INVESTIGATING TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES TOWARD ICT INTEGRATION IN CLASSROOMS IN DELHI, INDIA By SHILPA SAHAY A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2018
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INVESTIGATING TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES TOWARD ICT INTEGRATION IN
CLASSROOMS IN DELHI, INDIA
By
SHILPA SAHAY
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Definition of ICT ...................................................................................................... 17 ICT in Schools in India ............................................................................................ 18
The Study ............................................................................................................... 20 Imagery of India as IT Superpower ......................................................................... 21
The School System in India .................................................................................... 23 Context ................................................................................................................... 26
American India Foundation (AIF) - Digital Equalizer (DE) Program ........................ 28 The Problem ........................................................................................................... 30
Problem Statement ................................................................................................. 31 Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................. 31
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 33 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 36
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 36
2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 39
Development of ICT in Indian Schools .................................................................... 39 A Snapshot ............................................................................................................. 39
1813-1947: India under the British Rule.................................................................. 42 1947- 1980: Growth of ICT Post-Independence ..................................................... 42
1980s – 2000: Spread of National Media Packages in Schools and Developing Focus on Teacher Training .................................................................................. 44
2000s – Present: Interplay of Public-Private Partnership in Computerization of Schools ................................................................................................................ 47
Teachers’ Perspectives on ICT ............................................................................... 58 A Snapshot ............................................................................................................. 58
ICT availability ........................................................................................................ 63 Teachers’ Knowledge of ICT ................................................................................... 65
Teachers’ Attitudes on Use of ICT .......................................................................... 68 Teachers’ Decision and Use of ICT ........................................................................ 72
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Summary of the Literature Review .......................................................................... 76
Discussion with AIF Director ................................................................................... 95 Final Survey ............................................................................................................ 99
Participants ........................................................................................................... 101 Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 102
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 104 Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................... 110
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................ 112
A. Participants ..................................................................................................... 117 Teacher Background Information .......................................................................... 117
Teaching Qualification .......................................................................................... 117 Gender and Age ................................................................................................... 118
Teaching Experience, Teaching with Technology, and 1st Technology Training .. 119 Language and Subject .......................................................................................... 120
Class Size ............................................................................................................. 121 Computer-Related Technologies Available for Teacher Use ................................ 122
Summary of the Participants ................................................................................. 125 B. Answering Research Questions ..................................................................... 126
RQ1 -Teachers’ Skills and Knowledge on Computer-Related Technologies ........ 127 Summary of RQ1 .................................................................................................. 129
RQ2 - Teachers’ Attitudes about Computer-Related Practices ............................. 130 Summary of RQ2 .................................................................................................. 133
RQ3 - Teachers’ Decision to Use Computers for Teaching .................................. 134 Summary of RQ3 .................................................................................................. 136
RQ4 - Teachers’ Use of Computer-Related Technologies and their Schools’ Expectation toward their Use of Computers in Teaching (Practice- Implementation and Confirmation) ..................................................................... 136
Summary of RQ4 .................................................................................................. 141
Inspiration and Barriers for Teachers in Using Technologies ................................ 143 Inspiration for Teachers to Use Computer-Related Technologies in Teaching ..... 143
Barriers for Teachers to Use Technology in Teaching .......................................... 144 C. Cross-Tabulations and Correlations ................................................................ 146
Teachers’ Knowledge and ICT Usage .................................................................. 146 Teachers’ Attitude and ICT Usage ........................................................................ 147
Summary of the Study .......................................................................................... 151
Discussion ............................................................................................................ 152 RQ1 – How Do Teachers Perceive their Skills and Knowledge on Computer-
Related Technologies? ...................................................................................... 152 RQ2 – What are Teachers’ Attitudes about Computer-Related Practices?........... 153
RQ3 – What Decisions do Teachers Make to Use Computers for Teaching? ...... 153 RQ4 – How are Teachers Practicing Integration of ICT in Teaching? .................. 154
Key Take Away and Recommendations ............................................................... 157 Summary of Recommendations ............................................................................ 160
A 1ST DRAFT OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT SHARED WITH EXPERT REVIEWERS ........................................................................................................ 164
B DRAFT 2 OF THE SURVEY BASED ON EXPERT REVIEW ............................... 173
C COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER A ...................................................... 179
D COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER B ...................................................... 181
E COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER C ..................................................... 183
F COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER D ..................................................... 185
G COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER E ...................................................... 186
H COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER F ...................................................... 188
I FINAL DRAFT (DRAFT 3) OF THE SURVEY BASED ON TEACHER REVIEW AND DISCUSSION WITH AIF DIRECTOR ........................................................... 190
J GOOGLE TRANSLATION OF THE SURVEY (DRAFT 3) IN HINDI ..................... 199
K INSTRUCTION FOR FIELD COORDINATORS ON SURVEY COLLECTION ...... 207
L CODING SCHEME ON THE SURVEY ITEMS ..................................................... 209
M THE SURVEY CODEBOOK ................................................................................. 211
N CORRELATION MATRICES ................................................................................ 223
O SPEARMAN’S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT ................................................... 229
LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 230
Table page 1-1 Different school boards in India .......................................................................... 26
3-1 Aligning Survey Categories with IDP stages and subscales adapted from existing surveys .................................................................................................. 82
3-2 Changes in the survey instrument made after the expert review round .............. 86
3-3 Changes made in the survey draft after the cognitive interviews with teachers .. 92
3-4 AIF Director’s feedback on the survey instrument .............................................. 97
3-5 Organization of the final survey questionnaire: Sections, stages in the IDP and the corresponding items .............................................................................. 99
3-7 Teachers’ attitude through their experiential and conceptual views .................. 107
3-8 Decision to use computer-based technologies ................................................. 108
3-9 Teachers’ use of computer-based technologies ............................................... 108
3-10 Items to determine confirmation of use of technology ...................................... 109
4-1 Average operational skills ................................................................................. 127
4-2 Percentage of teachers in the different operational skills categories ................ 127
4-3 Average editing skills ........................................................................................ 128
4-4 Percentage of teachers in the different editing skills categories ....................... 128
4-5 Average online skills ......................................................................................... 129
4-6 Percentage of teachers in the different online skills category ........................... 129
4-7 Average experiential view ................................................................................. 130
4-8 Percentage of teachers in the different experiential view categories ................ 131
4-9 Average conceptual view .................................................................................. 132
4-10 Percentage of teachers in the different conceptual view categories ................. 133
4-11 Average decision to use computer-based technologies ................................... 135
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4-12 Percentage of teachers in the different decision categories ............................. 135
4-13 Average teachers’ use of computer-based technologies .................................. 137
4-14 Percentage of teachers in the different use categories ..................................... 138
4-15 Average school’s expectation toward teachers’ use of technology ................... 140
4-16 Percentage of teachers in the different school expectation categories ............. 140
4-17 Teachers’ knowledge and their use (Knowledge*Use) of computer-related technologies ..................................................................................................... 146
4-18 Attitude and use (Attitude * Use) of computer-related technologies ................. 147
4-20 Spearman's Rho Correlations of knowledge, attitude and decision with usage ................................................................................................................ 149
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page 1-1 Literacy rate map of India, 2011 ......................................................................... 24
1-2 IDP Model adapted from Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations. ........... 36
4-9 Class size ......................................................................................................... 121
4-10 Technology at home ......................................................................................... 122
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
AIF
CAL
CIET
American India Foundation
Computer Aided Learning
Centre of Educational Technology
DE Digital Equalizer
ET
ICT
IT
Education Technology
Information and Communications Technologies
Information Technology
IDP
LMS
NCERT
NCF
NEP
Innovation Diffusion Process
Learning Management System
National Council of Educational Research and Training
National Curriculum Framework
New Education Policy
NPE
MHRD
PPP
RTE
SSA
TPACK
UT
National Policy on Education
Ministry of Human Resource and Development
Public Private Partnership
Right to Education
Sarva Siksha Abhiyan
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Union Territory
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Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
INVESTIGATING TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES TOWARD ICT INTEGRATION IN
CLASSROOMS IN DELHI, INDIA
By
Shilpa Sahay
December 2018
Chair: Kara Dawson Major: Curriculum and Instruction
The world is witnessing a remarkable development in computer, Internet and
digital communication technologies in the field of teaching and learning. Contemporary
India is at a stage where such organized efforts to achieve success in bringing ICT in
schools were hitherto unseen. Currently, technology is being adopted rapidly in India,
but only a relatively small proportion of the school population have access to computers.
The country’s vast population coupled with the problems of poverty and digital illiteracy
have been critical factors impeding the adoption of ICT in India.
A comparison of growth along with ground realties needs to be watched carefully
as the future may change in response to several public and private initiatives which are
working toward increased integration of technology in schools in India. This survey
research explores teachers’ perspectives measured in terms of their knowledge,
attitudes, decisions and practice of ICT in teaching. These variables were based on
Rogers’ Innovation-Decision Process (IDP) model. The participants of this research
were the teachers of the 72 Delhi government schools who were implementing
American India Foundation’s Digital Equalizer (DE) program for the academic year
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2016-17. The findings suggest a little over half of the teachers to have medium level of
technological skills and three-fourth of them to have positive attitude, deciding to use
technology, and practicing computer-based technologies on a weekly basis. The study
recommends for focused teacher technological training programs to ensure that
teachers’ knowledge and attitude advance exponentially which could lead to stronger
integration of ICT in classrooms.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The world is witnessing a remarkable development in computer, Internet and
digital communication technologies in almost all aspects of human activities. The
universal flow and access to information at any point in time has ushered in the
‘information age’ which is characterized by gradual transformation of the world into a
global village (Garba, Yusuf, & Busthami, 2015). The present stage of rapid diffusion of
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has not been witnessed in human
history. It’s not just the affluent countries, but elsewhere in the world too that people
have started using free Internet access at public places, using social media to stay
connected with their family and friends, and utilizing mobile phone to make transactions.
