khanki



No. of Bays 48


Off taking canals 1

Figure 4.17: ―Khanki Barrage‖


Page 68 of 127

4.4.10 Qadirabad Barrage:

Qadirabad Headworks is headworks on the River Chenab in Hafiz Abad District, Punjab

Qadirabad Headworks is used to control water flow in the River Chenab for irrigation and flood

control purposes.

Salient Features:


Barrage Qadirabad



No. of Bays 50


Off taking canals 1

Figure 4.18: ―Qadirabad Barrage‖

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headworks

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Chenab

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Chenab


Page 69 of 127

4.4.11 Trimmu Barrage:

Trimmu Barrage is a barrage on the Chenab River in the Jhang District, Punjab. It is

situated downstream of the confluence of the River Jehlum and River Chenab. It is situated some

25 km from the city of Jhang near the village of Atharan Hazari where the River Jehlum flows

into the River Chenab. Trimmu Barrage is used to control water flow into the River Chenab for

irrigation and flood control purposes.

Trimmu Barrage was constructed between 1937 and 1939 by English engineer. Its name

was changed later, primarily as a flood control mechanism to protect the city Jhang from floods.

Salient Features:

Table 4.19: ―Silent Feature of Trimmu Barrage‖

Barrage Trimmu


Max. Design Discharge (cumec) 645,000

No. of Bays 37

Length of Barrage 3025

Off taking canals 3

Figure 4.19: ―Trimmu Barrage‖



Page 70 of 127

4.4.12 Panjnad Barrage:

The Panjnad barrage is the last barrage constructed on River Chenab at downstream

confluence point of River Sutlej. The barrage was constructed in 1925-1929 with design

discharge of 450,000 cusec and upstream HFL RL 341.5 to irrigate 1.8325 million acres of

Bahawalpur and Rahim yar Khan Districts by diverting 11882 cusecs.

Salient Features:

Table 4.20: ―Silent Feature of Panjnad Barrage‖

Maximum designed capacity 700,000 cusec

Maximum recorded flood in 1973 802,516 cusec

Total width between abutments 3,400 ft.

Clear water way 2,820 ft. (47 bays of 60 ft. each)

Minimum U/S flood level R.L. 341.5 R.L. 341.50 ft.

Minimum D/S flood level R.L. 340.30 ft.

Pond level – normal R.L. 337.50 ft.

Off-Taking Canals 3

Figure 4.20: ―Panjnad Barrage‖


Page 71 of 127

4.4.13 Balloki Barrage:

Balloki Headwork‘s is a headwork‘s on the Ravi River in the Punjab. Balloki Headworks

is used for irrigation and flood control.

Salient Features:

Table 4.21: ―Silent Feature of Balloki Barrage‖

Barrage Balloki



No. of Bays 48


Off taking canals 1

Figure 4.21: ―Balloki Barrage‖


Page 72 of 127

4.4.14 Sidhnai Barrage:

The meaning of the word SIDHNAI is Straight River. A stretch of eight miles of River

Ravi at Sidhnai is nearly straight and does not meander. It is thought that is could be an artificial

channel excavated in the distant past to prevent flooding in the Multan area. Before construction

of the new Barrage, an old weir existed about six miles D/S of the Barrage. The weir known as

Sidhnai Weir could only pass some 100,000 Cs of water as its maximum capacity. A new

Barrage was designed to pass a maximum peak discharge of 150,000 Cs located about 31000 Ft

U/S of the old weir. D/S straight reach was excavated and widened to increase the capacity from

100,000 Cs to 150,000 Cs. The existing road bridge on Multan Shorkot road and Railway Bridge

were re-constructed and the existing weir was dismantled. The object of new Sidhnai Barrage is

to receive water from Chenab and Jehlum Rivers from Trimmu for feeding Sidhnai and Sidhnai-

Mailsi-Bahawal Canals.

Salient Features:

Table 4.22: ―Silent Feature of Sidhnai Barrage‖

Barrage Sidhnai



No. of Bays 15


Off taking canals 2

Figure 4.22: ―Sidhnai Barrage‖


Page 73 of 127

4.4.15 Sulemanki Barrage:

Sulemanki Headworks is Headworks on the River Sutlej in the Punjab. Sulemanki

Headworks is used for irrigation and flood control.

Salient Features:

Table 4.23: ―Silent Feature of Sulemanki Barrage‖

Barrage Sulemanki



No. of Bays 24


Off taking canals 3

Figure 4.23: ―Sulemanki Barrage‖

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_(Pakistan)


Page 74 of 127

4.4.16 Islam Barrage:

Islam Barrage, located about six miles north-west of Hasilpur town, was constructed

across River Sutlej during 1922-1927 as a component of Sutlej Valley Project for feeding

Bahawal Canal (5,400 cusecs) and Qaim Canal (558 cusecs) on the left bank and Mailsi Canal

(4,883 cusecs) on the right bank. It was designed for a maximum discharge of 300,000 cusecs.

After the implementation of Indus Water Treaty, the head regulator of Mailsi Canal at Islam

Barrage was abandoned and the canal started receiving supplies from the new Sidhnai-Mailsi

Link Canal constructed in 1965. Similarly the capacity of Bahawal Canal was reduced to 1,000

cusecs by shifting lower areas of the canal on to the new Mailsi-Bahawal link.

Salient Features:

Table 4.24: ―Silent Feature of Islam Barrage‖

Barrage Islam



No. of Bays 29


Off taking canals 2

Figure 4.24: ―Islam Barrage‖


Page 75 of 127

Mailsi barrage and syphon is constructed on Sutlej river to control water for flood and

irrigation purposes. Ghazi Brotha Barrage is on Indus River and is used for irrigation and flood

control purposes. Munda Headworks is situated on River Sawat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

approximately 5 km downstream of the under construction Munda Dam and 35 km of Peshawar.

It is used for irrigation and flood control purposes in River Sawat.

4.5 Conclusion:

Above all information was about the dams and barrages of Pakistan, some of them was

constructed after Indus Water Treaty in 1960 to overcome the shortage of water in eastern rivers

by constructing link canals from western rivers, in next pages we will discuss about different

canals off-taking from these barrages, their location and discharge etc.

References: Economic Survey of Pakistan - P&D Division, Islamabad

South Asia - Water Vision 2025 - A Document Framed by Global Water Partnership

(2000)

Engr. Dr Izhar ul Haq, ―Barrages and Dams in Pakistan‖ for Pakistan Engineering

Congress, 1990.

Pakistan Water & Power Development Authority, ―Annual Report 1999- 2000‖, 2001.

Asim R. Khan, M. Kaleem Ullah, Saim Muhammad, ―Water Availability and Some

Macro Level Issues Related to Water Resources Planning and Management in the Indus

Basin Irrigation System in Pakistan‖, 2002




1993.

www.scribid.com

Sridhar seema(2008), Kashmir and Water: conflict and cooperation, In shahid imtiaz

Advanced Contemporary Affairs(Ed),Lahore: Advanced Publishers, pp 263-269.

Partial data acquired from Indus River System Authority for flows of rivers in Pakistan.

www.wikipedia.com

http://www.scribid.com/


Page 76 of 127

Chapter No. 05

Canal System of Pakistan

5.1 What is Canal?

Canal may be regarded as a man-made water way that serves the function of drainage or

irrigation. Canal takes the water from river and transports it to the field area where utilization is

made. The canals come out from river dams and barrages. A canal may be lined or unlined

depending upon its material of formation. If a canal is made up of natural material then it is

unlined, if the material is other than natural material then canal is lined.

5.2 Canal System of Pakistan:

The irrigation and canal system of Pakistan is regarded as best among others worldwide.

It is also the largest. About three fourth of the agricultural land of Pakistan comes under this

canal system. At present Pakistan have three large dams and many small dams in this system.

These dams are controlled by 19 barrages. A total of 58 canals are included in this system.

Among these 12 are linked and other 46 are normal canals. To utilize ground water 0.7 million

tube wells have been installed. In Pakistan canals are the most popular means of irrigation as

they supply plenty of water at very cheap rates.

5.2.1 Types of canals in Pakistan:

Canal System of Pakistan consists of three main important types of canals;

Perennial Canals

Non-Perennial Canals

Inundation Canals

a) Perennial Canals:

These are crucial in canal system of Pakistan. Perennial canals ensure regular supply of

water all the year round. These canals supply water to farmer‘s field. Perennial canals sprout

from barrages or dams. Punjab has many of these canals. These include Lower and upper Bari

Doab, Lower & Upper Chenab canal and Sidhnai. Apart from these Upper Jehlum and river

Sutlej‘s Canals are also important. Trimmu Headworks is the starting point of Jehlum canals.

Sutlej River originates from it at Islam, Panjnad, Ferozpur and Sulaimanki Headworks.

b) Non-Perennial Canals:

Non-perennial canals only run in Monsoon and summer. They get their water from rains.

This category also has many canals. These include Sutlej, Sidhnai (from Ravi) and haveli (from

Chenab) canals. They also constitute an important part in canal system of Pakistan.


Page 77 of 127

c) Inundation Canals:

Rainy weather and season is the only time when these canals run. It actually happens due

to raised level of water in rivers. Uncertain water quantity is supplied by them. Their source of

water is also river but there is a difference. They carry extra flood water. That is why these are

also called flood canals. Some canals of Chenab and Indus River are the examples.

5.3 Link Canals:

Link canals are used are used to divert water from one river to other river. There are 12

link canals are in Pakistan. Following are the link canals of Pakistan. These link canals were

constructed after Indus Water Treaty during the period of 1960 to 1970s.

