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IRAN Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies
VOLUME XXXII 1994
CONTENTS
Page Governing Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii Report of the Council . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . iii
Obituary: Professor Louis Vanden Berghe ............. v Preliminary
Report on the 1993 Excavations at Horom, Armenia, by
Ruben S. Badaljan, Philip L. Kohl, David Stronach and Armen V.
Tonikjan ........................ 1
Elamites and Other Peoples from Iran and the Persian Gulf Region
in Early Mesopotamian Sources, by Ran Zadok .......... 31
The International Merv Project. Preliminary Report on the Second
Season (1993), by Georgina Herrmann, K. Kurbansakhatov et al.
53
The Fall of al-Maddiin: Some Literary References Concerning
Sasanian Spoils of War in Mediaeval Islamic Treasuries, by Avinoam
Shalem ..................... 77
The Chinese Uighur Animal Calendar in Persian Historiography of
the Mongol Period, by Charles Melville ............ 83
Anecdotes of a Provincial Sufi of the Dehli Sultanate, Khwaija
Gurg of Kara, by Simon Digby ...... .............. 99
The Accession of Iskandar Khan, by Audrey Burton ......... 111
The Ijdza from Yidsuf Al-Bahrmni (d. 1186/1772) to Sayyid Muhammad
Mahdi Bahr al-cUlfim (d. 1212/1797-8), by Robert Gleave . . . 115
James Baillie Fraser: Traveller, Writer and Artist 1787-1856, by
Denis
Wright ......................... 125 British Indian Views
(Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries) of
the Later Followers of the Raukaniyya Sect in Afghanistan and
Northern India, by Sergei Andreyev ............ 135
Production of Sugar in Iran in the Nineteenth Century, by A.
Seyf . 139 Shorter Notices
Hijji cAbbas,byJ.W.Allan ................ 145 Diz, by Mary
Burkett .................. 149
THE BRITISH INSTITUTE OF PERSIAN STUDIES A Registered
Charity
c/o The British Academy, 20-21 Cornwall Terrace, London NW1 4QP
ISSN 0578-6967
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STATEMENT OF AIMS AND ACTIVITIES 1. The Institute has an
establishment in Tehran at which British scholars, men and women of
learning versed
in the arts, friends of Iran, may reside and meet their Iranian
colleagues in order to discuss with them sub- jects of common
interest; the arts, archaeology, history, literature, linguistics,
religion, philosophy and cognate subjects.
2. The Institute provides accommodation for senior scholars and
for teachers from British Universities in order that they may
refresh themselves at the source of knowledge from which their
teaching derives, the same service is being rendered to younger
students who show promise of developing interests in Persian
studies.
3. The Institute, whilst concerned with Persian culture in the
widest sense, is particularly concerned with the development of
archaeological techniques, and seeks the co-operation of Iranian
scholars and students in applying current methods to the resolution
of archaeological and historical problems.
4. Archaeological excavation using modern scientific techniques
as ancillary aids is one of the Institute's primary tasks. These
activities, which entail a fresh appraisal of previous discoveries,
have already yielded new historical, architectural, and
archaeological evidence which is adding to our knowledge of the
past and of its bearing on the modern world.
5. In pursuit of all the activities mentioned in the preceding
paragraphs the Institute is gradually adding to its library, is
collecting learned periodicals, and is publishing ajournal, Iran,
which appears annually.
6. The Institute arranges occasional seminars, lectures and
conferences and enlists the help of distinguished scholars for this
purpose. It will also aim at arranging small exhibitions with the
object of demonstrating the importance of Persian culture and its
attraction for the world of scholarship.
7. The Institute endeavours to collaborate with universities and
educational institutions in Iran by all the means at its disposal
and, when consulted, assists Iranian scholars with technical advice
for directing them towards the appropriate channels in British
universities.
MEMBERSHIP OF THE INSTITUTE
Anyone wishing to join the Institute should write to the
membership Secretary, Miss Mary Totman, 63 Old Street, London EC1V
9HX. The annual subscription rates (lstJanuary-31 December) are as
follows:
Full membership (U.K. only) ?25 Member not receiving journal
?8.00 Full membership (Overseas) ?30 or $60 Student membership
?7.50
COPIES OF IRAN
Full members of the Institute receive a post free copy of the
current issue of the journal Iran each year. Copies of Iran may be
obtained from the Publications Secretary, Miss Mary Totman (address
as above) at
the following prices: Current issue-single copies purchased by
non-members ?30 or $60 each-to UK addresses
post free -to overseas addresses plus postage & packing
Back numbers-please see publications list inside back cover
Those ordering from overseas may pay in US dollars or by sterling
draft drawn on London, by interna-
tional money order or by Eurocheque.
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IRAN Volume XXXII 1994
CONTENTS
Page Governing Council
............................. ii Report of the Council
..........................
..... ... . iii Obituary: Professor Louis Vanden Berghe.
........... ... .. .... v Preliminary Report on the 1993
Excavations at Horom, Armenia, by Ruben S.
Badaljan, Philip L. Kohl, David Stronach and Armen V. Tonikjan.
........ 1 Elamites and Other Peoples from Iran and the Persian
Gulf Region in Early
Mesopotamian Sources, by Ran Zadok ................ ... 31 The
International Merv Project. Preliminary Report on the Second Season
(1993),
by Georgina Herrmann, K. Kurbansakhatov et al. ............... .
53 The Fall of al-Madain: Some Literary References Concerning
Sasanian Spoils of
War in Mediaeval Islamic Treasuries, by Avinoam Shalem ...
....... 77 The Chinese Uighur Animal Calendar in Persian
Historiography of the Mongol
Period, by Charles Melville ................... ..... 83
Anecdotes of a Provincial Sufi of the Dehli Sultanate, Khwaja Gurg
of Kara, by Simon
Digby ............ ... .. .............
.. ...99 The Accession of Iskandar Khan, by Audrey Burton
...........
.... 111
The Ijdza from Yusuf Al-Bahrani(d. 1186/1772) to Sayyid Muhammad
Mahdi Bahr al-cUlfim (d. 1212/1797-8), by Robert Gleave . . ...
......... 115
James Baillie Fraser: Traveller, Writer and Artist 1787-1856, by
Denis Wright . . . . 125 British Indian Views (Nineteenth and Early
Twentieth Centuries) of the Later
Followers of the Raukianiyya Sect in Afghanistan and Northern
India, by Sergei Andreyev ................... ........135
Production of Sugar in Iran in the Nineteenth Century, by A.
Seyf .. .. . ..... 139 Shorter Notices
HaIt-jicAbbas, byJ.W.Allan....................... . 145 Diz, by
Mary Burkett
.........................
149
ISSN 0578-6967
THE BRITISH INSTITUTE OF PERSIAN STUDIES (A Registered
Charity)
c/o The British Academy, 20-21 Cornwall Terrace, London NW1
4QP
-
BRITISH INSTITUTE OF PERSIAN STUDIES (A Registered Charity)
GOVERNING COUNCIL President
*tProfessor MICHAEL ROGERS, MA, D Phil, FBA, FSA
Vice-President tProfessor ROBERT HILLENBRAND, MA, D Phil,
FRSE
Honorary Vice-Presidents *Professor D. B. STRONACH, OBE, MA,
FSA
SIR DENIS WRIGHT, GCMG MA
Members MrsJANET AIDIN, MA
tDrJ W ALLAN, MA, D Phil Mr DONALD ALLEN
Mr C A BURNEY, MA, FSA MrJOHN C CLOAKE, CMG, MA
MrJOHN COOPER, MA DrJ E CURTIS, BA, PhD, FSA Dr R W FERRIER, MA,
PhD
MrJOHN R GRUNDON tDrJ D GURNEY, MA, D Phil
Mr DESMOND HARNEY, OBE, BSc Professor A K S LAMBTON, OBE, D Lit,
PhD, FBA
Dr PAUL LUFT, MA, PhD tProfessor K S McLACHLAN, MA, PhD
Dr CHARLES MELVILLE, MA, PhD Dr DAVID O MORGAN, BA, PhD
Mr A H MORTON, MA Mr CJ S RUNDLE, OBE, MA
Professor A REZA SHEIKHOLESLAMI, MA, PhD Mr PETERJ W TAYLOR,
OBE, MA
Honorary Treasurer tMrJOHN S PHILLIPS, TD, MA, FCA
Honorary Secretary tDr VESTA CURTIS, MA, PhD
Honorary Joint Editors tProfessor C E BOSWORTH, MA, PhD, FBA
tDr VESTA CURTIS, MA, PhD
Assistant Secretary Miss DIANA MORGAN
Membership and Publications Secretary Miss MARY TOTMAN
Special Adviser Mrs M E GUERITZ, MBE
Auditors PRIDIE BREWSTER, 29-39 London Road, Twickenham,
Middlesex TW1 3SZ.
c/o The British Academy, 20-21 Cornwall Terrace, LONDON NW1
4QP
tMember of Executive Committee *Editorial Adviser
P.O. Box 11365-6844 Tehran,
IRAN
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REPORT OF THE COUNCIL to 31st March 1993
The most significant event of the year was the appointment of
new officers and staff of the Institute. Professor Keith McLachlan
retired after a period of three years as President and Professor
Michael Rogers was elected in his place. Professor McLachlan took
over in 1989 at a crucial time when the future of the Institute had
once again reached an uncertain and critical point. With his
enthusiasm, positive attitude and immense knowledge and dedication
to Iran, he refused to accept defeat and created a period of
stability and optimism which influenced all those who worked with
him.
At the same time Mrs. Mary Gueritz, our hardworking and
enthusiastic Assistant Secretary handed in her resignation after
more than thirty years of complete devotion to the Institute, its
officers, fellows and members. Her expertise and encouragement and
at the same time her love of Iran, its people and culture were
unique. It was for these efforts that she was awarded an M.B.E. in
1982. Although she has officially retired as Assistant Secretary,
Mrs. Gueritz has taken up a new appointment as Special Adviser and
we look forward to her continuing association with the Institute.
Another sad retirement was that of the Hon. Membership Secretary,
Mrs. Molli Cloake, who for many years, on a voluntary basis, gave
much able to assistance to Mrs. Gueritz.