The ubiquitous presence of technology is seen as means to promote development. The
mainstream ICT initiatives taking place around the world can be slotted into different
sectorial silos of development, including the domains of economics, governance,
education and health (Kleine, 2013).
The present age of technology plays a key role in our daily lives and is making a
strong position in the global education system (Kumar, 2008). The twenty-first century is
characterized with the emergence of knowledge based society wherein ICT plays a
pivotal role. Many best practices related to use of ICT in teaching and learning are
emerging in different countries. At the national levels, integrating emerging ICT tools
into school systems remain the focus for governments at the decision-making level and
for schools at the implementation level (Zhang, Yang, Chang & Chang; 2016). It can be
said that several national policies, cutting edge research, and worldwide practices aim
at leveraging digital technologies to promote ICT into the field of education. In the last
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few decades, education and ICT have developed a growing symbiotic relationship
(Angelaina & Jimoyiannis, 2012). The newfound benefits of technology in education
have caught interest of not only researchers but also of governments and funding
agencies worldwide.
Definition of ICT
Information and Communications Technology is a diverse set of technological
tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store and manage
information. ICT tools include almost every electronic device including radios,
televisions, desktops, laptops, tablets, cellular phones, network hardware and software,
satellite systems, Internet, along with peripherals like CDs, DVDs, smart cards and
other digital storage and computing devices (Bandyopadhyay, 2013). The use of the
term ICT has been synonymous with IT. The Oxford English Dictionary defined
Information Technology (IT) as “the branch of technology concerned with the
dissemination, processing, and storage of information, especially by means of
computers.” “Communications technologies” broadens the meaning to include
networking and communications devices. The arrival of the Internet in the late 1990s as
a global phenomenon sparked the convergence of digital computing and
telecommunications. Computers were largely focused on the processing of information.
ICTs undertake both processing and communication of information (Heeks & Nicholson,
2002). Broadly, ICTs are both tools and processes that allow for the transmission of
data and information through electronic means and can be powerful in shrinking
distances and enabling development (Duncombe & Heeks, 2002; Gerster &
Zimmermann, 2003). It is a term often used to describe a system of unified or
connected communication systems.
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ICT in Schools in India
In India, since the turn of the twenty-first century, ICT has begun to mark its
presence in the education domain. There has been continuous growth and proliferation
in the use of ICT in Indian schools. The educational policies, government, private
schools, corporate firms and non-profit organizations are all working toward increasing
access of computers and other ICT tools at schools. Technological applications are
becoming an indispensable part of the present culture which is finding space in schools
through both traditional and vocational education (Devi, Rizwaan, & Chander, 2012).
Contemporary India is witnessing a stage where such organized efforts to
achieve success in the direction of bringing ICT in schools were hitherto unseen
Surya, 2011). There is a lack of a systematic study of the whole process of teachers’
integration of ICT in Indian classroom teaching. The present study, therefore, was
aligned to the role of teachers in the government schools of the capital state of Delhi,
addressing their perspective that contribute or detract toward integrating ICT in the
classrooms.
Conceptual Framework
Innovation causes change, and resistance to change is a natural reaction to the
uncertainty that any transformation creates (Rogers, 2003). One of the best known and
well-respected attempts to describe the adoption of new ideas (or technology) through
cultures is the theory of Diffusion of Innovation put forth by Everett Rogers in 1995. This
theory has been extensively used in the field of behavior science research by scholars
from multi-disciplines in nations across the world. Since Rogers uses the term
innovation and technology interchangeably, the diffusion of innovation is seen as an apt
framework for this research on integration of ICT by teachers in Delhi government
classrooms. Because of the comprehensiveness of Rogers’ theory, researchers often
test or investigate some aspects of this unified theory of diffusion. For this study, I only
used the Innovation-Decision Process model of the theory of diffusion to investigate
teachers’ perspectives toward ICT integration in classroom teaching.
The 5 stages of the IDP model has been defined as follows:
1. Knowledge occurs when there is exposure and understanding about an innovation and how it functions.
2. Persuasion occurs when one develops a favorable or an unfavorable attitude towards the innovation.
3. Decision engages in activities that lead to a choice of adoption or rejection of the innovation.
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4. Implementation occurs when the new idea is put to use. And,
5. Confirmation takes place when one seeks reinforcement of an innovation-decision already made, but one may reverse this decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation
Rogers (1995) detailed out the five stages of the IDP model. In the ‘knowledge
stage’, one analyzes what is an individual’s awareness-knowledge about the
innovation? It becomes relevant to find out whether there was a need for the innovation
or was it created? In this study, AIF-DE program was the change agent bringing in the
innovation in the form of ICT integration in teaching by the teachers of the Delhi
government schools. Teachers’ knowledge and awareness about the ICT program was
analyzed in the study. Rogers mentioned that in the innovation-decision process, it
becomes significant for an individual to obtain sufficient knowledge about the innovation
to become adequately informed, so that one can be persuaded to accept the innovation
and practice it. Once an individual gains adequate knowledge, one moves to the
‘persuasion stage’, where one develops a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the
innovation. In this stage, the individual might develop positive or negative attitude and it
is not necessary that one be persuaded in the direction intended by the change agent.