Chashma-Jehlum

Taunsa-Punjnad

Marla-Ravi

Upper Chenab-Ravi

Rasul-Qadirabad

Qadirabad-Balloki

Balloki-Sulemanki

Trimmu-Sidhnai

Sidhnai-Mailsi

Mailsi-Bahawal

Abasia Link Canal

BRBD

The link canals have a total length of about 800 Km with a total capacity of about

100,000 cusecs. These canals transport water from the three western rivers to the three eastern

rivers which run short of water as their water has been allotted to India. Now we will discuss the

features of these link canals.

5.3.1 Chashma-Jehlum Link Canal:

It joins the Jehlum and Indus River. It off takes from Chashma Barrage on its left bank

and conveys water to River Jehlum to meet the requirement of the canals off-taking on trimmu

headwork‘s on river Jehlum near Jhang. The link is an unlined earthen channel with a design

capacity of 21,200 cusecs, bottom width 380ft, and a full supply depth of 14ft.The work on the

canal was started in 1967 and completed in 1970.its length is 94km. Greater Thal canal also off

takes from C-J link canal. Discharge of Greater Thal canal is 8500 cusec.

5.3.2 Tauns-Punjnad Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 1200 cusecs. It takes –off from Taunsa on the Indus and transfers

water from the Indus to the Chenab to feed the Punjnad Canals Its length is 58 kms.

5.3.3 Marala-Ravi Link Canal:

This canal was designed for a capacity of 22,000 cfs with a velocity of 4.28 feet per

second, a depth of 14.6 feet. It links are Chenab & Ravi. Its length is 100kms.


Page 78 of 127

Fig 5.1: ―Different Canals off taking from Different Barrages‖


Page 79 of 127

5.3.4 Upper-Chenab-Ravi Link Canal:

It originates from Marala barrage on river Chenab. It links Chenab with Ravi. Its Head

discharge is 16850 cusecs and tail discharge is 11373 cusecs. Its length is 26.659 miles. It passes

from district Sheikhpura and reaches to the River Ravi.

5.3.5 Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 19000cusecs and it is the 2nd

largest link canal after Chashma-

Jehlum link canal. It transports water to the Chenab River Upstream of the Qadirabad Barrage. It

is the link between Jehlum and Chenab. Its length is 40km.

5.3.6 Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal:

It originates from Qadirabad Barrage on River Chenab. Its discharge capacity is 18,600

cusecs. It transfers water from Chenab to Ravi at Balloki Barrage. Its length is 125kms.

5.3.7 Balloki-Sulemanki Link Canal:

It originates from Ravi River at Balloki barrage. Its discharge capacity is 15, 400

cusecs. It connects the Ravi with Sutlej. Its length is 84kms. The Balloki Sulemanki (BS) Link

Canal was constructed in 1967 under Indus Basin Treaty off-taking from Balloki Barrage.

5.3.8 Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 11000 cusecs. It transfers water from Chenab via Trimmu

Barrage to the Ravi. Its length is 66kms.

5.3.9 Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal:

It originates from Ravi River at Sidhnai barrage and joins Sutlej River at Mailsi. Its

discharge capacity is 10,100 cumec. Its length is 198kms.

5.3.10 Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal:

Its discharge capacity is 310 cumec. It originates from Mailsi –Siphon, and supplies

water to Bahawal canal.

5.3.11 Abasia Link Canal:

It originates from river Chenab at Panjnad barrage.

5.3.12 Bambanwala, Ravi & Bedian Link Canal:

The Link Canals have discharge capacities ranging from 2200 cusecs to 4200 cusecs.

Three rivers are linked. Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Its length is 158kms.

5.4 Irrigation Canals: Irrigation canal is one whose water is used for irrigation purposes. Irrigation canals

consist of main canals, Branch canal, Major and minor distributaries. There are about 46 main


Page 80 of 127

canals in Pakistan. Here we will discuss the main canals off-taking from the barrages discuss in

previous chapter.

5.4.1 Canals on Ravi River:

Following irrigation canals are off-take from river Ravi;

a) Balloki Barrage:

Following irrigation canal off takes from Balloki barrage;

Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC):

Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) off-takes from Balloki Barrage which is located

southwest of Lahore at a distance of about 65 km. The Balloki Barrage was constructed during

1911-13 and LBDC was commissioned in 1914. The LBDC serves a cultivable command area of

about 1.7 million acres in Districts Kasur, Okara, Sahiwal and Khanewal. Approximately

275,000 farm families in the LBDC command derive their livelihoods directly from crops grown

over the command area including wheat, rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane, fodder, flowers,

vegetables, and citrus and other orchard crops. LBDC is an important and progressive agriculture

area in Punjab and offers significant potential for increased productivity.

Salient Features of LBDC:

Designed Capacity at Head 9,841 cusecs

Canal Command Area 1,700,000 acres

Present Carrying Capacity (Kharif) 8,600 cusecs

Water Allowance 3.33 cusecs/1000 acres

Length of Main Canal 125 miles

Length of Branch Canal 33.5 miles

Length of Distributaries and Minors 1,500 miles

Fall Structure 20

Head Regulators 55

Bridges 17

Outlets 3,927 No's


Page 81 of 127

b) Sidhnai Barrage:

From Sidhnai Barrage Sidhnai canal with discharge capacity of 127 cusec, Sidhnai-Mailsi

and Mailsi- Bahawal link canals are off take.

5.4.2 Canals of River Sutlej:

Following irrigation canals off take from River Sutlej;

a) Sulemanki Barrage:

Following irrigation canals off take from Sulemanki Barrage;

1) Pakpatan Canal:

Location: Multan

Design Discharge: Head discharge is 5508 cusecs and tail discharge is 24 cusecs.

Length of Canal: 113.47 miles Area to Be Irrigated.

Gross area is 1046326 and culturable area is 961158.

2) Eastern Sadqiya Canal:

Location: Multan.


Length of Canal: 49 miles Area to Be Irrigated.


3) Fordwah Canal:

Location: Multan.


Length of Canal: 8.97 miles.

Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 465024 and culturable area is 430112.

b) Islam Barrage:

Following irrigation canals off take from Islam Barrage;

1) Qaim Canal:

Location: Multan.

Design Discharge: Head discharge is 483.00 cusecs and tail discharge is 61 cusecs.


Page 82 of 127

Length of Canal: 7.43 miles Area to Be Irrigated.


2) Bahawal Canal:

Location: Multan.



Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 57469and culturable area is 52023.

5.4.3 Canals on Chenab River:

Following canals are off-take from Chenab River;

a) Marala Barrage:

Following irrigation canals off take from Marala Barrage;

1) Upper Chenab Canal:

Location: Lahore Zone Design

Discharge: Head discharge is 16850 cusecs and tail discharge is 11373 cusecs

Length of Canal: 26.659 miles

Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 19600 and culturable area is 12449

2) Marala Ravi Link Canal:

Location: Lahore Zone

Design Discharge: Head discharge is 22000 cusecs and tail discharge is 20000 cusecs



b) Khanki Barrage:

Only one canal off-takes from Khanki barrage which is Lower Chenab Canal.


Page 83 of 127

Lower Chenab Canal: It was dug in 1892. Following distributaries are coming out of L.C.C;

Rakh Branch Canal Jhang Branch Canal (Upper) Jhang Branch Canal (Lower) Gogera Branch canal etc.

These canals irrigate 1.2 million acres of cultivable lands in Hafiz Abad, Nankana Sahib,

Faisalabad, Jhang, Toba Tek Singh and Chiniot districts through a network of 67 distributaries.

The land of LCC (W) Area Water Board is very famous all over the world for the production of

rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, wheat, oil seed and fodder. The Lower Chenab Canal (East) is

about 300 km in length and 60 km in width. It covers a gross area of about 2.12 million acres

with CCA of 1.84 Million acres in the districts of Gujranwala, Hafiz Abad, Sheikhupura,

Faisalabad, Nankana Sahib and Toba Tek Singh.

Salient Features of L.C.C:

Table 5.1: ―Salient Features of LCC‖

Year of completion 1892

Design discharge 11727 cusec

Length 155.9 (canal mile)

Off-taking location Left bank canal(Khanki head works)

Area to be irrigated 3054000 acres 1.24 mHa

Location of area Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad Distt

i. Rakh Branch Canal:

The Rakh Branch originates from canal Lower Chenab. The canal was dug in 1892

during colonial rule. Many famous towns are situated at near the Rakh Branch such

as Safdarabad, Sangla Hill, Salarwala, Chak Jhumra, Gutwala, Abdullahpur and Faisalabad. The

canal ends at Samundri. Rakh Branch Canal has a length of 31.86 kilometres. The upstream and

downstream discharge of Rakh Branch Canal in Hafiz Abad Division is given in the following

table as;

Table 5.2: ―U/S and D/S discharge of Rakh Branch Canal‖

Sr no. Discharge U/S

(cusec)

Discharge D/S

(cusec)

U/S level

(FSL) ft

D/S level

(FSL) ft

Drop

Ft

1 1099 1066 666.90 664.59 2.31

2 1055 938 657.45 654.73 2.72

3 938 878 651.49 649.29 2.20

4 878 755 646.44 640.44 6.00

5 755 640 636.73 631.18 5.58

6 640 576 628.88 626.41 2.47

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Chenab

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safdarabad

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangla_Hill

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salarwala

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chak_Jhumra

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gutwala&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullahpur,_Faisalabad

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisalabad

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samundri


Page 84 of 127

Fig 5.2: ―Line Diagram of LCC‖

ii. Gogera Branch Canal:

Gogera branch canal also called as upper Gogera branch off-takes from LCC, with a

design discharge of 6000 cusec and length of canal is about 77.51 miles. Barala branch and lower

Gogera branch canals are off take from upper Gogera branch.

iii. Jhang Branch Canal:

The Jhang Branch is a canal that originates from the Lower Chenab canal. It is the

longest canal of Sandal Bar. It supplies water to lands in three

districts, Faisalabad, Jhang and Toba Tek Singh. Hence, the canal's major area of distribution

is Rachna Doab.

c) Trimmu Barrage:

From Trimmu barrage Haveli canal, Rangpur canal and T-S link canals off take. Both

canals run parallel and ultimately fall in river Ravi at Sidhnai. T-S link canal is a link canal while

Haveli canal is an irrigation canal.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Chenab

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandal_Bar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisalabad_District

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhang_District

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toba_Tek_Singh_District

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachna_Doab


Page 85 of 127

Haveli Canal:

Location: Multan Design

Discharge: Head discharge is 12500cusecs and tail discharge is 10000 cusecs

Length of Canal: 44 miles

d) Panjnad Barrage:

Following canals off take from Panjnad Barrage;

1) Panjnad Canal:

Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge.