Finally, thanks are also due to Professor Robert Hillenbrand
whose term as Hon. Secretary came to an end but who has now taken a
new position as Vice-President of the Institute. The new Hon.
Secretary is Dr. Vesta Curtis. For the post of Assistant Secretary
the Institute has been most fortunate to find Miss Diana Morgan.
She and the Membership and Publications Secretary, Miss Mary
Totman, have set up the London office and are undertaking the
process of computerising accounts, publication orders and
membership records. Mr. Peter Davies was appointed Hon. Covenant
Secretary.
The extensive work on the Institute building in Tehran has
continued under the supervision of Dr. Georgina Herrmann and the
Treasurer, Mr. John Phillips. Their task has been made even more
difficult by the need to direct the work from London. Nevertheless,
the roof has now been replaced, the Assistant Director's flat has
been made habitable and work is well advanced on the plumbing and
rewiring. In Tehran, Mr. Manouchehr Bayat and Mr. E. J. Andrews,
Technical Supervisor of the British Embassy, gave them invaluable
advice and support.
The year also witnessed visits to Iran by a number of members
and fellows, including Dr. James Allan, Keeper of Eastern Art at
the Ashmolean Museum, who attended a conference, on carpets, in
Tehran. Mr. Allan was able to travel in Iran and also look at the
reserve collections of the Iran Bastan Museum in Tehran. Awards for
study visits and projects in Iran were also made to Dr. John Gurney
and Mr. Kamran Safamanesh to undertake jointly "A Survey of Qajar
Architecture of Public Buildings in Tehran" and to Professor Keith
McLachlan to continue a project on qanats and traditional water
provision, begun in 1991.
Grants for travel to Iran were given to Dr. Vanessa Martin to
study "Aspects of Modern Shi'ism, Particularly the Relationship
Between the 'Ulema and the State in the Mid-Twentieth Century", to
Dr. Richard Tapper and Dr. Susan Wright to attend an international
conference in Isfahan on "Nomadism and Development" and to Miss
Susan Bull to study "Fatima as a Role Model for Women in Iranian
Shi'ism".
Mr. Paul Mitchell, Ms. Sophie Godrick and Ms. Mariam Imani
received grants to clear the library and sort out the many boxes of
sherds, thus enabling the building contractors to continue with
their work.
Dr. Javad Golmohammadi and Dr. Michael Harverson took up the
grants that had been awarded to them during the previous financial
year and visited Iran.
A travel grant for work outside Iran was given to Ms. Elaine
Wright to study in the Topkapy Saray in Istanbul "The role of the
Pir Buda Qara Qoyunlu and the Evolution of Fifteenth Century
Manuscript Illumination". Also a special grant was given to Miss
Jennifer Scarce towards the cost of a Day Conference at SOAS in
November on "Language of Dress in the Middle East".
Grants from the Institute's own funds aimed at promoting work in
Central Asia were given to Dr. Georgina Herrmann (for the
International Merv Project) and to Dr. Vesta Curtis (to attend
the
iii
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Third International Merv Conference in Turkmenistan and for
travel to Bukhara in Uzbekistan). The summer lecture entitled
"Fops, Floozies and Farangis; the Late Work of Rizayi cAbbasi"
was
delivered by Dr. Sheila Canby, Assistant Keeper of Oriental
Antiquities of the British Museum. The Annual Lecture was given by
Dr. James Allan on "'Alams and Artisans; the Tradition of
Steelworking in Iran". A large audience enjoyed the lecture and
particularly appreciated the slides taken by Dr. Allan during his
recent visit to Iran. This followed the Thirtieth General Meeting
at the British Academy on Wednesday 18th November 1992. The
resignations of Professor Ilya Gershevitch, Dr. Clare Hill and
Mr.John Hanson were accepted with regret. Other members due to
retire in rotation were re-appointed. These were Professor Michael
Rogers, Professor Robert Hillenbrand, Mr. John Cloake and Dr. Vesta
Curtis. Dr. David Morgan, a former member was wel- comed back to
the Governing Council and Mr. John Cooper was invited to join as a
new member. We learned with great sadness of the death of Michael
Browne, Q.C., on 1st April 1992. He was a member of our Council
from 1966 until 1988 and gave valuable advice to the Institute on
legal matters.
Once again, a successful series of monthly lectures was held at
SOAS on Thursday evenings in cooperation with the Centre of Near
and Middle East Studies. Under the general title of "Iranian Art
and Archaeology", talks were given by Dr. Barry Flood, Dr. Eleanor
Sims, Mr. Marcus Frazer and Miss Teresa Fitzherbert.
For help of various kinds the Governing Council wishes to
express particular thanks to the staff of the Middle East
Department of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, to Mr. David
Reddaway, the former Charge d'Affaires, to Mr. E. J. Andrews,
Technical Supervisor in Tehran, for his advice and help with the
building and to the British Academy for its support and financial
assistance. Thanks are also due to Mr. Manouchehr Bayat, BIPS'
financial supervisor in Tehran and Mr. Houman Kordmahini, caretaker
of the Tehran Institute. We are also grateful to Mrs.Janet Aidin
for her legal advice.
MICHAEL ROGERS President
VESTA CURTIS Hon. Secretary
iv
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OBITUARY
LOUIS VANDEN BERGHE (1923-1993)
It is sometimes said of. great scholars that they do not just
make contributions to their subject, they change its shape. In such
a league was Prof. Dr. Louis Vanden Berghe, doyen of Iranian
archaeologists, who died in Gent on 17th September 1993 aged 69
years. He was Professor of the Archaeology and History of Ancient
Near Eastern Civilisations at the University of Gent, and also
Professor of the Archaeology and History of Ancient Iran at the
Universite Libre de Bruxelles, as well as being Director of the
Iranian Section of the National Museum in Brussels.
He was born on 24th December 1923 in Oostnieuwerke in West
Flanders, between Bruges and the French border, and studied Near
Eastern archaeology and the history of art at the University of
Gent and Oriental languages at the Universities of Brussels,
Amsterdam and Leiden. This linguistic training later stood him in
good stead, and amongst his many achievements was a remarkable
fluency in modern Persian. Having obtained his doctorate in 1950
with a thesis about prehistoric painted pottery, he became an
assistant in the University of Gent in 1951, rising to professor in
1957 and being given a chair in 1965. During an extremely
productive career he produced about 150 books, catalogues and
papers, with the emphasis throughout being on Iranian archaeology
and history. His first major task was to give some structure to a
subject which was still in the 1950s in a state of some disorder.
To this end, his Archeologie de l'Iran Ancien appeared in 1959.
This is a masterly survey of Iranian archaeology, first by region
and then by period, going from prehistoric to Sasanian times. It
has well stood the test of time and the numerous discoveries made
in the 1960s and 1970s, and con- taining as it does a wealth of
information it is still widely consulted. Shortly afterwards he was
instrumental in establishing, together with R. Ghirshman, a
newjournal devoted to Iranian archaeology. The first volume of
Iranica Antiqua appeared in 1961, and largely as a result of Vanden
Berghe's energy and drive it still con- tinues. Further evidence of
his determination to introduce order and discipline into the
subject can be found with his Bibliographie analytique de
l'archeologie de l'Iran Ancien (Leiden 1979), supplements to which
appeared in 1981 and 1987 covering the years 1978-1985.
Vanden Berghe is perhaps best known for his archaeological work
in Luristan. Between 1965 and 1979
v
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he led an expedition sponsored jointly by the University of Gent
and the Musees Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire in Brussels that for
fifteen seasons worked in the Pusht-i Kuh, the western part of
Luristan. More than 30 cemetery sites were investigated, varying in
date between the Chalcolithic period and Iron III. Particularly
productive sites were Parchineh, Bani Surmah, Kalleh Nisar, Kutal-i
Gulgul, Bard-i Bal, Tattulban, Camzi- Muimah and War Kabud. A
monograph about War Kabud appeared already in 1968, and preliminary
reports about the other sites appeared with commendable speed,
usually in the French journal Archedologia or in Iranica Antiqua.
The contribution that Vanden Berghe has made through his work in
Luristan has been immense. This remote and mountainous region is
poorly known archaeologically, and there has been only a small
amount of scientific research here. Apart from Vanden Berghe's
work, the few scientific projects include the Holmes Expedition to
Luristan, that resulted in the 1938 excavation of E. F. Schmidt at
Surkh Dum-i Luri in the Pish-i Kuh, and Clare Goff's excavations at
BabaJan. It is known that the many "Luristan bronzes" in
collections around the world come from this area, but practically
nothing is known about the cul- ture which produced them. Vanden
Berghe's work has gone some way towards remedying this deficiency
with the discovery of about a dozen canonical Luristan bronzes.
It would be wrong, however, to think that Vanden Berghe's work
in the field was restricted to Luristan. Among many projects we
might cite, for example, his survey of the Mary Dasht Plain in the
1950s and his brief excavations at the necropolis of Khurvin which
resulted in a book published in 1964 (La Nicropole de Khuirvin). He
also discovered an ancient road connecting Firuzabad and Siraf, an
Achaemenid tomb at Buzpar in Fars and many "chahar taqs" (fire
temples). His versatility is demonstrated by the description of an
early Islamic castle at Puiskafn in Fars (La Decouverte d'un
chdateau-fort du dcbut de l'dpoque islamique a Puskan (Irdn),
Iranica Antiqua Supplement IV, Gent 1990). He also recognised the
importance of promoting the subject, and to this end he was an
indefatigable organiser of exhibitions. For example there were
major exhibitions about Luristan in Munich (1981), Gent (1983) and
St. Petersburg (1992), and an exhibition about Urartu in Gent
(1983). These were all accompanied by attractive and informative
catalogues. Mention should also be made of an exhibition of
photographs (by Erik Smekens) of Iranian rock reliefs organised in
Brussels in 1984 (Reliefs Rupestres de l'Iran Ancien, Brussels
1984). This was followed in the next year by ajoint publication
with Klaus Schippmann on Les Reliefs rupestres d'Elymaide (Iran) de
l'dpoque parthe (Gent 1985). Several of these reliefs were
discovered by Vanden Berghe himself.