Each individual thinks about applying the new idea to his or her present or anticipated
future situation before deciding to accept or reject the innovation. In this study, the
teachers were of under-resourced government schools where there existed numerous
challenges to providing quality education at a daily level. In these scenarios, though ICT
was believed to be a helpful resource for teaching, the study explored whether the
teachers had a favorable attitude toward ICT integration or not. Rogers studied that in
many cases attitudes and actions may be disparate. Individuals usually take a cue-to-
action to crystallize a favorable attitude into overt behavioral change of deciding to
35
adopt the innovation. The next IDP stage is the ‘decision stage’ where activities of the
individuals showcase whether one has adopted or rejected an innovation. Rogers
defined adoption as ‘a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of
action available’ and rejection is ‘a decision not to adopt an innovation’. There can be
‘active rejection’ and ‘passive rejection’ of the use of the innovation. This study analyzed
whether teachers accepted or rejected the integration of ICT in their teaching practices
which were being promoted by AIF-DE program. The ‘implementation stage’ is the next
in the innovation-decision process for an individual where one puts the innovation to
use. Rogers mentioned that after a point of use of the innovation, the new idea
becomes institutionalized as a regularized part of an adopter’s ongoing work. This study
analyzed how the teachers of the AIF-DE program had implemented the use of ICT in
teaching and whether it had become a part of their daily routine or not. The last stage of
the IDP model is the ‘confirmation stage’ where an individual seeks reinforcement for
the use of the innovative idea, but, there also exists a possibility that one may reverse
the decision to adopt the innovation if exposed to conflicting information regarding the
innovation. This study tried to analyze whether the teachers continued and confirmed
their use of ICT in teaching or not. As the AIF-DE program was an ongoing program in
the participating schools, the implementation and confirmation stages were merged
under ‘practices’ for the analysis purposes. Figure 1-2 showcases Roger’s IDP model
which has been adapted for this study.
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Figure 1-2. IDP Model adapted from Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations (Page 20, Figure 5-1). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Research Questions
RQ1. What are the knowledge, attitudes, decisions and practice of teachers toward
ICT integration in the Indian classroom?
1. How do teachers perceive their own knowledge of ICT use in classrooms? (Research variable: knowledge - stage 1 of IDP (Knowledge))
2. What are teachers’ attitudes about the ICT available in their schools? (Research variable: attitudes - stage 2 of IDP (Persuasion))
3. What decisions do teachers make regarding using ICT available in their school? (Research variable: decisions – stage 3 of IDP (Decision))
4. How are teachers practicing integration of ICT in classrooms? (Research variable: practice – stages 4 and 5 of IDP (Implementation and Confirmation))
Significance of the Study
In the Indian context, teachers have been found to use computers for restricted
time duration and for performing limited number of tasks, not having sufficiently
integrated computers across the curriculum (Bhalla, 2013). There exist several reasons
that pose as challenges for technological integration in classrooms but recent studies
(i.e., Lal 2014; Rastogi & Malhotra, 2013) have brought out that the vast majority of
school teachers have positive attitude towards ICT in relation to their school teaching
subjects. Changing beliefs from traditional to constructivist approach is neither quickly
nor easily accomplished (Cuban, 1986; Ertmer & Hruskocy, 1999). For purposes of this
Knowledge Attitude (Persuation)
DecisionPractice
(Implementation + Confirmation)
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research, the study looked into what was the overall understanding of techno-
pedagogical beliefs and practices of teachers of the Delhi government schools.
The present study grew out of the need to significantly broaden the knowledge
base about teachers’ perception toward technological integration in Indian classrooms.
Although these teachers under study had been using technology in teaching, it would be
interesting to discover what were their beliefs and perceptions of technology and how
did they integrate technology in their classrooms. The result of a study by Ertmer,
Gopalakrishnan & Ross (2001) suggested that technology use, as perceived and
practiced by teachers rather illustrates what happens when visions meet reality in
today’s K-12 classrooms. This study was designed to explore teachers' beliefs and
perceptions of a number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that were believed to play key
roles in their success or failure as technology users.
As part of this research, a well-validated survey instrument has been created.
The survey instrument is applicable to school teachers using ICT in teaching in India
and could be applied in other developing countries with needed adaptation. The study
explored how teachers perceived integration of technology in their teaching activity. An
exploratory study was conducted to understand the role of knowledge, attitudes,
decisions and practice of teachers toward successful implementation of technology in
classrooms. This was few of the early studies conducted in the Indian context where
ICT was explored as an innovation and its integration by teachers was investigated on
the five stages of Rogers’ IDP model. This study brought forward the position of the
most significant player in the implementation process -- the teachers. The findings
about the use of technology by the Delhi government school teachers in the present
38
times would be a contribution to the field of ICT in education. This research adds to the
literature on perceptions of teachers integrating technology in teaching. The
recommendations based out of the key take away from this research aim to be helpful
resources for the teachers, school administrators and private educational organizations
working toward integration of computer-related technologies in classroom practices.