Head discharge is 10484 cusecs and tail discharge is 4274 cusecs.

Length of Canal: 38 miles.


2) Abbasia Canal:

Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge.

Head discharge is 1394 cusecs and tail discharge is 587 cusecs.


Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 117663 and culturable area is 111333.

5.4.4 Canals on River Jehlum:

Following irrigation canals are off-take from river Jehlum;

a) Mangla Dam:

Upper Jehlum link canal off takes from Mangla dam.

Upper Jehlum Canal:

Year of Completion: 1915


Discharge : 1200 cusec


Page 86 of 127

b) Rasool Barrage:

Lower Jehlum and R-Q link canals off take from Rasool Barrage. R-Q link canal is the

link canal and Lower Jehlum canal is an irrigation canal.

Lower Jehlum Canal:


Location: It is a main canal located in Rasul Division.

Design Discharge: Its authorized head discharge is 5500 cusec. Its authorized tail

discharge is 3705 cusec.


Area to Be Irrigated: Gross command area is 1728349.00 Acre. Its Culturable command

area is 1485776.00 Acre.

5.4.5 Canals on Indus River:

Following canals are off-take from different barrages of Indus River;

a) Jinnah Barrage:

Thal canals off-takes Jinnah Barrage;

Thal Canal: The amount of water that it carries is 2.534 MAF. It is divided into 2 different

divisions.

i. Thal canal main line lower

Location: It is a main canal located in bhakkar.


Design Discharge: 4100 cusec


Gross Area: 3534 acres

Culturable Command Area: 2966 acres


Page 87 of 127

ii. Thal canal main line upper

Location: It is a main canal located in kalabagh. It is categorized in the zone of Sargodha.


Design Discharge: 9000 cusec


Gross Area: 2460861 acres

Culturable Command Area: 2115931 acres

b) Chashma Barrage:

Chashma Right Bank and C-J link canals are off-take from Chashma Barrage.

Chashma Right Bank Canal (CRBC):

Design Discharge: 2500 cusecs


c) Taunsa Barrage:

Following canals are off-take from Taunsa Barrage;

1) Kachi Canal (Under Construction): It will irrigate Muzaffargarh, D.G.Khan, Rajanpur districts

of Punjab and Dera Bugti, Naseerabad, Bolan, Jhal Magsi Districts of Baluchistan.

Length: 500Km (300Km Lined in Punjab 200Km Unlined in Baluchistan)

Capacity: 6000 Cusecs

Distributaries & Minors 2000KM, 713000 Acres

Command Area:

PHASE-I: 102,000 CCA

PHASE-II: 267,000 CCA

PHASE-III: 344,000 CCA


Page 88 of 127

2) Dera Ghazi Khan Canal (DGK Canal):

Location: It is a main canal located in D.G Khan.

Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8900 and tail discharge is 5514.


Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 947874 acres and CCA is 901984 acres.

3) Muzaffargarh Canal:

Location: Muzaffargarh Zone.

Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8901 and tail discharge is 2776.


Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 906490 and cultural command area is 838380.

d) Canals of Guddu Barrage:

Following canals are off-take from Guddu Barrage;

1) Ghotki Feeder/Canal:


Design Discharge 8490 cusecs

Length

Off-taking location Left bank canal (Guddu Barrage)

Area to be irrigated 855231acres 0.35mHa

Location of area Sukkar, Mirpur, Rohri, Kalat Distt.

2) PAT Feeder/Canal:

Location: Nasirabad and Jafarabad districts of Balochistan



Length 106CM

Off-taking location Left bank canal (Guddu Barrage)



Page 89 of 127

3) Desert Feeder/Canal:



Off-taking location Right bank canal (Guddu Barrage)

Location of area Sukkar, Mirpur,Rohri,Kalat Distt

4) Begari Sindh Feeder:



Length

Off-taking location Right bank canal (Guddu Barrage)


Location of area Sukkar, Mirpur, Rohri, Kalat Distt.

e) Canals of Sukkar Barrage:

Following canals are off-take from Sukkar Barrage;

1) East NARA Canal:

NARA canal is the longest canal of Pakistan, carrying discharge almost equal to that of

Thames River at London and its bed width which is 346 ft. is 1 ½ (one and half) times as big as

of Suez Canal.


Design Discharge 13649cusecs

Length 226CM

Off-taking location Left bank canal (Sukkar Barrage)


Location of area Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.

2) Rohri Canal:

Rohri Canal is the 2nd

largest canal of Pakistan which through slightly shorter in length

than Nara Canal is yet taking discharge much more than the former.







Page 90 of 127

3) East Khairpur Canal:



Length 10CM




4) West Khairpur Canal:



Length 24CM




5) North West Canal:



Length 36CM

Off-taking location Right bank canal (Sukkar Barrage)



6) Rice Canal:



Length 81CM




7) Dadu Canal:



Length 131.1CM





Page 91 of 127

f) Canals of Kotri Barrage:

Following canals are off-take from Kotri Barrage;

1) Abdul Wah Canal (Feeder):



Off-taking location Left bank canal (Kotri Barrage)


Location of area Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin, Mirpur

2) Fulleli Canal (Feeder):





Location of area Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin,Mirpur

3) Pinyari Canal (Feeder):






3) Kalari Baghar Canal (Feeder):



Length 5761m

Off-taking location Right bank canal (Kotri Barrage)



5.5 Conclusion:

Some irrigation canals are also off take from link canals. Upper and Lower Sawat canals

are off take from Munda Barrage. Left and Right Warsak canals are off take from Warsak dam

on Kabul River and only one canal also off takes from Ghazi brotha project. This was all about

the canal system of Pakistan. In next chapter we will discuss about telemetry system installed by

Government of Pakistan to observe withdrawal of water in different canals at different places of

Pakistan.


Page 92 of 127

References:

Safdar, M. (2007) Indus basin irrigation system of Pakistan. U.E.T.

Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, Lahore, ―Proceedings - Water for

the 21st Century: Demand, Supply, Development and Socio- Environmental Issues‖, June

1997.


1993.

www.scribid.com

Kirmani, S. (1959). Sediment problems in the Indus Basin, part I: Sedimentation in

reservoirs, Proceedings of the West Pakistan Engineering Congress, 43. Lahore, West

Pakistan Engineering Congress, Paper No. 336.

Salman, M.A.S. and K. Uprety (2002). Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia’s

International Rivers—A Legal Perspective. (Part II: India-Pakistan Relations). Law,

Justice and Development Series, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Zawahri, N.A. (2007). India, Pakistan, and Cooperation along the Indus River System,

Water Policy (Accepted for Publication).

Gulhati, N.D. (1973). Indus Waters Treaty: An Exercise in International Mediation. New

York: Allied Publishers.

Farhan Sami, ―Water Quality Monitoring of Hudiara Drain‖, an independent consultancy

for data analysis and water quality management plan, November 2001.


1993.

http://www.scribid.com/


Page 93 of 127

Chapter No. 06

Telemetry System

6.1 Telemetry System:

Telemetry is a highly computerized communications method by which measurements are

made and other data collected at remote or unreachable points and transmitted to receiving

equipment for monitoring. The word is derived from Greek origins: tele = remote and metron =

measure. The term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g. using radio,

ultrasonic, or infrared systems).

A telemeter is a device used to remotely measure any quantity. It contains a sensor, a

transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Telemeters are the physical

devices used in telemetry. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or

hard-wired, analog or digital, other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic

and optical.

6.2 Applications of Telemetry System:

Telemetry system has a wide range of applications some of them are given below;

Agriculture.

Water management.

Meteorology.

Oil and gas industry.

Space science.

Swimming Pools.

Defense, space and resource exploration.

Rocketry.

Flight testing.

Military intelligence.

Energy monitoring.

Resource distribution.

Medicine/Healthcare.

Fishery and wildlife research and management.

Communications. Etc.

Here we will discuss only its applications in agriculture and water management.


Page 94 of 127

6.2.1 Agriculture:

Many activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend upon well-timed

availability of weather and soil data. Therefore, wireless weather stations play a key role in

disease prevention and precision irrigation. These stations transmit parameters essential for

decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity, precipitation and leaf

fitness for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to

calculate evapotranspiration), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial

to irrigation decisions). Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to

come from within the crop, so telemetry system is used for this purpose.

6.2.2 Water Management:

Telemetry is important in water management, including water quality and stream gauging

functions. Main applications include AMR (automatic meter reading) groundwater monitoring,

leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. It can also be used on canal

heads to monitor the flow rate.