During his lifetime many honours came to Vanden Berghe and he
was much respected. In his own coun- try he was a corresponding
member (1962) and a full member (1968) of the Academie Royale des
Sciences, Lettres et Arts de Belgique, becoming President in 1973.
Abroad, honours included being a full member of the Deutsches
Archfologisches Institut (1973), an honorary fellow of the Society
of Antiquaries of London (1980) and a fellow of the Explorers Club
of New York (1978). Much prized was his honorary doctorate from the
University of Tehran, awarded as early as 1964. In some ways Louis
Vanden Berghe lived life to the full. His consumption of alcohol
was legendary and he was seldom without a large cigar. Yet at the
same time he was a lonely person, and for much of his life lived in
a hotel near the main railway station in Gent. From there he
journeyed sometimes to his home village in West Flanders. The
drawbacks to this solitary lifestyle were, however, largely offset
by the devoted help and support of a number of friends and former
students includ- ing Ernie Haerinck, the late Christiane
Langeraert-Seeuws and latterly Alexandre Tourovets. It was one of
these colleagues, Dr. Haerinck, who together with Prof. L. de Meyer
edited a two-volume Festschrift in his honour in 1989 (Archaeologia
Iranica et Orientalis: Miscellanea in honorem Louis Vanden Berghe)
which included an informative memoir about Vanden Berghe together
with a full bibliography. Happily, Haerinck has now succeeded his
old teacher as lecturer in Near Eastern archaeology at Gent.
In spite of failing eyesight, Vanden Berghe continued to work
right up until the end of his life. Even in his last year he
organised an enormously impressive exhibition of Sasanian art in
Brussels accompanied by a sumptuous catalogue (Splendeur des
Sassanides, Brussels 1993). And it is gratifying for friends and
admirers in Britain that he was able to attend the 1993 Lukonin
Memorial Seminar in the British Museum on "Later Mesopotamia and
Iran, c. 1600-539 B.C." To this event he contributed a lecture on
"Excavations in Luristan and Relations with Mesopotamia", and
although he could not deliver it in person he was able to introduce
it, which was much appreciated. The passing of Louis Vanden Berghe
leaves a major gap in the ranks of Iranian archaeologists, but his
many contributions have pointed the way to others who will surely
follow in his foot- steps. Above all, his commitment to the subject
never faltered, and in spite of the political changes which have
dominated the last 15 years he never doubted the value of studying
Ancient Iran and remained opti- mistic about future prospects.
JOHN CURTIS
vi
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PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
By Ruben S. Badaljan, Philip L. Kohl, David Stronach and Armen
V. Tonikjan Yerevan, Wellesley, Massachussetts, and Berkeley
Collaborative American-Armenian and American- Georgian
archaeological investigations on the Shirak plain of northwestern
Armenia and the Djavakheti plateau of southern Georgia (see below:
Appendix A) began during the summer of 1990 as the principal,
regionally-focused field component of the more broadly conceived
and structured International Program for Anthropological Research
in the Caucasus (or IPARC). The 1990 and 1992 excavations at the
site of Horom, Armenia have been reported in previous volumes of
Iran (Badaljan et al. 1992 and 1993), while the 1990 and 1991 field
seasons in Georgia, particularly at the Early Bronze Age site of
Satkhe, have been briefly described in the Bulletin of the Asia
Institute (Kohl et al. 1992). This report presents the preliminary
results of the 1993 excavations at Horom1 and includes the
Palaeolithic investi- gations and later Bronze and Iron Age pre-
historic excavations in southern Georgia in Appendix A.2
On the basis primarily of surface reconnaissances and
topographic mapping undertaken in 1990, the c. 45-50 ha. Horom
settlement, which is centered around two dominant hills set along a
north-south axis (the North and South Hills) and characterised by
standing cyclopean stone architecture, was distin- guished from a
c. 400 ha. mapped area termed the Horom site, which consists of
undulating, rocky terrain containing stone structures of uncertain
date and clusters of circular stone-ringed tombs or cromlechs
dating to the late second or early first millennium B.C. (Badaljan
et al. 1992: fig. 3). The Horom settlement was located within the
northwest- ern quadrant of the Horom site. This view may need to be
modified in as much as additional stone struc- tures, including
possible fortifications, were recently noted to the east and
southeast of the Horom settlement, and future excavations within
such outlying structures may relate them to the Iron Age Urartian
fortifications on the North Hill. Thus, the overall size of the
fortified settlement remains unclear, and the 45-50 ha. figure
could well rep- resent a minimal estimate. At the end of the 1993
season, photographs taken from a heli- copter provided a series of
aerial views of the Horom settlement and its cyclopean architecture
(Pl. Ia-b).3
NORTH HILL EXCAVATIONS
Constructions of Urartian Date
While no materials of early first millennium B.C. date chanced
to come to light within the restricted sounding of 1990, the
results of the 1992 and 1993 excavations have made it clear that
the major visible fortifications on the North Hill are to be
ascribed to the Urartian period. In more precise terms the period
in question is likely to have lasted for more than a century and a
half, between the time that Argishti I (c. 785-760 B.C.) annexed
the present- day region of the Shirak plain (cf. Badaljan et al.
1993: 15) and the moment when the kingdom of Urartu came to an
abrupt end, somewhere close to 600 B.C.
The association of wheelmade, buff to red pot- tery of an
Urartian or Urartian-related type with grey wares which clearly
continue a local Late Bronze/Early Iron Age ceramic tradition is
currently firmly documented from Operations Bi, B2, C2, and D1
(Fig. 5). The association was first acknowl- edged during the 1992
season (Badaljan et al. 1993: 12-23), and the work of the past
summer, in Areas B2 and D1 in particular, has continued to demon-
strate the strength of this connection. Above all, the recent
discovery of a small cosmetic jar of a known Urartian type (Fig. 5:
19, P1. Ic), such as occurs else- where at Bastam, for example
(Kleiss et al. 1979: 208, fig. 3, 5) in the deep fill of one of the
better preserved rooms of the B2 area (Room 3 of B2 com- plex see
Fig. 3, P1. IIa) has underlined the likeli- hood that the more
intact magazines of the eighth/seventh century B.C. "border
settlement" at Horom will one day serve to document the extent to
which the local Iron Age wares of the Shirak plain were
complemented by elements of the well- known ceramic corpus of the
Urartian core area.
In the balance of this report all Horom's archi- tectural
remains of the eighth/seventh century B.C. are referred to as
"Urartian". It should be under- stood, however, that this label
deserves to be read in several separate ways. On the one hand, the
label is used with the above-mentioned chronological con- notation
and, on the other hand, it is intended to be indicative of a period
of intense interaction with Urartu or of the citadel's physical
incorporation-at
1
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2 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
least at certain times, within the accepted bound- aries of the
Urartian state. In other words, the pre- sent writers are acutely
aware that, while the presently exposed architecture on the North
Hill offers its fair share of Urartian traits, the site as a whole
has so far produced remarkably few incontro- vertible Urartian
artefacts. But it may also be noted before we proceed to review the
work of the past season which took place in Operations A2/3, B2,
and D1 that the small piece of a bronze quiver that was found on
the heavily burnt roadway of the BI North-West Gate at the end of
the 1992 season (Badaljan et al. 1993: 12-15 and pl. IId) was dec-
orated in a distinctive fashion; i.e., it was marked by groups of
transverse ridges in repousse (P1. Id) in a design that otherwise
occurs on a group of five bronze quivers from the Urartian citadel
at Kayalidere (Burney 1966: pl. 18c).
The 1992 Operations B1 and C2 were not con- tinued in 1993, but
several architectural features including a stone-covered drain
extending down the central axis of the B1 North-West Gate, which
were uncovered at the very end of the 1992 season, were accurately
mapped. We hope to continue work in these two areas in future
seasons.
Operation A2/3 (Figs. 1 and 2) Early in the 1993 season a small,
exploratory
trench, only 3 x 3.5 m. in size, was opened on the flat summit
of the North Hill near the presumed northeastern corner of the A
terrace. The precise location of this probe, called Operation A2,
was determined by the presence of stone remains that were visible
inside an animal burrow. Although the exposure was limited, stone
architecture was encountered, and a thick Early Mediaeval deposit
was explored to a depth of 1.5 m. In the course of the work, a
large, complete storage vessel of Mediaeval date was removed, and
an adjoining burnt surface yielded a rich cache of well-preserved
carbonised seeds.
It was subsequently decided that it would be of advantage to
extend the excavation for a distance of 9 m. to the northeast down
the slope of the A terrace. It was hoped that the extension, termed
A3, would throw useful light on the still little examined uppermost
line of Urartian fortifications and that it would also serve to
reveal any subsidiary architec- tural features that might have been
built up against the inner face of the A Wall. To begin with, work
in the A3 extension proved to be a considerable chal- lenge: a
nearly unbroken sequence of parallel stone faces was found to
extend throughout the eastern end of the narrow trench. It was only
when the outer face of the A Wall was at last exposed, in fact,
that this apparent sequence of "walls" could be read
as a series of monumental steps that advance, for a distance of
6 m., up the steep slope to the line of the flat summit. While much
more of the A Wall needs to be exposed in order to understand its
con- struction in full, it does now appear that we have uncovered
the point at which the A Wall turned to the north-west, in accord
with the natural contours of the North Hill (Fig. 1), and that the
wide series of steps very probably functioned as a socle for the
now missing stone superstructure that pre- sumably once defended
the flat summit at the apex of the whole Urartian fortification
system. The materials from the eroded, steeply sloping terrain of
Operation A3 included, hardly against expectation, examples of
Urartian red ware mixed with sherds of known (and presumed)
Mediaeval date.
Operation B2: Architecture located on the B Terrace inside the
Inner Face of the B Fortification Wall (Fig. 3, P1. IIa)
From the prior account of the work that was carried out in
Operation B2 during the 1992 season (Badaljan et al. 1993: 15-18,
fig. 13), it will be recalled that this part of the site (Fig. 3
and P1. IIa) had already revealed well-preserved architecture that
was located just inside the inner face of the B Fortification Wall.