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review focused on two major areas of understanding. First, the
development of ICT in Indian schools was studied. This section presents the picture of
how ICT gained focus in the Indian education policies and how it has developed in the
school education scenario over time. Second, studies on teachers’ perspectives on ICT
were reviewed. Teachers’ knowledge, attitude, decision and practice on ICT use were
studied. It included reviewing the literature of computer knowledge/skills,
attitudes/beliefs and technology use intention and integration survey studies used to
investigate the perspectives of school teachers as conducted in India and different parts
of the world.
Development of ICT in Indian Schools
A Snapshot
The Indian government realized the potential of ICT in early 1970s. Such
potential may be the reason why, despite being afflicted by poverty, illiteracy and
malnutrition, India has had a tremendously successful software export industry (Heeks
& Nicholson, 2002). Additionally, there has been increasing systematic endeavors
toward integrating ICT in schools and significant milestones have been achieved as a
result. Over the last few decades, a constant focus has been put toward improvement
of the education system through exploring the potential of ICT in schools in India
Braak, 2013; Wastiau, Blamire, Kearney, Quittre, Van de Gaer, & Monseur, 2013).
Research has shown that even with similar sets of ICT resources, teachers with
dissimilar attitudes to the instructional process could have very different perspectives on
ICT integration which leads to achievement of different outcomes for different teachers
(Hodas, 1996). It is usually believed that in general, there is a need for adequate
training commensurate with teachers’ skills and beliefs to bring in the expected
59
changes. Teachers use computers only if they find it beneficial to their teaching tasks.
Moreover, teachers are likely to use ICT creatively in the teaching process only if the
objectives of their courses are consistent with the prevailing culture of thinking (Ping,
2001). It has been found that in order to ensure successful integration of ICT in the
classrooms by the teachers, it is essential to know their pedagogical and social beliefs
toward the use of ICT and how such beliefs influence their practice (Ertmer, 2006).
Teachers’ beliefs can be referred as their internal constructs that help them
interpret experiences that guide specific teaching practices (Pajares, 1992). Teachers’
beliefs are their underlying assumptions about how students learn, the nature of subject
matter, expectations for students, or what constitutes effective instruction (Coburn,
2003). Rogers (1995) in ‘Diffusion of innovation’ defined beliefs and attitudes as being
interchangeable. Beliefs or attitudes play an important part in human endeavors,
particularly in situations where there is a great deal of uncertainty, as in schools
(Nespor, 1987). It is said that teachers, by the nature of their work are pragmatists.
Confronted by large numbers of technology or not, they arrive at their classrooms with
their beliefs about schooling in mind where they have to survive each day and be ready
for the next. The introduction of technology to classrooms does not radically change
teaching. It serves as a symbol of change which grants teachers a license for
experimentation. Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer (1996) suggested few conditions which
should be kept in mind for strategizing change in teachers’ perspectives as a condition
for instructional change. First, successful change should be marked as an
organizational, systematic, or cultural phenomenon. Second, skills and attitudes are
inherently complex concepts. And, third, groups bound by commitment to change,
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sharing reflections and shaping new perspective can lose their objectivity and create
new problems.
Role of teacher perspectives about the value of technology in the classroom has
been significant. MacArthur and Malouf (1991) conducted a study in the US to explore
how teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and goals, perspectives about computers,
instructional planning processes, overall classroom organization, and curriculum
influenced their decisions about how to use computers. Some of the significant points
from the research study are:
1. Teachers make technology fit not only with their educational perspectives and goals but also with their instructional practices and classroom organization.
2. Teachers’ self-perspective about the unique potential of technology influence their decisions to use these tools.
3. Planning and monitoring computer-assisted instruction has been more difficult as teachers face problems in planning computer based instructional activities and monitoring student performance. And,
4. Different teachers have different comfort level with technology and global understanding about the value of technology do not provide much guidance in planning instruction or professional development.
Worldwide, it can be said that some teachers see students as members of the
computer generation who think that computers is a subject that is part of their culture.
Some teachers feel alien whereas some feel comfortable using these technological
tools. There also exist sophisticated teachers who are prepared to let students teach
themselves computer skills. Teachers can also be seen condemning, co-opting, and
marginalizing the technologies (Denicolo & Kompf, 2005). Harre (1980) brought out that
teaching activities can be considered from two points of view: expressive (how teachers
want to be seen by students) and the instrumental (what process-product paradigm
teachers’ use). Olson (2003) argues that both the expressive and instrumental
61
dimensions of teaching activities influence on how a teacher perceives the existing
routine and scope of integration of new technologies within it. Teacher routine and
teaching culture also need to be understood to make any kind of school reform a
success (Hage, 1999; Lester & Onore, 1990).