6.3 Telemetry System and Pakistan:

Telemetry System has been designed to observe discharge with the help of gate openings

and water levels. Since sensors are used to observe these parameters, therefore, it helps in

obtaining accurate measurements. The telemetry system is linked to the entire network and can

be facilitated at any other place through telephone/radio system, thus information is spread out to

every corner simultaneously. Thus it helps enormously the managers in proper regulation and

distribution of water while the farmers know about the quantum of water received by them.

The Telemetry system worth Rs 330 million, installed by the Water and Power

Development Authority (WAPDA) at around 23 points at various rivers for satellite monitoring

of water withdrawal from the rivers to help in resolving the issues relating to water distribution

and theft disputes between Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan.

6.3.1 Benefits:

Improved operating and stakeholder/ customer service capability.

Opportunities to standardize operating procedures and to better utilize staff.

Reduced costs and risks through standardization of technology.

Reduced incident risks through the reduction in the number and severity of operational

incidents and improved capability to respond once an incident has occurred (remote

monitoring, remote control, and ability to control groups of assets).

More knowledgeable and capable staff, learning through the power of the technology.

Better ability to negotiate with water managers and stakeholders.

IPD staff and Stakeholders receive information about distribution of water in their offices

etc.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_humidity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)


Page 95 of 127

6.3.2 Current Status in Pakistan:

In Pakistan telemetry system has been failed to provide correct data it has been providing

faulty data. In some cases there was a difference of almost 25 %, while in some places the

telemetry system even failed to provide data.

Earlier, the Indus River System Authority (IRSA) had refused to take over the charge of

the defective telemetry system, but the Water and Power Ministry ordered the regulatory body to

run the telemetry system, saying Siemens, a company which installed the system, would continue

to work with IRSA until the calibration becomes correct.

"Siemens, a German-based company, was monitoring the withdrawal of water at several

points of the Indus water distribution system through satellite and trying to confirm the

distribution of water among the provinces." There was an agreement between the government

and Siemens for operating the telemetry system for 6 months for which the company was being

paid Rs 8.8 million as operational charges. Half of the time of the agreement was expired, but so

far, at many points, the telemetry system was failed to provide correct reading.

Here are some examples of the faulty data of telemetry system providing on January 6

2005;

Telemetry system did not show any figures about the work of the spillways or

tunnel of the Tarbela dam, but in the manual reading considerable data has been

received. However, some data of the powerhouse was available there.

Similarly, regarding River Kabul flows at Nowshera the telemetry system reading

has shown mean discharge of about 19,743 cusecs, while in manual data it was

14,300 cusecs.

In Chashma, no data was available at the telemetry system; while in the manual

reading complete data was provided.

Regarding the water flows at Sukkur the telemetry system has shown 4,919

cusecs, which is 5,682 cusecs according to the manual data.

6.3.3 Causes of Failure in Pakistan:

Following are some causes of the failure of telemetry system in Pakistan;

1. Improper maintenance,

2. Lack of technical persons to operate telemetry system.

3. Sensor failure of the system.

4. No proper care. Etc.


Page 96 of 127

6.4 Conclusion:

In short telemetry system has many advantages. It reduces labor cost and save time. It

provides timely and exact data. But in Pakistan due to previous mentioned problems it is failed to

provide correct data. Therefore it is need of time to manage our telemetry system to avoid from

problems. In next chapter we will discuss different other problems faced by irrigation system of

Pakistan.

References:

David Hope, ―Justification for Large SCADA / Telemetry Systems‖, Perth, Western

Australia, November, 1998.

E.C. Mellinger, K.E. Prada, R.L. Koehler, K.W. Doherty, "Instrument Bus, An Electronic

System Architecture for Oceanographic Instrumentation", WHOI-86-30, August 1986.

H. Berteaux, S. McDowel, J. Bullister1 Carl Aibro, and A.J. Fougere, "Conceptual

Design: An Integrated Sea Water Sampler for the Ocean Sciences", National Science

Foundation, June 1989.

IEEE Serial Ascii Communication Protocol, IEEE- 997 Standard, 1985.

www.pakisan.com


Page 97 of 127

Chapter No. 07

Problems of Irrigation System

7.1 Introduction:

The future of Pakistan‘s agriculture depends on the future of its irrigation and drainage

system, which currently faces major problems. Increasing water logging and salinity,

overexploitation of fresh groundwater, low efficiency in delivering and use, inequitable

distribution, unreliable delivery, and insufficient cost recovery are some of these problems.

These problems, however, are only symptoms of a deeper problem the treatment by the

government of irrigation water as a public good. Such a treatment has caused inefficient pricing

of water, misallocation of resources and widespread rent-seeking behavior. In this chapter we

will discuss about different major problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan.

7.2 Major Problems of the Existing System:

Rigid system design and inadequate drainage, low delivery efficiency and inequitable

distribution of water, waterlogging and salinity, and over exploitation of groundwater in fresh

areas represent major problems in Pakistan‘s irrigation system.

7.2.1 Rigid System Design: Although the development of barrages, reservoirs, and link canals has provided more

control over distribution, the irrigation system is operated on historic canal diversion patterns

that in many cases no longer correspond to water requirements. Inefficient reservoir capacity

combined with the highly seasonal pattern of river flows which provide roughly 85 percent of

water during the summer result in inadequate water availability at the beginning and end of the

summer and during the winter. This mismatch between water supplies and water requirements

constrains agricultural production.

Each watercourse is a miniature irrigation system, with channels up to 10 miles long.

Watercourse commands range from 200 to 700 acres, with discharges of 1 to 3 cusecs. Each

command is divided into 25-acre squares, each of which has access to the public watercourse at a

single point and includes a network of farm channels. Because the average farm is much smaller

than 25 acres and parts of the farm are not cropped each season, channels can take up as much as

8 percent of the square‘s area. A better organized square would allow for more cropping area and

less water loss. Improved layouts of farm land with shorter and fewer farm channels could also

improve on-farm delivery efficiency. Redesign of farm layout would require land consolidation

or integration, however, which is difficult in Pakistan because of poor land records. More

efficient designs could easily be adopted in new areas, however.

7.2.2 Inadequate Drainage:

Flat topography and lack of well-defined natural drainage in the Indus Plain create a

surface drainage problem, which has been compounded by the construction of roads, railways,


Page 98 of 127

flood embankments, and irrigation systems that obstruct natural drainage flows. Since the 1960s

efforts have been made to provide drainage in the irrigated areas and several large drainage

programs are ongoing. Out of the gross canal commanded area of 16.7 million hectare acres

about 6.5 million hectare acres requires drainage, of which about 1.86 million hectare acres are

covered under ongoing projects. Providing drainage to such a vast area is a large undertaking. An

area of about 2.38 million hectare acres is estimated to have a water table of less than 5 feet. The

government considers such areas disaster areas give them high priority for drainage. On-going

projects cover only 0.85 million hectare acres of designated disaster areas.

Provision of drainage is essential for maintaining the agriculture sector resource base:

disposal of drainage effluent in the rivers, canals, and evaporation ponds will not be feasible in

the long run. An outlet to the sea with link drains from the rest of the basin will be required to

carry highly saline effluent to the sea. Drainage investments are highly viable, with rates of

return close to 20 percent. The absence of natural drainage and the continuous nature of the

Indus Plain groundwater system require that all drainage infrastructures be developed in an

integrated manner. Independently developed local schemes may be in danger of being

overwhelmed by neighboring undrained areas with high water tables and becoming ineffective.

Because of the large scope of the investments and cross linkages, balanced development in the

drainage sector requires integration of local area drainage needs and such infrastructural

developments as outfall drains for the conveyance of drainage effluent from larger tracts.

7.2.3 Low Delivery Efficiency and Inequitable Distribution:

As a result of age, overuse, and poor maintenance, canal delivery is extremely inefficient.

Average delivery efficiency is 35–40 percent from the canal head to the root zone, with most

losses occurring in watercourses. The loss of such a large proportion of surface water reduces

water available for crops and contributes to waterlogging and salinity.

In many irrigation systems with drainage, excess water and water lost in irrigation return

to the river, to be used again downstream. The loss in efficiency to the river basin is thus lower

than the loss to any single scheme. Inequitable distribution represents another serious problem.

Because of poor efficiency water does not reach users at the tail end of the system — at least not

at the rate intended in the system‘s design. Illegal pumping from canals exacerbates the

inequitable distribution of water.

7.2.4 Water-logging and Salinity:

Soil salinity may be robbing Pakistan of about 25 percent of its potential production of

major crops [World Bank (1992)]. In an environment like the Indus Basin (flat topography, poor

natural drainage, porous soils and semi-arid climate with high evaporation) irrigation without

adequate drainage will inevitably lead to rising water tables and salinity. The increase in the

diversion of river flows for irrigation and seepage from canals, watercourses, and irrigated areas

has meant a gradual rise in the groundwater table. By the 1960s a series of SCARPs were

initiated. Despite these efforts, however, about 30 percent of the gross commanded area is

waterlogged, of which about 13 percent is considered highly waterlogged. About 8 percent of the

gross commanded area is estimated to be severely affected by salt; another 6 percent is believed

to be moderately affected.


Page 99 of 127

7.2.5 Over-exploitation of Groundwater in Fresh Water Areas:

Groundwater use has contributed to increased agricultural production since the late

1970s. Groundwater tube wells not only supply additional water but provide flexibility to match

surface water supplies with crop water requirements. The explosive growth in groundwater use

by the private sector (6 percent annual growth in number 2 private tube well) may cause saline

water to contaminate freshwater aquifers by excessive lowering of water tables in fresh

groundwater areas. Furthermore, in many canal commanded areas, where canal water is not

sufficient because of inequitable distribution, farmers depend on tube wells and tend to

overexploit groundwater. In the absence of adequate leaching and effective conjunctive use of

surface and groundwater, excessive pumpage introduces salinity in the root zone.