Accordingly, excavations were at once resumed in Room 2, one of two
adjoining rooms (Rooms 1 and 2) that had been at least partially
defined in 1992. Since the floor of Room 2 had only been reached
within the limits of a small test trench in the course of the
previous campaign, one of our first concerns was to expose the
remain- ing, available floor surface. The only feature of note to
come to light in the course of this endeavor con- sisted of the
remains of a clay walled oven (or tanur), the floor of which was
still covered by a layer of ash. The flue which had been used to
draw air into the oven was also detected; it could be seen to have
been sunk into the top of the earth floor, near the middle portion
of the room, close to Wall 2 (P1. IIb). It ought to be added,
however, that such a distinctly domestic feature offers a curious
contrast to the monumental walls which adjoin it; for this reason,
therefore, the oven could well represent a later feature which is
not to be connected with the otherwise undetermined, orginal
function of Room 2.
As far as the 1993 extensions to Operation B2 are concerned,
these took the form of the B2.3 trench to the south, where Rooms 3
and 4 were exposed; the B2.4 trench to the west, where a
well-preserved room or corridor, Room 5, was uncovered; and the
B2.5 trench to the north, where the work disclosed a number of
barely sub-surface, one-to-two course
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
3
f oo ++ 1620
2B
C2
E2 C40 ,
El //
5M5
.. . .. ? ???... ......
20 0 0 100
~cM4
m ......~rr\~~~r~,+
mM
. . ..
. . .
. .. .
Fig. 1. General topographic map of North and South Hills of
Horom, showing excavation units of 1992 and 1993. The summit of the
North Hill is also marked by the remains of a previously exposed,
Early Mediaeval building.
-
4 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
wide stone walls (Features 12-16), all of which undoubtedly
post-date the more deeply set rooms of the main B2 architectural
complex. Indeed, the narrow walls in B2.5 (Fig. 4) are almost
certainly contemporary with two other virtually sub-surface,
insubstantial walls (Features 1 and 2) which were found to run
above the massive, two metre and more high remains of Wall 6. In
sum, then, this single part of the Horom settlement may be said to
offer persuasive evidence for the existence of a later, less
monumental period of occupation that was either Late Urartian or
post-Urartian in date (see Fig. 7).4
It is tempting, of course, to link the thin stone walls which
eventually came to be erected over the abandoned B2 complex with
other examples of inferior, very often clearly secondary
construction that have been noted in other sections of the North
Hill. One of the more striking instances of late, secondary
building activity may be said to come from the BI North-West
Gateway, where the so- called guardroom represents an obvious late
addi- tion to the original fabric of the Gate (Badaljan et al.
1993: 15 and pl. IIc). In addition, it would not be at all
surprising to find that the whole of the D1 complex (Fig. 8), which
has for long been seen to stand outside the limits of the otherwise
formidable fortification system on the North Hill (see below and
Badaljan et al. 1992: 44-5), was itself representative of such a
widespread, late building phase.
While the ceramics from the North-West Gate, B2.5, and D1 are
clearly similar, with each contain- ing well-fired Urartian red
wares together with grey wares of the still persisting local Late
Bronze/Early Iron Age tradition, Operations B2.5 and D1 are alone
in also producing sherds of still another kind with either
wavy-combed or pattern-burnished decoration (Fig. 6: 13, 14 and
Fig. 9). Eventually, therefore, pottery of this latter type may
come to serve as a valuable, separate indication of late occu-
pation.
As for the relationship of such a late phase of occupation to
the date of the fire which ravaged the North-West Gate, it is a
matter of decided interest that the traces of extensive burning on
the BI road- way were found to run up against the exterior of the
already extant east wall of the above-mentioned "guardroom". In
other words, we can be sure that at least some of the late and very
largely inferior stone walling on the North Hill pre-dates rather
than post-dates the time of the Gate's destruction. For the
present, therefore, it may be justified to cate- gorise the more or
less massive Urartian architec- ture on the North Hill as "Early
Urartian" and those examples of clearly related, but assuredly
later, local building activity as "Late Urartian."
HOROM 1993 AREA A2
0o2m
W2 1669.72
1669.76 1669.38
1670.18
W 7
1669. 52 1670.86
W5
S1670.14
W4
W3 1669.43
1669.14
1669.54
W6
UNEXCAVATED 1668.75
1668.23
1668.15 1668.43
"\,A.os Fig. 2. Operation A2/3, summit of North Hill,
illustrating stepped
fortification system on summit as it turns to the
north-west.
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
5
HOROM 1992-93 AREA B2/CI A
B2
0 1 2M LL 1645.00
FLOOR 1645.20
S164,
WW9 1646.10 164 3.48
,0 7 LL 6.1644.92/
1
LL 1644.03
LL 1643.27
OVEN P
1643.97 aQ ~~~1643.16 L639 1644.85 LL 164369 W4 ROOM 3
1644.16
FLOOR
1.1642.40
ROOM 2 W2ROOM 1
0L LL 1643.47 D
LIMIT OF EXCAVATION
o 0 AT UPPER LEVELS
o o~
08 w wl
d0~ E.B. TOMB 1640.96 Cl E 1642.71
A UNEXCAVATED F8
1642.87
Fig. 3. Plan of the substantial "Early Urartian" architecture in
Area B2. Note also, in Area C1, certain traces of "Late Urartian"
walling and the location of the Early Bronze tomb outside (and well
below the level of the B Fortification Wall.
-
6 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
If Rooms 2-5 in the B2 area may be taken to exemplify certain of
the main characteristics of "Early Urartian" construction at Horom,
such fea- tures would appear to include consistent orienta- tion,
symmetrical planning, and the use of relatively heavy, skillfully
built dry-stone walls (Pls. IIa-c and Fig. 3).5 With respect to two
of the rooms (Rooms 2 and 3), certain of the walls were also found
to retain traces of a plaster surface.
Doorways are, of course, well represented. One doorway linked
the seemingly paired square rooms, Rooms 3 and 4 (Pl. IIc); another
connected Room 3 with a still unexcavated room to the south (P1.
IIc); and yet another provided a link between Rooms 5 and 2, at
least until such time as the west wall of the latter room (Wall 4)
came to be widened over the greater part of its length (Fig. 3).6
Of special interest, of course, is the perfectly preserved door-
way between Rooms 3 and 4; rectangular in shape, and capped by flat
stones, the doorway was given a height of almost 2 m. and a width
of 89 cm. Needless to say, the doorway's all-stone frame was
predetermined by the exclusive use of stone in these ground floor
walls, many of which still stand to a height of 3 m. Last but not
least, a still not fully defined opening at the north end of Room 5
is likely to have provided access to yet other associated rooms,
including Room 1.
The number of small objects from Rooms 2-5 was not large, but
the discovery in Room 3 of the above-mentioned cosmetic jar (P1.
Ic, Fig. 5: 19) and a fragment of a large storage jar with a seal
impression (P1. Ie) could perhaps indicate that this part of the
site was occupied, at one time, by admin- istrators or, at all
events, by residents of some status. Other finds of note include a
winged bronze arrow- head from the north end of Room 5 which
directly accords with a standard Caucasian type that was current
for a period of several centuries both before and after 1000 B.C.,7
and a more perplexing object: namely, an iron door-key (Pi. IIe),
also from Room 5, which looks strangely out of place in an
eighth/seventh century B.C. context. That is to say that, while the
key was indeed recovered from the floor of Room 5 near the later
blocked doorway that led into Room 2, it has an oddly modern
appearance; and, in view of the local presence of many animal
holes, its actual find spot could be for- tuitous. Finally, it
should be noted that Early Bronze Kura-Araxes sherds chanced to be
found beneath the floors of both Rooms 3 and 5. In other words, the
whole of the B2 complex would appear to have been built over a much
earlier Early Bronze Age occupation-a finding which is also
consistent with the discovery, in 1992, of an Early Bronze tomb in
the C1 Operation (Fig. 3 and 7), beyond the outer or eastern face
of the B Fortification Wall
(Badaljan et al. 1993: 4 and pl. Ia). Operation D1-Domestic
Architecture on the D Terrace (Fig. 8)
Prior to excavations in the D 1 Area, it was specu- lated that
the whole of the unfortified D Terrace, which is so very different
in appearance from the various fortified sectors of the North Hill
(Fig. 1), could have represented the remains of a separate
"administrative complex" (Badaljan et al. 1992: 44-5). In the
aftermath of the 1992 campaign this characterisation remained
unchallenged, if only because it seemed premature to rush to
conclusions on the basis of two strictly limited, local probes.
Indeed, the one clear message that emerged from the 1992
excavations in this part of the site was the fact that all
construction on the D Terrace could have been restricted to a
"relatively late date" within the time-frame of Horom's
eighth/seventh century B.C. occupation (Badaljan et al. 1993: 21).
On the one hand, the work of the 1993 season has clearly
strengthened the case for such a probable late date (see page 4
above), and, on the other hand, there is now a sound case to be
made for the domestic, rather than the representational-or
administrative -character of those D1 structures (Rooms 1-3) that
have been examined to-date.
Of the rooms in question-all of which run along the same
north-south axis-Room 1 was exca- vated in its entirety in 1992. It
is a sub-rectangular unit, 6.7 x 3.8 m. in area, with a flagstone
floor and with a broad stone platform located in front of its
slightly curved western wall (Fig. 8). In accord, moreover, with
the less than regular character of the walls of Room 1, the
corridor which leads north- wards to the next room, Room 2,
consists of no more than a narrow, bent passage of irregular
width.
Because of other calls on our time and resources, only about one
third of Room 2's total floor area of 8 x 9.5 m. came to be exposed
in 1992. The main features to emerge in the course of the
excavation consisted of a large, squarish basin of pink tuff set
close to the line of the west wall (Badaljan et al. 1993: pl. IIIe)
and a low "double partition" (com- posed of two parallel rows of
slim stones set on edge) which stood perpendicular to the west
wall. The presence of this last fixture, and the consider- able
size of Room 2, suggested at the time that the room might have been
subdivided into several sepa- rate "cubicles" and that, in
addition, the whole space might have remained unroofed. Following
the 1993 season, however, new assessments are in order. In the
first place, the discovery of four sym- metrically placed stone
column bases (Fig. 8, P1. IId) would seem to prove that Room 2 was
roofed; and, secondly, if due account is taken of cer-
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
7
HOROM 1992-93 AREA B2
UPPER LEVELS
O 1 2M
Fig. 4. Operation B2.5. "Late Urartian" architecture excavated
to the east of the B Fortification Wall and to the north of the B2
"Early Urartian" complex of Fig. 3.