Perera, Karunanayaka & Ariyaratne (2015) came up with ten affinities that
explored perspectives of secondary school teachers of Sri Lanka towards the
integration of ICT in the instruction process. These included Principal, ICT laboratory,
teacher- in - charge of ICT laboratory, student, curriculum (Non-ICT), ICT knowledge,
pedagogical ICT knowledge, time, non-ICT teacher and professional development
program. Another similar study by Wattanawaha (2011) in the context of Thailand
teachers explored their affinities to include all the factors of the previous mentioned
research along with environment and parent or guardian as added factors.
Niederhauser and Stoddart (2001) found out that when authorities ignore teachers’
perspectives toward the use of technology in the classroom then it has led to
disappointing results. Chen (2006) discovered that there is a direct relationship between
teachers’ plan for the use of ICT in the classrooms to their knowledge and attitudes
about ICT in education. Research has found that teachers’ self-efficacy or confidence
regarding technology use is a critical predictor of technology integration in a class.
Voogt (2010) found out that teachers who have high level of confidence in pedagogical
technology skills and focus on a learner-centered approach are the ones who tend to
use technology extensively in their lessons. Teachers’ perception about the
effectiveness of technology for student learning also has a significant impact on their
technology use in the classroom. The extent to which students enjoy learning and
62
believe that e-learning will enhance their learning outcomes have a direct impact on
teachers using technology (Jame & Istance, 2000). A number of research studies
suggested that pedagogical beliefs of teachers play a role in technological adoption
(e.g. Bebell & Kay, 2010; Miranda & Russell, 2012).
Teachers who have constructivist learning beliefs tend to believe that technology
should be integrated for high-level learning such as engaging students in inquiry-based
activities, collaborating with peers online, and using multiple technologies to support
students’ problem-solving activities. On the contrary, teachers who have teacher-
centered beliefs use technology for low-level learning such as using technology to teach
remedial skills and using a single technology to support a lecture or other teacher-
centered practices (Cuban, 1991; Ertmer, 2005; Mama & Hennessy, 2013).
When innovations fail, teachers often receive a share of blame for being resistant
to change. MacArthur (2000) says that this notion of resistance to change is a simplistic
notion that does not really explain why teachers (and schools) do not embrace new
technologies. Ertmer (1999) categorized factors that hinder ICT application in schools
into two main categories- internal and external obstructions. Internal obstructions are
barriers associated with people in an organization, such as Principals and various
teachers’ roles, knowledge and attitudes. On the other hand, external obstructions are
those associated with factors outside of the organization, like lack of ICT resources, lack
of policy related to Ministry of education and lack of technical support (Al-Alwani, 2005).
Instructional change can proceed only with a corresponding change in attitudes about
instruction and learning. Instructional evolution in teacher’s perspective is not simply
abandoning prior beliefs but is replacing them with more relevant ones shaped by
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experiences in an altered context. Institutional supports including technical training on
the use of hardware and software, and instructional support like setting release time for
collaboration, planning and presentation to showcase one’s involvement with
technology can be said to be significant toward developing teachers’ positive
perspective toward the value of technology in classrooms. Opportunities for teacher
reflection complement contextual changes and further promote teacher change (Finley
& Hartman, 2004). Recent research highlight that teachers are beginning to integrate
ICT in their classrooms which is expected to steadily increase but integrating technology
is a complex process of educational change, and the use of ICT in schools is still
and Knezek (2000) came up with the 7-factor structure as the most parsimonious
foundation for further development of the TAC. TAC version 6 was created in 2001 as a
51-item instrument placed in the order of the 7-factor structure.
Teachers’ Attitudes towards Information Technology (TAT) was constructed to
measure items which were not addressed in TAC such as multimedia content,
electronic mail, and the World Wide Web (Knezek, Christensen & Rice, 1997). There
has been research measuring teacher attitudes toward instructional technology by
combining the TAC and TAT scales (e.g., Shattuck, Corbell, Osbourne, Knezek,
Christensen & Grable, 2011). A recent study by Zyad (2016) measured teachers’
attitudes toward integrating computers in Moroccan classrooms through subscales on
the affective, cognitive and behavioral components.
Sathiyaraj and Rajasekar (2013) studied anxiety towards the use of instructional
aids in teaching with 627 higher secondary school teachers in India and found that
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majority of teachers were processing low level of anxiety towards the use of
instructional aids in teaching and had favorable attitudes towards using new technology
in teaching. ‘Attitude towards using new technology scale (ATUNTS)’ was constructed
and standardized for the study. Upreti and Surya (2011) measured the dimensions of
usefulness, confidence, anxiety and aversion to study secondary school in-service
teachers’ attitudes towards computers and found out that teachers’ attitudes towards
computers were high. Another Indian study by Rastogi and Malhotra (2012) highlighted
that studying teachers’ attitudes is particularly important in developing countries like
India, where ICT is usually not a part of school culture. The study consisted of 68 items
on a five point Likert instrument to gather data on five factors namely,
enthusiasm/enjoyment, anxiety, avoidance, e-mail use for classroom learning and
productivity improvement. It was found that teachers’ attitude towards the use of
technology in the teaching-learning process was favorable. Recently, Mishra, Sharma,
Sharma, Singh and Thakur (2016) have developed a valid and reliable scale to measure
faculty attitude towards open educational resources under three main themes-
awareness, sharing of resources and adoption and use of OER. Victor and Swamy
(2011) developed an attitude scale to measure the computer application of secondary
school teachers in Bangalore, India. The scale was constructed by using five point
Likert’s method and the main factors selected for constructing the tool included
personal, affective, teaching - learning and usage confidence.