7.3 Problems Caused by Inadequate Planning:

Following problems are faced by irrigation system of Pakistan due to inadequate planning

by government of Pakistan.

7.3.1 Inadequate Operation and Maintenance (O&M):

Pakistan‘s irrigation and drainage system has been deteriorating because of deferred

maintenance and utilization beyond design capacities. Under Bank Projects Provinces agreed to

maintain the 1988 levels of expenditure on surface irrigation and subsurface saline drainage

facilities in real terms. Actual expenditure fell far short of 1988 levels in all provinces except the

North West Frontier Province (NWFP): overall the gap is more than 24 percent, with gaps as

high as 37 percent in some regions (Sindh). Privatization of groundwater tube wells has

proceeded more slowly than planned and in Punjab and Sindh, where most of these tube wells

are located, O&M requirements are twice as high as estimated. Had O&M requirements of

publicly owned tube wells been included the financing gap would thus have been even larger.

7.3.2 Poor Investment Planning:

Investment planning for irrigation and drainage is conducted at three levels in Pakistan.

Sectorial plans establish a medium- to long-term framework for sectorial development, five-year

plans are used for short-term planning, and yearly allocations are made by the Annual

Development Programme (ADP). In the past much effort has gone into sectorial planning. Plans

such as the Revised Action Programme (RAP) and Water Sector Investment Planning Study

(WSIPS), prepared with foreign assistance, take a comprehensive look at sectorial requirements

and objectives. These plans are rarely incorporated wholly into either five-year plans or the ADP,

however and institutional and policy recommendations are often ignored. Instead, the tendency is

to invest in poorly planned civil works packages.


Page 100 of 127

7.4 Conclusion:

There are so many other problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan, including

influence of Indian dams on western rivers, water tempering by cultivators, conveyance losses

etc. so there is a need to mitigate these problems for efficient working of irrigation system of

Pakistan. Government of Pakistan is continuously trying to mitigate these problems and to

improve infrastructure of irrigation system.

References:

Bandaragoda D. J., and G. R. Firdousi (1992) Institutional Factors Affecting Irrigation

Performance in Pakistan. International Irrigation Management Institute Country Paper

Pakistan. 4: 30–32.

Pakistan, Government of (1988) Report of the National Commission on Agriculture.

Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Islamabad.

Mase, Toru (1990) Study of Water User‘s Associations for Irrigation in Asia. Journal of

Irrigation Engineering and Rural Planning (Japan) 18: 5–16.

Scott, William E., and David A. Redding (1988) Agricultural Credit in Pakistan.

Islamabad: U.S. Agency for International Development. March.

World Bank (1992) Islamic Republic of Pakistan: Changes in Trade and Domestic

Taxation for Reform of the Incentives System and Fiscal Adjustment. Washington, D.C.:

World Bank.


Page 101 of 127

Chapter No. 08

Rainwater Harvesting and Management

8.1 History:

Around the third century BC, the farming communities in Baluchistan (in present-

day Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran), and Kutch (in present-day India) used rainwater harvesting

for irrigation. The north Punjab areas Rawalpindi, Attock, Jhelum and Chakwal natives rely on

water sources from rainfall and ground water. Pakistan is known as an arid country having

subtropical climate and it may be divided into two regions.

Indus plain

Highlands

Dry climate is dominant in most of the country parts except northern highlands. On an

average about 750 mm of rain fall occurs annually in northern areas. Baluchistan receives about

250 mm of rainfall annually (MINFAL, 2010).

8.2 Rainwater Harvesting:

Collection and concentration of rainwater and runoff and its productive use for the

irrigation of annual crops, pastures and trees domestic and livestock consumption and

groundwater recharge. OR it may be defined as a usual technique applied to accumulate, transmit

and store rainfall from comparatively clean surfaces for further use in future in the same area at a

later time where the rainwater falls such as a mountainous catchment, bare surface or rooftop

surfaces (Mbiliny et al., 2005).The quality of rainwater is always high because of absence of any

obstacle such as mountains and soil where there is no mixing of different minerals and

dissolvable salts, during the rainfall period (Che-Ani et al., 2009). In distant areas of a country,

rainwater harvesting is an important source of water for developing the agriculture. Tsubo et al.

(2000) categorized rainwater harvesting according to the nature of catchment surface used and

the extent of activity.

8.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques

The development of rainwater harvesting technique has been practiced in various countries of the

world including Pakistan and in India (Glendenning and Vervoort, 2011). There are the

important features about which a considerable knowledge and understanding is required for

rainwater harvesting. There may be two rainwater harvesting techniques for the accumulation of

rainwater that may be used for different purposes.

Land-based.

Roof-based.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan


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Fig 8.1: ―Typical Layout of Water Harvesting Methods‖

Water Harvesting methods

Micro-catchments

Roof-top systems

On-farm systems

Contour bench

terraces

Eyebrow terraces

Inter-row systems

Semi-circular bunds

Vallerani WH basins

Contour bunds

Meskat

Negarim

Runoff strips

Small pits

Macro-catchments

Long-slope systems

Hillside conduit

Large bunds

Liman and tabias

Hafair and tanks

Cisterns

Flood-water systems

Water spreading

Wadi-bed cultivation

Jessour


Page 103 of 127

Fig 8.2: ―Categories of Rainwater Harvesting on the Basis of its Use‖

8.3.1 Land-Based:

When the infiltration requirements of the soil have been fulfilled and excess amount of

rainwater flow as overland flow and then become the runoff and this runoff accumulated in

reservoirs for agriculture growth purposes, in ponds for recharging purposes and in tanks for

household, this type of rainwater harvesting technique is called land-base.

8.3.2 Roof-Based:

The rainwater that falls on the top of the roof is harvested for a domestic purpose, small

scale agriculture purposes and is also sometimes used for drinking water because this water is

usually collected from clean surfaces. This type of water harvesting is called roof-based water

harvesting. Further there are three basic components of a typical roof top rain water harvesting

system.

a) Rooftop Catchment:

Rooftop catchment of a RWH system is the surface, which receives the rain water

directly. This can be the roofs in a rooftop system and hill, slopes and watershed or any other

surface in a runoff system.

b) Gutters and Down Pipes:

These are the pipelines and drains that carry rain water from the catchments to the rain

water harvesting. Gutters can be of PVC/PE or Galvanized Iron sheets.

c) Filter unit: If intended to use rainwater as drinking source.

d) Storage Tank:

Among the above elements the storage tank is the most key item especially its capacity

that determines the cost of the system and its reliability for sustainable water inflow.

Roof catchment systems

Domestic consumption

Rock catchment systems

Ground catchment systems

Small scale irrigation, nurseries, livestock consumption

Check and sand dams,

hafirs


Page 104 of 127

8.4 Factors Affecting on Rainwater Harvesting:

Following factors should be considered for the identification of most suitable sites for

rainwater harvesting (Prinz and Anupam 2002).

8.4.1 Rainfall:

For designing a rainwater harvesting system, the information about the rainfall intensity,

distribution and other characteristics is the most basic requirement. The distribution of rainfall is

very important. In several rainfall-runoff models, a threshold value of 5mm/event is usually used

for estimation of runoff generation (Prinz and Anupam 2002). Practical rainfall factors intended

for rainwater harvesting system comprise.

Number of days when the rainfall increases the threshold rainfall of the catchment

on weekly and monthly basis.

In years, for the mean monthly possibility and incidence of rainfall.

Possibility as well as reoccurrence for maximum and minimum monthly rainfall.

Frequency distribution for rainstorm of various definite intensities.

Intensity of rainfall.

8.4.2 Land Cover:

Surface runoff generated by the rainfall is also affected by the land cover or vegetation.

Increase in the density of vegetation consequences in a subsequent increase in the interception

losses, retention and infiltration rates which consequently decrease the volume of runoff. Density

of vegetation may be characterized with the dimension of area covered under vegetation.

8.4.3 Topography and Terrain Profile:

The terrain structure with slope grade and relief intensity is other factor in determining

the nature of rainwater harvesting. The analysis of terrain can be applied in order to determine

the slope length which is a parameter considered extremely important used for the

appropriateness of area for rainwater harvesting. With the increase in slope, the volume of runoff

along the slope length increases. The slope length can be used to estimate the appropriateness for

large-scale, small scale or varied rainwater harvesting system (Prinz et al., 1998).

8.4.4 Soil Texture and Soil Depth:

The rainwater harvesting in the vicinity of either cropping or catchment strongly depends

on the characteristics of soil such as the structure of the surface which affects the process of

runoff generation from the rainfall, rate of percolation as well as infiltration, texture and depth of

the soil which will be useful in determining the volume of rainwater accumulated in the soil.


Page 105 of 127

8.4.5 Hydrology of Area:

The processes of hydrology related to rainwater harvesting techniques are concerned for

the generation, movement in addition to accumulation of runoff by rainfall surrounded by a

particular area. The rainwater that falls on an area may be valuable in the form of direct runoff

otherwise useless (evaporation, infiltration and deep percolation). The amount of rainfall that

falls on a particular area which generates a considerable volume of runoff is an indicator of

rainwater harvesting site suitability.

8.4.6 Social, Economic and Transportation Conditions:

The social and economic situations of an area being considered in support of rainwater

harvesting system are much significant for development, designing along with implementation.

The probability for achievements is much better if resource consumer as well as group of people

is taking part since early planning phase. The critical issues of the community should be

considered for the development of rainwater harvesting such as farming system, famers financial

potential, acceptance of farmer for advanced farming and irrigation techniques, possession and

rights of land use.