-
8 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
tain of the present-day fixtures that are associated with the
stabling of animals in the local village, there can be little doubt
that Room 2 came to be used, for a time at least, to water and
shelter animals. Thus, while the tuff basin, which stands on a low
stone platform, almost certainly represented a suitable water
container, both the original east-west partition, and a newly
exposed double partition, are likely to have served as feeding
troughs-presumably if the width of the doorways is kept in mind,
for ani- mals of rather modest size, such as sheep and goat.
Since the two long feeding troughs appear to have been sited in
such a way as to take advantage of the presence of three of the
four columns (Fig. 8), it is also possible that there was a time
when Room 2 was roofed, but not yet used as an animal shelter. In
this last regard it is in fact evident that Room 2 retained a rival
identity right to the end. That is to say that parts of the room
were supplied with a well-laid flagstone floor and that a variety
of domestic activities continued to be pursued, espe- cially
towards the north end of the room. Many pestle-shaped ground stones
were recovered, for
example, in an area of the room where both a circu- lar
stone-lined hearth (Feature 7) and an adjacent stone table (Feature
9) were located. In addition, a small stone-lined pit (Feature 8)
may have been used-again on the analogy of contemporary
practices-to collect glowing coals from the nearby large
stone-lined hearth.
An entry from Room 2 to the north led into the slightly smaller,
irregularly-shaped Room 3. This room contained four large flat
grinding stones set on a stone platform (Feature 1) in its
north-eastern corner. The remains of a hearth (Feature 2), possi-
bly for baking bread, lay immediately to the south, and to its west
lay a shallow circular stone "milling" basin, similar in
form-though not necessarily func- tion-with those repeatedly
uncovered on the top of the South Hill. If Room 2 housed animals,
Room 3 may have functioned as a bakery. Room 3 also was connected
to another room on its northern side, which will be excavated in
the future. As one pro- ceeds north in this interconnected complex,
the depth of deposit increases, exceeding in places 1.5 m.
Noteworthy also were the remains of charred
1 4
5
6 7 8 9 10 11 18 __19
12 13 14 15 16 i
17
li Fig. 5. Ceramics from B2 Complex. Reddish-Buff and Red Wares,
Urartian period.
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
9
wooden beams in the north-western section of Room 3, as well as
considerable evidence for uncon- trolled burning near the hearth of
Room 2. The evidence suggests that this complex may have been
devastated by fire and recalls the evidence for large- scale
burning from the Bi North-West Gate area.
The D1 complex, which presently appears to have a substantial
domestic character, seems to have been occupied during one period,
presumably in Late Urartian times. The ceramics from the area
consis- tently include a significant component (c. 20 per cent) of
fine Urartian red wares, similar to those found in the Ararat
Valley to the south, as well as more numerous wares continuing the
local Shirak ceramic traditions of the Late Bronze/Early Iron
periods. As noted above, a few more elaborately dec- orated vessels
(Fig. 9) from this trench together with those from B2.5 may help
define the Late or immedi- ately Post-Urartian phase at Horom.
Three radiocarbon dates taken from the 1992
excavations in the B1 and B2 areas were received from the AMS
Facility of the University of Arizona: 1) sample no. AA-10194--B1
a-c, gateway: 2,520+/-55 (yr BP) or calibrated at 790-430 B.C. (1
sigma; or 800-410 B.C. at 2 sigma); 2) AA-10189-B2, locus 4, north
of Feature 8: 2465+/-55 (yr BP) or calibrated at 760-410 B.C. (1
sigma; or 790-400 B.C. at 2 sigma); and 3) AA-11129-B2, TT4, level
4 (beneath the earliest floor of Room 2): 2770+/-55 or calibrat- ed
at 970-830 B.C. (1 sigma; or 1050-800 B.C. at 2 sigma). The dates
are not enormously helpful for refining the Urartian chronology at
Horom, since their calibrated ranges simply preclude any further
subdivisions. The AA11129 date from the 1992 deep sounding beneath
the eastern third of Room 2 is somewhat surprising in that it
suggests that there may have been an immediately pre-Urartian
occupa- tion in this area of Horom which presumably had been
totally destroyed by the construction of the B Fortification Wall
and the high-standing architecture
8 9 10 11
13 14 12
Fig. 6. Examples of black, brown and grey wares from the B2
Complex. The distinctive pattern-burnished grey ware vessels (nos.
13 and 14) from Operation B2.5 appear to be restricted to a "Late
Urartian" horizon.
-
10 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
HOROM 1992- 93 AREA CI/B2
B2
ROOM 3 ROOM 4 ROOM 5 WALL 8 IWALL9 FLOOR
CI FORTIFICATION WALL B
FLOOR .
i'
DOORWAYS
0 SECTION A - A
Fig. 7. Schematic Section of C1/B2 showing heights of Early
Bronze tomb and Rooms 3-5 of "Early Urartian " period.
built against it; by itself, the archaeological evidence in the
B2 area only demonstrates a much earlier Early Bronze occupation
beneath the Urartian architecture (see above). The Second
Millennium Occupation and the Early Bronze Occupations at Horom and
Anushavan
Operations C3b/5 and E2: the Gate 6 area (Figs. 10 and 11)
The initial 1990 sounding at Horom was placed just within and
west of Gate 6 in the C Fortification Wall. No distinctive Urartian
materials happened to be recovered from this sounding, and for this
reason the fortifications on the North Hill were initially dated to
the pre-Urartian Early Iron period (Badaljan et al. 1992: 37-41), a
conclusion subse- quently corrected after the more extensive 1992
campaign. Additional excavations on both sides of the C Wall and to
the east and west of Gate 6 were conducted in 1992 (Badaljan et al.
1993: 4-5, 19-21), and these again confirmed the absence of
significant Urartian remains in this area-save, of course, for the
C Wall itself. The recovery of several painted Middle Bronze
sherds, and a single, surpris- ingly early calibrated C14 date of
1887-1693 B.C. (1 sigma-sample no. AA-7766) from the bottom of
the
"Early Iron" level in the 1990 sounding sug- gested that
occupation in this area could have extended back even into the
Middle Bronze period or the first half of the second millennium
B.C.
Additional work in 1993 reinforces this impres- sion. Work began
in C5 which extended 2.5 m. west of the 1992 C3b trench and 4 m. to
the north. C5 ultimately was connected with C3b in order to expose
a sufficient area to understand the strati- graphic relationship of
the diagonally running wall, initially discovered in 1990,8 with
the C Fortification Wall. Since this diagonal Wall lb ran beneath
the C Fortification Wall, a small 2 x 3 m. trench E2, which was
later extended into a 4 x 5 m. sounding, was placed outside the C
Wall to trace Wall lb's exten- sion farther to the south-west.
Excavations in C3a in1992 did not reach the level at which this
wall would have appeared (n.b., the north-eastern con- tinuation of
Wall lb into the 1990 sounding is not shown in Fig. 10);
nevertheless, a calibrated C14 determination from a surface-C3a,
area G, locus 31 - apparently above the wall yielded a date of
1290-1050 B.C. [at 1 sigma; sample AA-10193- 2975+/-55 BP
(uncalibrated); or 1370-1010 B.C. calibrated at 2 sigma]. As
currently exposed, Wall lb stretches from the northern section of
the 1990 sounding across the connected trenches C3a and C5; it then
runs under the C Fortification Wall into the trench E2, continuing
into its southern section (Figs. 10 and 11 and Badaljan et al.
1992: pl. XIIa). Thus, this massive wall of uncertain function,
which extends for at least 10 m. in this area of the North Hill,
clearly predates the construction of the C Fortification Wall and
presumably is earlier than the calibrated date from C3a; its
orientation is
-
z
0 0 z z >
0 0 zTI
ze
HO
RO
M 1992-93
AR
EA
DI
o0 2M
-642 18
O
1641474 BA
SIN
1641.7,16A2.13
EO
BASIN
s
RO
OM
3
SCO
L 1641.28
HEA
RTH
BA
SE 641 26B
16AI.51
RO
OM
2
,,.., 6-FLO
OR
00.... oo
81E 1641
I /16A
74
1641 76BA
SIN
O
~
16A
1. 58 R
OO
M
I )6A I 03
DJ O
COL
CO
L BA
SE 1641
18 BA
SE 16A
I 1
1641.41f 16 I0
CD
C
Fig. 8. Operation DI, R
ooms 1-3.
-
12 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
102
3 4 5
Fig. 9. Dl Ceramics, tannish-brown incised nos. I and 2from Room
2 have only been found in this operation, also presumably of the
"Late Urartian" period; no. 3 is a black painted on grey
fragment.
roughly perpendicular to the wall found in 1992 in trench El
further to the east which also extended beneath the C Wall.
Although additional work is needed to confirm the stratigraphic
relationship of these walls, a picture of a substantial earlier
settle- ment in this area of the site, if not even an earlier
fortification system, which was subsequently destroyed by the
Urartian construction, seems to be coming into focus.
During the C5 excavation it became clear that the topmost
portion of Wall lb had been cut away by the foundation trench for
the C Fortification Wall. As was first noted in 1990, Wall lb
appears to have been built in at least two phases (Badaljan et al.
1992: 36-7, fig. 4), the upper phase being partially removed by the
construction of the C Wall. Most of the surfaces encountered in
C3b/5 and E2 were ephemeral, although one decent plastered surface
was uncovered on both sides of Wall lb in C3b/5; and, as far as
could be ascertained, this sur- face separated the two building
phases of this same wall. As before, no diagnostic Urartian wares
appeared in this area. Ceramics from C3b/5 were consistently mixed:
dominantly "Early Iron" local grey wares and occasional Middle
Bronze painted and impressed wares were associated with the later
rebuild of Wall lb; and roughly equal amounts of unmistakeable,
black-burnished Early Bronze Kura- Araxes wares and the same type
of "Early Iron" wares were associated with the initial construction
of Wall lb (P1. IIIa and Fig. 12). Unmixed Early Bronze sherds were
only found beneath Wall lb in C3b/5 at the end of the season.