Teachers’ Decision and Use of ICT
Teacher effectiveness in use of ICT. There is a lack of research on ICT that is
being used in meaningful ways in teaching. Instead, schools and research have often
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looked at how much time students spend using technology and what technologies are
available as indicators of successful technology integration (Lei & Zhao, 2007). There is
no clear measurement of effective teaching and also, there is no agreed-upon definition
of effective teaching (Campbell, Kyriakides, Muijs, & Robinson, 2004). Cambell and
colleagues (2003) pointed out three problems associated with the concepts of teacher
effectiveness. First, the conceptualization of the concept is problematic. Second,
teacher effectiveness needs to be viewed simultaneously with the school effectiveness.
And, third, the effectiveness should not be limited to the cognitive aspects only, but
should include other aspects such as affective and moral values. It has been suggested
that research needs to measure effective use of innovation by teachers by considering
the context and the levels at which teachers are teaching (Lim, Zhao, Tondeur, Chai
and Tsai, 2013).
Johannessen (2009) noted that there is a need for carefully selecting the
indicators related to the use of technology which can reflect the integration of new
applications in classroom practices. It has been recommended that it is not sufficient for
schools to just provide ICT infrastructure but there is a strong need for schools and
teachers to develop knowledge base of evidence of the effective use of ICT which in
turn, can make a difference in analyzing how ICTs are being integrated in the systems
of teaching and learning. It has been found in research that teachers’ beliefs about the
nature of a given subject (content) and the associated pedagogical practices
(pedagogical knowledge) influence their use of ICT (e.g. Archambault & Crippen, 2009;
Pringle, Dawson, Ritzhaupt, 2015; Veen, 1993). There have been studies suggesting
effective relationship between constructivist approaches and the use of ICT in
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classrooms (Becker, 2000, Ertmer, Ottenbreit-Leftwich & York, 2007; Jonassen, 2006).
Prestridge (2010) noted that it is teachers’ beliefs and attitudes that play a crucial role in
making them use ICT as an integral part in facilitating creative-thinking and conducting
learner-centered activities. In ‘Technology Uses and Perceptions Survey’ conducted by
Dawson and Ritzhaupt (2015) both teacher and student use of technology was used to
measure the practice of ICT integration amongst the 1376 Florida teachers.
Surveys measuring use of ICT as innovative practice. Technology and
innovation can be interchanged with each other (Rogers, 2003). Schools have been
providing ICT infrastructure in name of innovative practices. But it’s important to keep in
mind that a school is complex organization and is not a homogeneous community
(Shields, 2000). Pearson and Naylor (2006) noted that the correspondence between
schools’ collective efforts at introducing innovative practices and their implementation at
classroom levels is not a straightforward relationship and there is a need for more work
to be done to understand the interface between the two. Anderson, Hansen, Johnson &
Klassen (1979) were few of the earliest investigators of computer uptake by teachers.
They designed the survey to assess technological and sociocultural factors influencing
computer use. The most highly significant predictors of computer use were found to be
resource availability, attitudes towards instructional computing, training, confidence, and
teaching experience. Sheingold, Kane & Endreweit (1983) in their large-scale
investigation of three US school districts came with one of the main findings that
teachers felt inadequately prepared to use computers in their classrooms. They found
that most of the teachers wanted time to use technology, to develop their expertise, and
to review software and plan for its use in the classrooms. Chandra (1986) considered
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teachers’ attitudes as most important in determining the use of computers in the short-
term. However, for the long-term integration of technology in classrooms, additional
positive forces, such as strong leadership were important determinants. Olson & Eaton
(1986) studied the cost-reward structure of teachers’ computer use and found that
teachers responds to innovation if it is directed at producing student learning (impacting
teachers’ instrumental behavior) or is directed at creating respect for the teacher and
the subject (impacting teachers’ expressive behavior). Pelgrum & Plomp (1991)
conducted a survey on computer use in 21 countries and teachers frequently quoted
lack of hardware, lack of software, problems with finding enough time to learn about
computers, and lack of time to prepare lessons using computers as common barriers to
use of innovative technologies. Tondeur, Valcke & Braak (2008) administered a survey
to examine teacher and school characteristics that were associated with different types
of computer use by primary school teachers in Belgium and demonstrated that a
multidimensional approach provided more insight into the characteristics affecting
computer use.
In the Indian context, Rastogi and Malhotra (2012) studied five developmental
stages for teachers to explore their process of ICT-pedagogy integration and these
stages were familiarity, foundation, fusion, transformation, and facilitation levels. The
study confirmed that teachers’ attitudes in willingness to embrace such technology and
their knowledge and skills were the main predictors of use of ICT in classrooms. Bhalla
(2013) examined computer use by school teachers in teaching and learning by
identifying computer-aided learning (CAL), computer-managed instruction (CMI) and
computer-assisted instruction (CAI) as applications of computers for instruction use.