8.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Affects:

Generally delicate and restricted capacities to adjust the environmental variation have

been observed in ecosystem of dry and hilly areas (prinz et al. 1988). If the rainwater harvesting

techniques are used in such areas then the results of environmental variation will be high. Latest

rainwater harvesting systems may possibly capture runoff at upstream element of catchment,

therefore decreasing the potential of runoff at downstream consumer of their share of resources.

Rainwater harvesting technique must be considered as constituent of the local rainwater

improvement and management system.

8.5 Rainwater Harvesting Advantages:

In dry and hilly areas the main advantage of rain water harvesting is supplying water for

irrigation and domestic purposes. It also plays an important role to increase the moisture contents

of the soil, recharging the groundwater. The main advantages of rainwater harvesting are given

below;

This is free and comparatively clean source of water.

Rainwater is collected at that point where it is required.

The owner of the site operates and manages the rainwater harvesting structure.

Socially up to standard along with environmentally responsible.

It conserves soil and water resources.

Rainwater is friendly to landscape plants and gardens.

It can control heavy runoff.

It uses uncomplicated, flexible technology that is simple to maintain.

High costs saving particularly with increasing water costs.


Page 106 of 127

Supply safe water for human use after suitable treatment.

It has minimum operating expenses.

Construction, operation in addition to maintenance is not labor- intensive.

It can be used for groundwater recharging.

8.6 Rainwater Harvesting Disadvantages:

Following are some disadvantages of rainwater harvesting;

The uncertainties of the rainfall and limited supplies of water are the major

disadvantages of rainwater harvesting.

For longer dry period it is not a reliable source of water.

Less storage capacity limits, on the other hand the increased storage capacities

will require more operating as well as construction expenses.

The animal wastes and other wastes may contaminate the rainwater making the

rainwater risky for human uses.

Cistern leakage may be caused for deterioration of slopes load-bearing.

Storage sites may be dangerous for children if suitable entrance safety is not

available.

8.7 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Pakistan:

Pakistan is the sixth largest country in the world with a population of 2.48% of the

world's total population (UN, 2009). The total population increased from 34 million in 1951 to

170 million by the year 2010. The proportion of urban population increased from 17% in 1951 to

36% by 2010 with urban population of 58 million and population density of more than 209

persons per square kilometer. Hasty urbanization and high population growth rate have directly

impacted the water demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. In Pakistan, about

96 percent of its available water is being used for agriculture, 2 percent for industrial and the

remaining 2 percent is used for the domestic purposes. The year 2025 when the projected

population of the Country will reach up to 267 million, to avoid draught like situation the

adaptation measures are essential to be taken before the time (Ministry of Environment, 2012).

Rainwater harvesting is one of the alternate solutions to conserve and manage the water

resources. There is need to initiate rainwater harvesting not only in urban areas but in rural areas

also to deal with the emerging situation. The need is to be realized by the government as well as

the community. This is a high time to preserve rainwater at any cost and with an immediate

effect. In this regard, the pilot rainwater project has been started by the Capital Development

Authority (CDA) in Islamabad at the compound of Faisal Mosque with the partnership of UNDP

and Pakistan Council of Research for Water Resources (PCRWR). After achieving the results,

Islamabad will be the first among the major cities of Pakistan to have a rainwater harvesting

facility to re-charge the underground water table. CDA has planned to establish 20 more

rainwater-harvesting projects in other locations of the Islamabad city (PCRWR, 2004). Rooftop

and Landscape Runoff RWH techniques have also been practiced by Earthquake Rehabilitation

and Reconstruction Authority (ERRA) in many of the earthquake affected areas of Azad Jammu


Page 107 of 127

& Kashmir and Khabarpakhtun Khwah (Bagh, Rawalakot, Muzaffarabad, and Abbottabad)

which required technical improvement (Gardezi, n.d). The Sukaar Foundation and Water Aid

Pakistan have been striving to promote initiatives of rainwater harvesting in villages of Thar to

cope with the issue of water scarcity.

People in Thar Desert have been harvesting 0.06 % of total annual rainfall, enough to

meet one fourth of their yearly drinking water needs. The use of 0.25 % of total annual rainfall

can increase current rainwater harvesting capacity by three times and enable people to meet their

drinking water needs. By using further 0.28 % of total annual rainfall, the 23 % of total

cultivable land of Tharparker can be cultivated to produce low delta Rabi crops enough to meet

food needs of the people and help cope with frequent drought periods in the area (Suthar, 2012).

Importance of rainwater harvesting in Pakistan due to water scarcity especially the

drinking water should be realized. Due to unplanned urbanization, exploitation of ground water

usage has increased manifold and it is very hard to manage the water supply by the WASAs of

the country. The water conservation through rainwater harvesting in urban areas can be a

contribution to Sustainable Water Strategy for Pakistan. The marking out of potential rainwater

harvesting with the help of annual precipitation along with water demand in the present

investigation will of course help to conserve and manage water more efficiently and effectively

(Bhatti and Nasu, 2010). In urban areas, scarcity and accelerating demand of water is a major

concern as in case of Pakistan and it can be reduced by rainwater harvesting, using various

existing structures like rooftops, parking lots, playgrounds, parks, ponds, flood plains, etc.

8.8 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Punjab:

Pakistan Council of Research for Water Resources (PCRWR) has been conducting

research studies on rainwater harvesting since 1989 in the Cholistan desert by developing

catchments through various techniques and constructing ponds with different storage capacities

ranging between 3000 m and 15000 m. These ponds have been designed to collect maximum

rainwater within the shortest possible time and to minimize seepage and evaporation losses. As a

result of successful field research on rainwater harvesting system, PCRWR has developed 92

rainwater harvesting systems on pilot scale in Cholistan desert (Kahlon, n.d). The increasing

groundwater extraction in urban areas especially the large cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan

and other cities is posing increasing recharge requirements of the ground water. The annual

rainfall is reasonable and regular enough with respect to quantity for its harvesting but the

Punjab government and the concerned departments have no such planning or policy to take any

initiative. However, a considerable part of rainfall can be harvested through different techniques

if the Punjab government amend and implement the building byelaws. Resultantly, we can

reduce the observed groundwater declining trends in the city (Basharat and Rizvi, 2011).

8.8.1 Focused Area:

Although there is dire need to address the water shortage issues across the country but the

current study area comprises of six (6) major cities of Pakistan in Punjab i.e. Murree, Lahore,

Faisalabad, Multan, Rawalpindi and Chakwal. The selection of cities was also based on the

availability of the rainfall data. However, the capitals of all the provinces have been given due

importance in the study. The mean monthly and average annual rainfall data of these major cities

are given below.


Page 108 of 127

Lahore(1931-2011) Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Rain

fall(mm)

27 26 30 17 17 48 165 154 69 12 6 11

Faisalabad(1951-2004) Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Rain

fall(mm)

13 17 22 20 14 35 100 85 38 6 3 8

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Mean monthly rainfall data of Lahore

Rain fall(mm)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Mean monthly rainfall data of Faisalabad

Rain fall(mm)


Page 109 of 127

Multan(1950-2001) Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Rain

fall(mm)

8 10 18 13 12 13 58 35 22 4 3 7

Chakwal(1981-2005) Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Rain

fall(mm)

22 30 40 42 10 10 61 90 50 20 5 12

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Mean monthly rainfall data of Multan

Rain fall(mm)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Mean monthly rainfall data of Chakwal

Rain fall(mm)


Page 110 of 127

Rawalpindi(1981-2005) Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Rain

fall(mm)

50 80 82 50 30 55 250 300 100 25 10 20

Murree(1981-2005) Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Rain

fall(mm)

25 35 130 125 70 100 290 250 125 75 30 20

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Mean monthly rainfall data of Rawalpindi

Rain fall(mm)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Mean monthly rainfall data of Murree

Rain fall(mm)


Page 111 of 127

Chakwal Year 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005

Rain

fall(mm)

700 550 400 530 400 550 250 330 280 400

Lahore Year 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Rain

fall(mm)

550 390 1130 830 615 520 1185 550 750 650

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005

Average annual rainfall data of Chakwal

Rain fall(mm)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Average annual rainfall data of Lahore

Rain fall(mm)


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Faisalabad Year 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002

Rain

fall(mm)

430 620 650 350 360 420 270 350 290 350

Murree Year 1960 1961 1962 1965 1970 1975 1980 1995 2000 2005

Rain

fall(mm)

1275 1900 1280 1720 1710 1600 1700 1250 450 750

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002

Average annual rainfall data of Faisalabad

Rain fall(mm)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

1960 1961 1962 1965 1970 1975 1980 1995 2000 2005

Average annual rainfall data of Murree

Rain fall(mm)


Page 113 of 127

Multan Year 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Rain

fall(mm)

215 105 220 120 160 520 300 210 130 80

Karachi is the provincial capital of Sindh Province and is the largest city where Lahore in

the capital of Punjab, the second largest city of Pakistan. Karachi is relies on the surface water

for domestic use. The Rawalpindi city is the fourth largest city of Pakistan and mainly relies on

groundwater. The Faisalabad and Multan are certainly located in the flat alluvial plain of Punjab

province whereas Peshawar and Rawalpindi are located in hilly areas.

8.9 Conclusion:

Rainwater harvesting is a best technique in rain fed areas for agriculture purposes. In

Pakistan there are so many potential sites for rainwater harvesting. It is used to overcome the

shortage of irrigation water. In this technique rainwater is stored in this way risk of flood is also

minimized. There is a need to adopt this technique to conserve our water resources.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Average annual rainfall data of Multan

Rain fall(mm)


Page 114 of 127

References:

Ahmad, I. (2013) College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Punjab:

Lahore.