Besides ceramics, a stylized anthropomorphic stone head and a few
horse bones were recovered from these presumably unmixed Early
Bronze levels; the latter have been submitted for radiocarbon
analysis. Bedrock was not reached in this operation.
The precise dating for the different phases of Wall lb is
unclear, and some of the difficulty relates to the uncertainty of
the "Early Iron" attribution for all the local grey ware forms. The
continuity of the Bronze to Iron Age ceramic tradition on the
Shirak plain may be underestimated by recourse to this ter-
minology. It is true that most of the surfaces here are fleeting or
ephemeral, and that there was con- siderable disturbance in this
area associated with the construction of the Urartian
fortifications. Nevertheless, the architecture, C14 dates, and
ceramics from the different trenches in this area may suggest not
so much that the materials are mixed, but that a substantial
settlement in this part of the North Hill dates back to the first
half of the second millennium B.C., overlying, in turn, a late
Early Bronze occupation, dating to the middle or late third
millennium B.C, as well as an earlier Early Bronze occupation.
A stone cist burial appeared just beneath the sur- face in the
south-eastern corner of trench E2; the burial contained the remains
of a young juvenile contracted on its right side with its head
oriented to the north-west (P1. IIIb). Two undecorated pots (Fig.
13), including a double-handled or lugged grey ware vessel resting
on the pelvis, several glass beads (including one with an "evil
eye" design), an iron bracelet worn on the skeleton's arm, and a
hollow-based brown obsidian arrowhead were found in the burial.
Although this burial was not sealed, it clearly postdated Wall ib,
which extended across E2 to the west (Fig. 11). The cist burial
clearly differed in its form both from the numerous stone-ringed
"Early Iron" tombs or cromlechs located east and south of the Horom
settlement (see below and Badaljan et al. 1993: 8-12) and from the
collective Early Bronze tomb accidently found in trench C1 at the
end of the 1992 season (Badaljan
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
13
HOROM 1992- 93 AREA C3/E2
C3
Wlb E2
S0 1 2M
AJ
Fig. 10. Operation C3b/5-E2, showing diagonal Wall lb running
beneath C Fortification Wall and stone cist burial to the
south-east.
-
14 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
et al. 1993: 4, pl. Ia). While one grave does not make a
cemetery, this stone cist burial may reflect the presence of
additional mortuary remains in this area of the site, all of which
may date to a period substan- tially later than the construction of
Wall ib; i.e., to a time that was immediately pre-Urartian or
Urartian.
Operation C1
Nearly the entire 1992 C1 trench was excavated down to sterile
soil at the beginning of the 1993 sea- son in the hopes of
encountering additional collec- tive Early Bronze tombs similar to
that excavated in 1992. None were found, though materials recov-
ered throughout the trench beneath the surface on which the B
Fortification Wall was built were almost exclusively identified as
Early Bronze Kura-Araxes wares. As mentioned above, Early Bronze
ceramics also were uncovered beneath the Urartian architec- ture in
the B2 complex immediately to the west, suggesting that this area
of the Horom settlement, like the C3b/5 and E2 area to the south,
was occu- pied during the Early Bronze period.
Two discrepant C14 dates were obtained from the Early Bronze
tomb in CI: sample no. AA-10191 taken from burnt human
bone-4505+/-50 BP or calibrated at 3350-3050 B.C. (1 sigma; or
3360-2930 B.C. at 2 sigma); and sample no. AA-11130 which was
charcoal from the burnt surface of the tomb--
5150 +/-60 BP or calibrated at 4070-3810 B.C. (1 sigma; or
4220-3800 B.C. at 2 sigma). A late fourth millennium B.C. date for
the typologically early forms of the three Kura-Araxes vessels from
this tomb (P1. IIIc) is reasonable, particularly given the revised
downdating for the beginnings of this "cul- ture" (see Glumac and
Anthony 1992: 203; Kavtaradze 1983); the discrepant, earlier date
of the late fifth to early foutth millennium B.C. is prob- lematic.
Some of the Early Bronze ceramics recov- ered from the B2/C1 area,
as well as many from the C3b/5 area (Fig. 14), exhibit incisions
and surface decorations; they are considered typologically late and
should indicate a much later mid to late third millennium Early
Bronze occupation of the settle- ment as well.
While more evidence of the Early Bronze period at Horom needs to
be uncovered, particularly from undisturbed levels in different
areas of the settle- ment, it is possible that the site may have
been occu- pied continuously from the late fourth millennium B.C.
onwards, the major difficulty, of course, being that the Iron Age
levels either overlie and/or have partially destroyed strata
containing the Early Bronze materials. It remains the case,
however, that Early Bronze remains have been encountered beneath
the Iron levels in all the operations at Horom, except for the
excavations on the summit
HOROM 1992-93 AREA E2/C3
E2 -- - ----
C3 FORTIFICATION
WALL C REBUILD
TOMB O
WALL lb
SECTION A -A
O 1 2M Fig. 11. Schematic section through Operation
C3b/5-E2.
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
15
4 5 6
9
7 8
10
11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19
20 21
22 23
24 25 2627
I I I I
Fig. 12. "Early Iron, "painted Middle Bronze, and Early Bronze
Mixed Grey Ware ceramics from Operation C3b/5 (number 15- pattern
burnished, numbers 24-7 black-on-red wares).
-
16 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
1 2_ _ -
0 C),
Fig. 13. Two light grey pots from E2 burial.
of the South Hill, and this suggests that the occupa- tion may
have been fairly substantial, larger possibly than other known
Kura-Araxes settlements, such as Karnut, on the Shirak Plain and,
more generally, within highland Transcaucasia.
The Early Bronze Settlement at Anushavan
Due to the difficulty of exposing the Early Bronze settlement at
Horom, a 6 x 6 m. sounding was opened near the end of the season at
the neigh- boring site of Anushavan, which is located to the east
of Horom immediately north of the town of Artik. Characteristic
Kura-Araxes ceramics, serrated flint sickles, and andiron/hearth
fragments picked up during surface reconnaissance initially in
summer 1990 had indicated that an Early Bronze settlement once
occupied a few hectares on the southern slope of a natural hill
south-east of the modern Anushavan village and a later small
Hellenistic site. More surface Early Bronze remains were retrieved
by walking over the site in 1993, including a double spiral-headed
copper or bronze toggle pin. The sounding was placed on the second
of its three terraces. The cultural deposit was very shallow and
filled with loose rocks. Nevertheless, a two course wide stone wall
ran north-south across the trench, and a stone cist burial (Feature
2), remi- niscent in form to the burial in E2, and containing the
remains of an infant, had been placed immedi- ately east of this
wall (Fig. 15); the burial could not be dated since only one Early
Bronze sherd was found beneath the skeleton, and it was unclear
whether it related to the burial or to the underlying Early Bronze
cultural level. Given the shallowness of the deposit, Anushavan may
not prove to be the appropriate site to obtain more extensive
exposure of Early Bronze remains in the Horom region, though a
future sounding in a different area of the site is no doubt
warranted.
THE SOUTH HILL EXCAVATIONS
Two operations were conducted on the South Hill of the Horom
settlement in 1993: 1) M7, which began as a 5 x 5 m. trench placed
immediately northwest of the 1992 M1/6 "horizontal exposure" on the
eastern summit of the South Hill (Badaljan et al. 1993: 4-6, fig.
3) and which was expanded sev- eral times to the north, south, and
west as more architecture of this complex was uncovered, yield- ing
by summer's end a total excavated area together with M1/6 of 26.5
m. (E/W) x 17 m. (N/S); and 2) M8, an 8 x 2.5 m. wide trench which
was placed far- ther to the southwest near the bottom of the south-
ern slope of the South Hill within what appeared to be a room in
order to determine whether or not this occupation, which was beyond
the fortification walls of the South Hill, was contemporaneous with
the M1/7 complex on the summit or later in date. The M8 room was
paved with flagstones, similar to those in the M1/7 area and in the
D1 complex on the North Hill, but its walls were only preserved to
a height of a single course; ceramics recovered from M8 were
identical with those on the top of the South Hill, a circumstance
which suggests that the occupations were, in fact,
contemporaneous.
Operation M1/7: The Architectural Complex on the Eastern Summit
of the South Hill (Fig. 16)
A large area of interconnected architecture (c. 26.5 m. x 17 m.)
has been exposed on the east- ern summit of the South Hill (Fig.
16). This com- plex now appears to continue even farther to the
west, possibly extending all the way to what appears to be the main
entrance through the southern forti- fication walls of the South
Hill. The extensive flag- stone flooring and lack of evidence for
roofing uncovered during the 1992 M1 excavations implied that this
complex may have been an open-air forum, and the presence of
numerous hollowed-out
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PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
17
1 7
2
8
3 ~t /k/
4I
AsI
,oo
10
11
-D.
0000 0%"
Fig. 14. Incised Early Bronze Grey Wares from Operation C3b.
-
18 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
stone pits or "basins" often in association with stone
"tethering rings" chiselled out of adjacent rocks sug- gested that
the complex may have been the scene of non-utilitarian, cultic
activities, possibly including the sacrifice of animals (Badaljan
et al. 1993: 5-6). The 1992 excavations uncovered four distinct
areas within the part of the complex that was exposed; and at least
two more related areas-connected to the area of the M1 excavations
by a narrow corridor -were revealed in 1993.
The cultural deposit on the South Hill is rela- tively shallow,
rarely exceeding 1 m. in depth. Clearly only a single period of
architecture is pre- served on the top of the South Hill, though
four separate loci were distinguished while clearing to the
flagstone and packed clay floor of the architec- ture: 1) a c. 30-5
cm. deep topsoil level containing generally elaborate "Early Iron"
grey wares with handles, spouts, and burnished designs; 2) a rela-
tively sterile deposit of loose homogeneous soil extending c. 30-70
cm. beneath the surface; 3) a culturally rich, dense mixture of
clay, ash, and char- coal at a depth of c. 70-85 cm. directly above
the flagstone floor; and 4) the flagstone and hard packed clay
floor on which the walls and other fea- tures of the architectural
complex were erected. This floor was occasionally cut through by
pits which also seem to be associated with the architec- ture.