AHMED, A., U. MUSTAFA AND M.KHALID.2011. Impact of roof top rain water

harvesting technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Ashfaq, A. and Ashraf, M. (2014) Spatial and Temporal Assessment of Groundwater

Behaviour in the Soan Basin of Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan.

Pakistan Meteorological Department: Lahore


Page 115 of 127

Chapter No. 09

Ground Water and Its Quality

9.1 Importance of Groundwater

Groundwater is a reliable resource, which can be utilized any time. Groundwater is used for

agriculture, drinking water supply and industry all over the world, including Pakistan. Thirty five

percent of agricultural water requirements in Pakistan are met from groundwater. Most of the

drinking water supplies are also drawn from groundwater. If cost of one tube well is taken as Rs.

50,000, the total investment for groundwater development in Pakistan will be Rs. 30 billion.

Groundwater development is a significant factor in alleviating poverty, especially in rural areas

where groundwater access secures the agricultural output. Groundwater usage contributes US$

1.3 billion to the national economy per year. Studies have shown that due to use of groundwater,

yields of crops have increased 150-200 percent and cropping intensities have increased from 70

to 150 percent (Qureshi, 2004).

9.2 Groundwater Resources of Pakistan:

Total Groundwater potential = 67 MAF. The Indus plains constitute about 34 million

hectares (over 85 million acres) of cultivable land, which is under-lain predominantly by sand

alluvium to a considerable depth. Annual recharge to ground water system of this Indus plain is

estimated around 55 MAF, out of which about 48 MAF is within the commands of Indus basin

irrigation system (IBIS). Presently, 39 MAF is being extracted annually. Ground water is also

found in some rain-fed (Barani) lands, and intermountain valleys at depths varying from 100 to

200 ft. During 1950s, large area in the Indus basin became waterlogged and soil salinity

increased adversely affecting the agricultural productivity. It was the time when government got

involved and took initiatives in the ground water development. The efforts began to control the

twin menaces of waterlogging and salinity by the way of providing drainage facilities.

Government embarked on a series of SCARPs in the late 1950s aimed at lowering the ground

water table by providing "vertical drainage" through large capacity deep tube wells. Because of

better economic returns, priority was given to locating SCARPs in the areas with ground water

quality suitable for supplemental irrigation, making the drainage a byproduct in effect. During

past four decades, about 15000 SCARP tube wells have been installed by the Government in 57

projects covering a gross area of about 7.7 million hectares affected land for putting it back into

production. Almost 75% of all SCARP tube wells were installed in the Punjab. About 81% of

total tube wells installed in Punjab province are located in fresh ground water areas, whereas,

remaining 19% tube wells have been installed in saline ground water areas. The tube wells


Page 116 of 127

installed in the fresh ground water areas have been pumping water directly into watercourses;

thus, they are being used for irrigation in addition to canal water. However, the tube wells

installed in the areas with saline ground water, discharge saline water directly into drains, from

where it is being disposed of.

9.3 Historical Background:

Before the introduction of widespread irrigation, the groundwater table in the Indus Basin

varied from about 40 feet in depth in Sindh and Bahawalpur areas to about 100 feet in Rechna

Doab (the area between Ravi and Chenab Rivers).After the introduction of weir-controlled

irrigation, the groundwater table started rising due to poor irrigation management, lack of

drainage facilities and the resulting additional recharge from the canals, distributaries, minors,

water courses and irrigation fields. At some locations, the water table rose to the ground surface

or very close to the surface causing waterlogging and soil salinity, reducing productivity.

In the late 1950s, the Government embarked upon a programme of Salinity Control and

Reclamation Projects (SCARPS) wherein large deep tube wells were installed to control the

groundwater table. Over a period of about 30 years, some 13,500 tube wells were installed by the

Government to lower the groundwater table. Of these, about 9,800 tube wells were in the Punjab.

The projects initially proved to be quite effective in lowering the water table but with time, the

performance of the SCARP tube wells deteriorated. The development of deep public tube wells

under the SCARPS was soon followed by private investment in shallow tube wells. Particularly

in the eighties, the development of private tube wells received a boost, when locally

manufactured inexpensive diesel engines became available. Most of these shallow tube wells

were individually owned. Now more than 500,000 tube wells supply about 41.6 MAF of

supplemental irrigation water every year, mostly in periods of low surface water availability.

These tube wells compensated the loss of pumping capacity of the SCARP tube wells and helped

in lowering the water table.

9.3.1 Groundwater Potential in Pakistan Provinces:

Indus Basin is spread over four provinces of Pakistan – Punjab, Sindh, North West

Frontier and Baluchistan. The groundwater potential for each of these is discussed in the

following sections.

a) Groundwater Potential in Punjab:

The main source of groundwater in the Punjab lies in the four hydrogeological zones,

namely Potohar plateau & salt range, Piedmont areas, alluvial plains and Cholistan desert. Indus

River and its tributaries drain the province. In Punjab a lot of work has been carried out on

seepage from the irrigation system and the resulting recharge to the groundwater (PPSGWP,


Page 117 of 127

1998). The groundwater potential is based on rainfall recharge, groundwater recharge and

recharge from irrigation system. The rainfall recharge of 9.90 MAF (15% from 380 mm/year) in

different SCARP areas was worked out during the period 1987-97 (PPSGWP, 1998). The

recharge from return flow, irrigation application, and sub-surface inflows was assessed 7.08

MAF (22.5% of 31.5 MAF). Canal seepage varies from 2 to 8 cfs/msf depending on the size of

canal and drainage characteristics. A delivery of 24 large canals for the irrigation year 1990-91

was with an average of 54 MAF. The recharge from these canals was estimated 21.70 MAF

(40% of 54 MAF). The recharge from rivers was 3.5 MAF and return flows from domestic and

industrial use were assessed as 0.57 MAF (22.5% of 2.52 MAF). The total available groundwater

resource of the Punjab Province was estimated 42.75 MAF.

b) Groundwater Potential in Sindh:

The most important feature is the Indus River, the sole source of surface water for the

Province. The groundwater lies in the three hydrogeological zones namely Eastern (Thar) desert,

Western mountain and Indus valleys. Useable groundwater in the Province is mainly found in the

Indus Plain, which is recharged from the meandering river and from the irrigation network that

has been developed in the area. The other source of recharge - rainfall, is quite scanty and its

contribution to the resource is limited. Rainfall recharge was 1.96 MAF (2% of 265 mm per

year) as worked out by ACE and Halcrow (2001). The recharge from return flows (22.5% of

38.2 MAF), irrigation returns (22.5% of 3.5 MAF) was assessed 8.58 MAF and 0.79 MAF

respectively. In the Sindh, canal water losses have been taken as 15 % of the total average canal

supply of 45 MAF for the period 1988-2000. The recharges from these canals was estimated 6.76

MAF. The recharge from the rivers was assessed 0.3 MAF. The total available resource of the

Sindh Province was assessed to be 18 MAF.

c) Groundwater Potential in K.PK:

K.Pk lies in the four broad geological units namely, metamorphic and igneous rocks of

the northern mountains, Mesozoic rocks of the southeastern part, Tertiary rocks of the

southeastern part and upper Tertiary. The main groundwater resources in the Province are the

alluvial plains and many valleys, which are intermountain basins of tectonic origin. The rainfall

recharge was estimated 0.7 MAF (7% of rainfall over a sub-catchment). The average flows for

the period 1988-2000 was 6.68 MAF (ACE and Halcrow, 2001). In this Province, recharges from

the canal system were worked out 1.0 MAF (15% of 6.7 MAF). The groundwater recharges

include returns from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge

from rivers. The recharge from the return irrigation flows was assessed 1 MAF (15% of 6.5

MAF) and other return flows (15% of 0.88 MAF) were worked out to be 0.13 MAF. The total

groundwater resource of the NWFP was assessed as 3.11 MAF.


Page 118 of 127

d) Groundwater Potential in Baluchistan:

The regions of the Province, which are underlain by unconsolidated sediments formed by

the deposition of mountainous outwash from the surrounding highlands, have been divided into

12 distinct Basins, flood plains and valleys fills. The Province lies in the five hydrological zones

namely, Mountain ranges, Piedmont plains, Valley floor, plains and rolling sand plains. The

groundwater, in substantial quantities, occurs in unconsolidated aquifers in almost all basins and

sub-basins. The groundwater resources in six basins of the province namely Hamune, Lora,

Kachhi Plain, Nari, Pishin and Zhob have been assessed. The effective rainfall coefficient of

20% to the annual rainfall for the mountain areas is used to estimate rainfall of 1.21 MAF. In

Baluchistan canal supplies are small in total and restricted to the east of the Province, adjacent to

Sindh Province. For the period 1988-2000 the average canal flow was 1.94 MAF and recharge

from these canals was assessed as 0.29 MAF (15% of 1.94 MAF). Most of irrigated area of this

Province lies in a saline groundwater zone. Other components of groundwater recharge include

return flows from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge

from rivers. The recharge from return flows of irrigation application was estimated 0.37 (22.5%

of 1.62 MAF) and other return flow was 0.08 MAF (20% of 0.45 MAF). The total groundwater

resource of Baluchistan Province was assessed as 2.13 MAF, mg/l, for drinking purposes, as

there are no alternatives. In Mastung Valley, the groundwater has been found to have high

fluoride content. The Makran coast and Kharan have also been reported to have high fluoride

groundwater.

9.4 Challenges of Groundwater Management:

Groundwater management is facing the following challenges;

Depletion due to overdraft;

Pollution due to agricultural, industrial and human activities

Water logging and secondary salinization due to poor water management and

drainage and unregulated conjunctive use; and

Poor groundwater governance.