Thus, even though it may prove possible to trace a development of
the local grey wares from relatively undecorated to more elaborate
forms on the South Hill, there is really evidence for only a single
period of occupation.
Two main walls were excavated in M7 during the 1993 season: a
slightly curved eastern wall (Feature 1) which was 1 course thick
and 4-5 courses high (max. height of 1.2 m.) (Pl. IIId); and a
second wall (Feature 4) composed of large stones (up to 80 cm.
wide) to its west, which was 2 courses wide but only 1 course high.
It was initially thought that this more massive western wall might
define the western limits of the entire interconnected complex, but
a series of features, such as stone basins set directly into its
western face, suggest that the complex continues still farther west
beyond the limits of the 1993 exca- vations. Several features were
found in the room defined by these two walls, including more pits
and stone basins. One large basin, Feature 3 (P1. IIId), is
particularly noteworthy. It was carved from a large
triangular-shaped bedrock stone and has a diameter of c. 28 cm.
Channels were cut into the bowl of the basin for drainage and a
small lip or depressed spout also was carved into it presumably to
facilitate the pouring of liquids. The channels drain into a large
pit (Feature 5) set immediately to its west. A surprising number of
finely-made bone artefacts (P1. IIIe) were recovered from this
room, including
two points which were found within a small rectan- gular
installation (Feature 13-165 cm. N/S x 70 cm. E/W) of vertically
set stones south of the large basin together with a cache of
forty-five ankle (astragali) and fifty-six metatarsal bones of
cattle (c. 80 per cent) and red deer (c. 20 per cent), some of
which had been perforated. The purpose of this installa- tion is
unclear, though the combination of features again suggests
something other than simple domes- tic utilisation (the casting of
lots, ritual divination, or the like?). Three additional basins
were set into the western face of the large western wall (Feature
4) in association with a stone-lined hearth or area of burning
(Feature 15).
ANUSHAVAN 1993
0 2M
_F3 F2
Fig. 15. Wall and features from the sounding at the Early Bronze
site of Anushavan; note stone cist burial (F2).
-
z rl 0 H 0 z H H z z
HO
RO
M 1992-93
AR
EA M
1669 43
00 M
16Q 952
A
41669 67
BASIN
S O)108
on
aa
?) o
1 0TETH
ERIN
G
Fig. 16. M1/M
7 Interconnected architectural com
plex; stone rectangular installation in the south-w
est contained bone points a
nd cache of cattle and red deer astragali and
metatarsal bones.
-
20 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
The architectural features and associated artefacts from the
interconnected complex on the eastern summit of the South Hill are
difficult to interpret. Present evidence neither confirms nor
negates the hypothesis that animals may have been ritually
sacrificed in this complex. Several of the bone artefacts found in
Feature 13 and within the room defined by Features 1 and 4 show no
evidence of use, possibly suggesting that they were fashioned
within the complex. A large, worked red deer antler found south of
Feature 13 also supports this inter- pretation. The proximity of
several basins with one another, such as the three set in the
western face of Feature 4, makes it difficult to conceive that all
functioned as receptacles for animal sacrifice. For these, a more
prosaic, industrial function may ulti- mately seem more reasonable.
The complex remains enigmatic, and only additional clearing,
possibly of the entire summit, may elucidate it.
Tombs East of the Horom Settlement
Numerous walls and surface features are spread across several
hundred hectares to the east and south of the two citadel hills
which define the Horom settlement. Most noteworthy and unequivo-
cally prehistoric are circular rings of stones or crom- lechs
clustered in groups to the east and parti- cularly south of the
settlement. Two of these "Early Iron" tombs (labelled T1 and T2)
were excavated in 1992 (Badaljan et al. 1993: 8-12), and four
struc- tures( T3-T6), thought to be tombs, were dug in 1993. For
the purpose of defining chronological or social variety in the
contents of these tombs, it was decided to sample structures from
different clusters of tombs or different areas of the site. T4,
which was defined by a circular ring of stones on the eastern ridge
of the northern slope of the South Hill, proved to be natural and
yielded no skeletal or material remains. T5, which appeared as a
deliber- ately raised pile of stones and not a ringed circle, was
located a few hundred meters to the northwest of T1 and T2. It was
hoped that this structure might prove to be a kurgan, possibly
earlier in date than the ubiquitous Iron Age cromlechs. Fragmentary
human bones and potsherds were found in a pit beneath the pile of
stones in T5, confirming indeed that it was a burial. These
remains, however, were so sparse and badly disturbed-presumably in
anti- quity, that they could not be dated.
T3, a typically shaped cromlech defined by a ring of stones c. 6
m. in diameter, proved more informa- tive, though its central
burial pit had also been robbed in antiquity. T3 was located in a
cluster of recognisable cromlechs west of T1 and T2 (i.e., closer
to the South Hill) on the eastern slope of a small natural ridge. A
large red basalt capstone had
been placed in the centre of the ring of the stones covering the
central burial pit. After removing the surface vegetation and
defining the ring of stones, two subsidiary rings of stones covered
by smaller capstones to the east (Feature A) and south (Feature B)
of the central burial pit became evi- dent; Tomb 1, excavated in
1992, also had such an auxiliary ring of stones to its southeast
(Badaljan et al. 1993: fig. 7) where it marked the presence of an
additional pit containing ceramic vessels. The cen- tral capstone
was split, and upon excavation it was immediately apparent that the
central pit had been robbed; a few disarticulated human bones
emerged, including part of the skull near the western edge of the
pit. Parts of three vessels were recovered from the central pit
along with nearlyl00 small beads, made primarily of carnelian,
frit, and shell. Feature A contained six vessels, three of which
were whole, and Feature B the partial remains of two additional
vessels. Typologically, the vessels were similar to those found in
T1 and T2 and presumably date to the late second or early first
millennium B.C.; i.e., to the "Early Iron", pre-Urartian period
(Fig. 17: 1-5).
T6 was defined by a an oval ring of stones (c. 4.9 m. N/S x c.
5.5 m. E/W) clustered together with other stone-ringed cromlechs to
the west of T3 on the eastern slope of the last ridge of hills
separat- ing this area of the Horom site from the South Hill. Three
stones covered the central pit, two of which were removed. T6 was a
cenotaph containing no skeletal remains but three vessels, two of
which were complete (Fig. 17: 6-8), were recovered. The larger
burnished dark grey complete vessel (Fig. 17:8) had a fragment of
obsidian set in its base, a trait some- times found on Middle to
Late Bronze vessels in Transcaucasia; morphologically this vessel
and the second complete vessel from T6 seemed earlier than the
vessels recovered from other tombs at Horom, suggesting that this
cenotaph (and others on this ridge of hills?) possibly date to the
mid to late second millennium B.C.
Faunal Remains from Horom
Faunal remains from Horom are numerous and extremely
well-preserved. Nearly 6000 animal bones from the 1992 and 1993
seasons were identified by Dr. Saindor Bokonyi. Eight domestic
(cattle, sheep, goat, pig, horse, ass, dog, and chicken) and
sixteen wild (red deer, roe deer, aurochs, Asiatic moufflon sheep,
bezoar goat, wild boar, onager, badger, gazelle, red fox, hyena,
brown bear, wolf, two wild birds, and one type of fish) species
were repre- sented in the Horom materials. 92.4 per cent of the
identifiable remains were of domestic animals. The Shirak plain
today is dominantly a cattle-breeding region, and this type of
animal husbandry clearly
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PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
21
characterised the Bronze and Iron Ages as well; cattle
constituted c. 63 per cent of the identifiable domestic forms.
Caprovines were far less frequent (c. 26.5 per cent), and these
were followed, some- what surprisingly, by horse (6.7 per cent) and
then pig (1.6 per cent). Red deer were by far the most numerous
wild species, constituting at least 60 per cent of the hunted
animals, followed by aurochs. The natural habitat for most of the
wild animals is forest or forest-steppe. The large body and antler
sizes of the red deer also suggest that these animals lived under
favorable environmental conditions; specifically, in dense woods
which probably grew throughout the plain at that time. It is
noteworthy that the wild relatives of the domestic species
whose
origins go back to the Neolithic (namely, cattle, sheep, goat,
pig, and dog) were indigenous to the region and still lived in the
area during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Horse, however, would have to
have been brought into highland Transcaucasia from elsewhere, most
probably from the Eurasian steppes to the north, though it is not
yet known when this momentous introduction first took place. As
men- tioned above, domesticated horse bones from "unmixed" Early
Bronze levels in operation C3b/5 have been submitted for C14
determination, and their analysis will, hopefully, demonstrate the
early presence of horses in the area. Dr. B6k6nyi also observed
that some of the cattle horn cores showed a circular impression
near the base, such as could
1 2 3
6
5
_8
Fig. 17. Ceramic vessels from Horom Tombs T3 (nos. 1-5) and T76
(nos. 6-8); vessel no. 8 had an obsidian flake set in its base.
-
22 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
have been caused by the pressure of a yoke, a circumstance that
would point to the use of draught oxen.
The Horom Digital Mapping Project In summer 1993 a mapping
project was initiated
which began to incorporate detailed architectural drawings of
the excavated areas and the visible sur- face architecture into a
digitised map of the site compiled through the use of the AutoCAD
pro-
gram. All the excavation units, including the exten- sive
stepped fortifications uncovered in Operation A2/3 on the summit of
the North Hill, were located on the base map and digitised as well.
The aerial images will now be used to check and further refine the
digitised model of the base map. We are now able to view the site
and its architecture three dimensionally along several different,
spatially sig- nificant scales of resolution. Work on this mapping
project will continue in future seasons.