9.5 Ground Water Exploitation:

Total water withdrawal in 2008 was an estimated 183.4 km3, of which surface water

withdrawal accounts for 121.8 km3 (66.4 percent) and groundwater withdrawal accounts for 61.6

km3 (33.6 percent). This mainly refers to the IBIS, the withdrawal outside the IBIS being

extremely small (GoP, 2008a).


Page 119 of 127

In 2008, agriculture withdrew an estimated 172.4, or 94 percent of the total water

withdrawal. Municipal and industrial water withdrawal was an estimated 9.7 km3 and 1.4 km

3,

respectively (Figure 2) (GoP, 2008a; Zakria, 2000).

Fig 9.1: “Groundwater Withdrawal by Source (Total 183.421 km3

in 2008)‖

Fig 9.2: ―Groundwater Withdrawal by Sector‖


Page 120 of 127

Groundwater is pumped using electricity and diesel fuels. There are currently one million tube

wells, of which 87 percent are operated by diesel. Power failures, extended load shedding and

poor electricity supply are the main reasons for the slow growth of electric tube wells compared

to diesel-operated tube wells (Ahmad, 2008b).

Table 9.1: ―No Tube wells per years in Pakistan‖

Year Total Baluchistan K.Pk Punjab Sindh

1996-97 506,824 21,059 9,726 452,431 23,588

1997-98 531,259 22,048 11,956 473,667 23,588

1998-99 563,226 22,456 11,956 500,631 28,581

1999-2000 609,775 21,115 11,956 543,243 33,661

2000-01 659,278 21,115 12,842 588,130 37,191

2001-02 707,273 29,914 12,747 610,750 53,862

2002-03 768,962 31,794 12,758 656,898 67,512

2003-04 950,144 34,126 12,739 824,879 78,400

2004-05 984,294 34,492 12,753 845,573 91,472

2005-06 999,569 34,492 12,773 857,774 94,530

2006-07 931,306 32,222 14,382 884,228 474

2007-08 921,121 34,054 14,412 872,444 211

2008-09 921,229 34,054 14,553 872,444 178

9.6 Groundwater Depletion:

There is no mechanism for regulating groundwater use in Pakistan. Groundwater rights

are not protected under legislation. Anybody having land and sufficient financial resources can

install a tube well on his or her land and abstract any amount of water at any given time without

consideration of safe yields. Groundwater abstraction from 1965 to 2002 has increased from 10

BCM to 68 BCM. Over 80 percent of groundwater is exploited by the private tube well

owners/farmers.

Unplanned pumpage is creating severe management and equity problems. Due to

continuous lowering of water table, groundwater is becoming inaccessible to small farmers,

which is threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Already 5 percent of the tube

wells in Punjab and 15 percent in Baluchistan are beyond the reach of poor farmers. This

situation is likely to increase to 15 and 20 percent in the two provinces, respectively

(Mohtadullah, 2004).


Page 121 of 127

Table 9.2: ―Ground Water Depletion in Pakistan‖

Fig 9.3: ―Groundwater Recharge and Discharge Components‖


Page 122 of 127

9.7 Deterioration of Groundwater Quality Due to Salinization and Pollution:

Groundwater salinity in various provinces is shown in Figure 9.4. About 17 percent area

of Punjab and 75 percent in Sindh is underlain by saline groundwater (TDS>3000 ppm). About

70 percent of tube wells pump saline water for irrigation, which is escalating secondary

salinization. Problems are not only due to salinity but also sodicity.

Leaching from municipal and industrial effluents, fertilizers, pesticides, solid wastes, and

disposal of saline drainage effluent and seawater intrusion causes pollution and contamination of

groundwater. Untreated sewage and sullage in urban areas are disposed of into rivers and other

surface water bodies through a mixed system of open drains and sewage pipes in the major

metropolitan centers and primarily through open drains in the other urban centers. It is estimated

that in the province of Punjab, 112 comics of municipal and sewerage effluent is being disposed

of into the river bodies. The major part, i.e. 83 comics, of municipal and sewerage effluent of

Lahore city is disposed of into the river Ravi. Leakage of effluents from septic tanks and

sewerage drains endanger the aquatic and human life. A large number of industrial units are

scattered throughout Pakistan in rural and urban areas. These units dispose their wastewater into

the nearby drainage.

Fig 9.4: ―Groundwater Quality vs. Tube well Percentage for Different Provinces‖


Page 123 of 127

Table 9.3: ―Ground Water Quality in Faisalabad‖

9.7.1 Soil Salinization:

The salt-affected soils associated with the use of poor quality groundwater for irrigation

have become an important ecological entity of the Indus basin, yet according to the latest

estimates, the extent of salt-affected lands has decreased to about 4.5 million hectares from about

6 million hectares in 1980s (WAPDA 2007). Due to differences in annual rainfall and geo-

morphological conditions, the problem of salinity is much more severe in the lower part of the

Indus basin (Sindh province) where about 56% of the total irrigated land is affected with salinity.

This is mainly because of the presence of marine salts, poor natural drainage conditions and the

use Of poor quality ground water for irrigation because surface waters supplies in the Sindh

province are not enough to meet the actual crop water and leaching requirements. Furthermore,

leaching opportunities are also very limited due to highly saline soils at shallow depths and

highly saline groundwater at deeper depths (Bhutta and Smedema 2007). These problems have

brought into question the sustainability of the system and the capacity of Pakistan to feed its

growing population.

9.7.2 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts:

Declining groundwater tables and land degradation as a result of poor quality

groundwater use for irrigation has seriously affected the social fabric of Pakistani society. Drying

of karez systems in Baluchistan have increased the livelihoods burden on women due to out

migration of spouses for income supplementation. On average, a woman must carry more than

200 l of water every day, which creates an enormous burden on her time and physical capacities.

Similar conditions also exist in the Cholistan areas of Punjab where women have to walk miles

to bring fresh drinking water from natural streams as groundwater is very deep and hazardous to


Page 124 of 127

health a it contains heavy metals. Soil salinity remains a hazard for the Indus basin and threatens

the livelihood of farmers, especially the small-scale ones. Land degradation is reducing the

production potential of major crops by 25%, valued at an estimated loss of US$ 250 million per

year (Haider et al. 1999). Groundwater overdraft has also led to sea water intrusion in the coastal

areas of the Indus basin which is threatening ecology of wetlands. Important aquatic resources,

mangrove forests and coastal areas need to be protected. Mangrove forests cover 130,000 ha and

are an important source of firewood and provide the natural breeding ground for shrimps.

9.8 SCARP Pilot Projects:

The problem of salinity is all the more serious because the groundwater in the Indus basin

is saline except where the fresh water of the Indus and its tributaries has refreshed it over the

millennia. Furthermore, the irrigated area is extremely flat and, without proper drainage, prone to

waterlogging. The problem of adding irrigation water to ground water is accentuated when the

irrigation water supply must be increased to leach salts or when farmers over-irrigate to

compensate for an unreliable system (or in response to artificially cheap irrigation water).

Fig 9.5: ―Scarp Projects Location in Pakistan‖


Page 125 of 127

Attacking the twin menace is a massive undertaking, and the IDA's assistance is only a

small part of the effort. The IDA has made 27 irrigation loans or credits to Pakistan for a total of

US$1,305 million. Nine of these, or US$457 million, were principally for drainage to control

salinization and waterlogging. Nevertheless, the problem is far from solved, and Pakistan

continues to lose almost as much irrigated land each year as it gains from investments.

The SCARP Transition Pilot Project was supported by an IDA credit for SDR 8.7 million

(US$1O million). Although the vertical SCARP tube wells had been highly successful at

lowering the water table and reducing soil salinity, they were an unsustainable burden on the

government's budget. The costs of operating and maintaining the wells were substantial, and the

government did not recoup these expenditures from the farmers. Service grew progressively

worse as the tube wells began to deteriorate and power supplies grew less and less reliable. The

transition pilot was designed to resolve these problems by eliminating public tube wells in areas

with plentiful fresh groundwater and enabling farmers to construct their own tube wells.

9.8.1 Achievements and Shortcomings of Completed Projects:

By June 1985 WAPDA had completed 32 reclamation projects covering a gross area of

8.77 million acres. This included the construction of 12819 tube wells and 2131 miles of surface

drains at a total cost of Rs. 4955.00 million.

Table 9.4: ―Percent Change in Water Quality‖


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The projects in execution include 15 reclamation projects covering a gross area of 6.99 million

acres, involving construction of 3841 tube wells and 8979 miles of drains of which 4669 miles of

tile drains. The total estimated cost of these schemes is Rs. 10215.00 million. There can be no

doubt that the SCARP-projects have provided some relief to the affected lands but it is also

generally agreed that the objectives were only partially achieved. The SCARPs also had a great

impact through their demonstrative effect. This is evidenced by the construction of private tube

wells which number increased from a few thousands at the start of the programme to over

200000 by June 1985. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in

reducing the waterlogging and salinity conditions. Cropping intensities also increased but there

are many other factors involved and the exclusive contribution of the SCARPs has not yet been

evaluated. After 30 years of struggle and with billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from

solving the problem. The percentage change in water quality due to different SCARP projects is given in

table 9.4.

9.9 Conclusion:

This was all about groundwater and its quality. In some areas of Pakistan groundwater is

fit for agriculture and in some areas its quality is not good. Similarly due to continuous pumping

of water groundwater table declining day by day, water logging is also another problem of

groundwater. SCARP projects also have greater contribution in changing the groundwater

quality. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in reducing the

waterlogging and salinity conditions. It is our bad luck so that after 30 years of struggle and with

billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from solving the problems of groundwater.

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