APPENDIX A: ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN SOUTHERN GEORGIA
1993
By Barbara Isaac, Zaal Kikodze, Philip L. Kohl, Giorgi
Mindiashvili, Alexander Ordzhonikidze, and Greg White
PALAEOLITHIC INVESTIGATIONS
Three weeks were spent studying Palaeolithic and
Plio-Pleistocene deposits in the field and Palaeolithic materials
in the Georgian State Museum in Tbilisi. Four Plio-Pleistocene
localities were surveyed: the Tsalka Basin; the Lake Paravani
Basin; the Paravani (Djavakheti) Plateau-Diliska Gorge; and the
Persati Plateau. It was established that sediments and volcanic
rocks along the Diliska Gorge and under the Paravani Plateau offer
ideal contexts for Plio-Pleistocene archaeological surveys.
Mulitple extrusive rocks provide excellent dating potentials, while
minor pyroclastic deposits should enhance correlation of fluvial
and lacustrine facies. Sedimentary environments include floodplain
and lacustrine littoral settings that would have been suit- able
for prehistoric occupations. Bone preservation is excellent, as may
be that of plant macrofauna as well. Steep canyon and quarry
exposures make exploration of these thick deposits feasible with
minimal manual excavation of trenches.
Abundant lithic artefacts were found on the Persati Plateau in
and on fluvial-colluvial clays in this small elevated montane
basin. Faunal materials probably are not preserved here, but this
site appears to contain an important record of Acheulean
technology, typology, and raw material transport. Geologically,
areas with intact spatial pat- terning are quite possible.
Trenching will be neces- sary to define the full character of the
artefact assemblages and their geological context.
Two caves were visited farther north in the area of Sachkere
(Imeretia): Dzudzuana; and Ortvala. This area is strikingly similar
to the Dordogne region of France and is characterised by extensive
karstic activity within an uplifted Palaeozoic lime-
stone plateau. Incision of the plateau has exposed numerous
caves and rockshelters. The Dzudzuana cave had only c.10 per cent
of its fill removed by previous excavations. Sufficient exposures
revealed the presence of Neolithic/Early Bronze materials overlying
that of the Upper Palaeolithic. Interestingly, and for reasons
which need to be clarified through more extensive excavations, no
Middle Palaeolithic layers have yet been found.
The Ortvala rockshelter is filled by sediments remarkably
similar to the eboulis rich deposits which typify the sediments
from French rockshelters. These are highly calcareous loams rich in
angular limestone debris derived from the walls and roof. Most of
the iboulis is intercalated with zones of fine, dusty, and crumbly
matrix-supported sediments containing some hearths and ashes. The
so-called "transitional" industry situated between the Upper and
Middle Palaeolithic layers may be particularly important. Although
it has been suggested that there is an unconformity between these
industrial complexes, no evidence (e.g., soil or weathering) of
such a break was observed in the field.
Further exploration of both these caves should be highly
informative, as should continued investi- gations of the earlier
Plio-Pleistocene deposits further to the south. Both the Georgian
State University and the Georgian State Museum have extended
invitations for such collaborative field investigations, and these
have been gladly accepted.
BRONZE AND IRON AGE INVESTIGATIONS
Short field seasons were conducted on the Djavakheti Plateau, of
southern Georgia in 1990 and 1991 (Kohl et al. 1992), a relatively
level upland
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
23
area stretching c. 40-50 km. west to east and 30-5 km. north to
south. The border between Georgia and Armenia represents the
watershed between the tributaries of the Araxes river flowing south
into Armenia and the Kura and its tributaries, particularly the
deeply downcutting Paravani river, flowing north into Georgia.
While the Plateau slopes northeast to southwest, its average
elevation (c. 1800 m.a.s.l.) is higher than that of the Shirak
Plain, and its climate accordingly is more severe and suitable for
the pasturing of sheep and goats than for cereal growing and the
herding of cattle, the dominant practises today and apparently
during later prehistoric times on the Shirak Plain. The Djavakheti
Plateau is surrounded by high mountain ranges, the most notable of
which is the metal- liferous Trialeti Range to its north. To date,
the later prehistoric investigations in southern Georgia have
concentrated on two sites: Satkhe, a site cover- ing at least 7 ha.
on the eastern edge of the Plateau; and Amagleba,9 a site near its
northern boundary immediately south of the Trialeti Range.
Early Bronze Excavations at Satkhe The site is located on a
small hill above the con-
temporary village of Satkhe, c. 8 km. northeast of the regional
center of Nino Tsminda (formerly Bogdanovka), near the confluence
of the Paravani River and a small stream which runs through the
village. The site was initially defined by a c. 4 m. thick wall
formed by two rows of boulders (general- ly preserved to a height
of only one course) separat- ed by rubble infill. This wall follows
the natural con- tour of the hill, securing a c. 6 ha.
horshoe-shaped concave depression that forms the hill's summit.
Early Bronze sherds were collected from within this fortified area
and to the south and west beneath the contemporary village. In 1991
a late Early Bronze vaulted stone kurgan, which had been plundered
in antiquity, was excavated in a field immediately to the north of
the fortification wall, but two small exploratory soundings within
the fortified area revealed the presence of Hellenistic and
Medieval occupations in addition to the dominant Early Bronze
settlement: The 1993 excavations were directed towards: 1)
determining the extent and preservation of Early Bronze remains
both within the fortified area (Operation Al) and on a sloping
terrace at the foot of the hill beneath the fortifi- cations to the
southeast where a villager had un- covered a dense concentration of
decorated Early Bronze pots and storage jars at the end of the 1991
season (Operation Bi); 2) dating the wall by digging against its
inner face and sectioning it (Operations A2 and A3); and excavating
what appeared to be another small kurgan located on
the remains of an early agricultural terrace immedi- ately east
of the fortified hill (Operation C1). This last excavation
determined that this raised mound of stones had simply been
collected by villagers in the course of agricultural work and was
not a pre- historic kurgan that would help to date the exten- sive
terracing east of the settlement.
A 10 x 10 m. exposure (Al) was opened immedi- ately to the
northeast of where a large Kura-Araxes vessel, set on a plastered
surface,10 had been re- covered in 1991. Only Kura-Araxes materials
were recovered from Al, although the cultural deposit which lay
almost immediately beneath the surface was not well-preserved.
Single courses of dry stone walls, delineating rectangular
structures were revealed, and one such structure had been erected
over an earlier structure, suggesting the presence of at least two
distinct Early Bronze building phases in this area of the
settlement. The black and brown burnished ceramics included a few
incised decor- ated fragments, similar to those from Operations C1
anc C3b/5-E2 at Horom and other well-known Kura-Araxes sites, such
as Shengavit, Mokhra Blur, and Kvatskhelebi, suggesting a date in
the first half of the third millennium B.C. Unfortunately, the
shallowness of the deposit and later cultural activi- ties in this
area, including its contemporary cultiva- tion by villagers, meant
that the Early Bronze remains here were badly disturbed and
unlikely to yield additional significant information.
Operations A2 and A3 were both small sound- ings set against and
through the fortification wall for the purpose of determining the
wall's date (Fig. 18). A2, which was located near the northeastern
corner of the wall next to an internal feature or tower, contained
a shallow Early Bronze deposit directly beneath the surface which
continued par- tially underneath the wall, suggesting that at least
in this part of the site an Early Bronze occupation pre- dated the
construction of the wall. A3 sectioned a 1 m. wide cut through the
wall at a place where excavations in 1991 had revealed a dense
concen- tration of Early Bronze artefacts underlying Medieval
constructions against its inner face. A few unidentifiable,
presumably Medieval sherds were recovered from the rubble fill of
this trench, and the wall itself rested on bedrock (i.e., the Early
Bronze deposit did not continue here beneath the wall). Thus, the
results of these operations were inconclusive. It is possible that
the wall initially could have been constructed during Early Bronze
times, but it is equally, if not more, likely that it dates to a
much later period, an interpretation which leaves unexplained its
primitive form and poor state of preservation.
Operation Bi, which began as a 10 x 10 m. trench, yielded a
complex of Early Bronze domes-
-
24 JOURNAL. OF PERSIAN STUDIES
SATKHE 1993 TRENCHES A2
AND A3
A3 PLAN
0 1 2M
VIRGIN SOIL
A3 A3 SECTION N-S SECTION E-W
EBA BEDROCK 7/71/71 ,r ,7/7-1,7;-77/ -/77"/
VIRGIN SOIL A2 SECTION E- W
2I
I
A2 PLAN
Fig. 18. Satkhe Soundings A2 and A3 against and through
fortification wall of uncertain date.
-
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE 1993 EXCAVATIONS AT HOROM, ARMENIA
25
ROOM D
MROOM B
2ID
E ooo
ROOM C
ROOM D
E B. PITHOS
ROOM A
A-A
E.B. PIT
B - B ROOM D ROOM B
SATKHE 1993 AREA BI 0 1 2M
Fig. 19. Satkhe, Uperation l-Early Bronze domestic archztectural
complex.
-
26 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES
tic, rectangular or sub-rectangular structures (Fig. 19).
Although found directly beneath the surface, these rooms had been
covered by a deposit of wash eroding from the hill and were less
disturbed than those from Al. The rooms had well-defined floors
preserved to a depth of nearly 2 m. A large, nearly complete
black-burnished cooking vessel or storage jar was found on the
floor near the northwestern corner of Room D; behind this several
Kura-Araxes vessels and deer antlers had been placed (P1. IlIf).
This evidence and other Early Bronze materials recovered from this
excavation suggests that the rooms of this complex had been left
while still con- taining usable items and that the site may have
been suddenly abandoned, a feature also suggested for other
Kura-Araxes settlements, such as Karnut on the Shirak Plain. There
was also evidence of a Mediaeval midden deposit above Room C to the
east, and today this terraced area of Early Bronze structures is
being encroached upon and further disturbed by the expansion of the
village.
Some of the faunal materials from Satkhe were analysed by Dr.
B6k6nyi, and these suggested that the Early Bronze inhabitants of
Djavakheti prac- ticed a different form of animal husbandry from
that of their contemporaries to the south on the Shirak Plain.
Specifically, ovicaprine remains slight- ly outnumbered those of
cattle, implying a far greater reliance on sheep and goats on the
higher Djavakheti Plateau. Horse bones (Equus caballus) also were
recovered, as were remains of aurochs and red deer, although the
wild animals were not as relatively numerous as at Horom, possibly
suggest- ing that Djavakheti was not as densely wooded a