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The survey was conducted with teachers of 20 government schools of New Delhi which
revealed that on an average, teachers used computers approximately once a month
and amongst the three categories of computer use, CAL was the most popular category
of computer use whereas CAI was the least popular amongst teachers.
Summary of the Literature Review
Some of the major trends and themes on ICT integration in Indian government
schools could be as follows:
1. Early and continued attention of Indian government towards ICT in school education.
2. India aspiring to become IT leader in world.
3. Computer education to build bridges between the diverse populations.
4. Shift from a focus on urban to semi-urban and rural schools.
5. Shift from a focus on higher education to K-12 education.
6. Relative balance of investment by government and corporate partners.
7. Parallel development of training para-teachers and expansion of exploratory ICT initiatives.
8. Thrust on development of local materials, methods and instructional media packages.
9. Increased attention on technology teacher training for ICT integration in classrooms.
10. Mobile learning to hold unusual potential for palpable impact towards ICT integration in both urban and rural schools in India.
11. Real challenges to ICT integration being discussed- infrastructure, lack of teachers, quality of education, quality of teachers, technology integration, Internet penetration.
12. Rapid increase in ICT in schools all across India. Both, the central and the state government along with private and non-profit educational organizations have been realizing the potential of educational technology.
The literature on the historical development of ICT in Indian schools and
teachers’ perspectives on ICT- their knowledge, attitude, decision and practice of ICT
77
use from both, global and Indian aspects presented a comprehensive background. India
is witnessing presence of technological innovation in the space of education.
Government and state policies are directed toward ICT integration in schools. Public-
private partnerships are strengthening to provide ICT infrastructure as well as teacher
training towards the use of ICT. Efforts are also put toward creation of e-content for
Indian schools. Teachers are taking multidimensional roles and expectations are levied
upon them to integrate ICT in their classroom practices. Literature shows that research
have been started in the direction to examine teachers’ knowledge/skills,
attitudes/beliefs and use of ICT in schools in India. One of the research study (Bhalla,
2013) found that Indian teachers can be said to have gone through knowledge and
persuasion stages of Rogers’ IDP model and are probably proceeding to the decision
phase to integrate ICT in teaching and the expectation is that teachers will use
computers in education once they have more access to computers. Based on the
literature, this study on teachers’ perspectives toward ICT integration in classrooms in
India used relevant information from related studies.
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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
This research utilized survey methodology to explore the state of teachers’
perspectives toward ICT integration in those Delhi government schools where
technology was being integrated in classroom teaching and learning. There were 72
Delhi government schools which were associated with AIF’s DE program in the
academic year 2016-2017. AIF referred to these schools as DE schools. The teachers
of these DE schools who were selected by their Principal to be the part of the DE
program for the academic year 2016-2017 participated in this study. The objective of
this survey research was to make descriptive assertions about how teachers in these
schools perceived of and used ICT in their teaching. A systematic approach was
adopted to create the survey questionnaire which was based on the theoretical
framework of Roger’s Innovation-Decision Process model. The survey was designed to
address the research questions of this study which incorporated items in the five
categories, namely, knowledge, attitude, decision, implementation, and confirmation
regarding the use of ICT by teachers. Two additional categories in the survey design
were ICT availability and teacher background information which were added to provide
a picture about the population under study. The survey was constructed with an aim to
explore where the teachers perceive themselves on the spectrum of ICT integration-
i.e., what do teachers think of their ICT knowledge/skills; do they feel favorable or
unfavorable toward ICT integration; do they adopt or reject ICT integration; if they adopt,
how do they use ICT; and, do they integrate ICT in student use. There were AIF
appointed and trained field coordinators who visited the DE schools weekly with an aim
of working with the teachers to assist them in integration of technology in their
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classroom teaching. These field coordinators got the survey questionnaire filled out by
the teachers.
There were four stages in the development and finalization of the survey
instrument. Once the instrument was finalized, copies of it were printed and distributed
to AIF’s field coordinators who took the survey to all of the DE schools in Delhi. Three
weeks’ time was allotted to collect the completed survey from the teachers. Reminders
were given to achieve high response rate from the survey participants (Dillman, Smyth
& Christian, 2009). Data analysis was done henceforth and results and
recommendations were listed. This chapter presents the development of the survey
instrument, including the stages of preparing a survey draft from validated and reliable
scales; conducting expert reviews and cognitive interviews; and, finalization of the
survey items. Data collection procedures and a description of data analysis methods are
also presented in the sections below.
The research questions for the study were:
RQ1. What are the knowledge, attitudes, decisions and practice of teachers toward ICT
integration in the Indian classroom?
1. How do teachers perceive their own knowledge of ICT use in classrooms? (Research variable: knowledge - stage 1 of IDP (Knowledge))
2. What are teachers’ attitudes about the ICT available in their school? (Research variable: attitudes - stage 2 of IDP (Persuasion))
3. What decisions do teachers make regarding using ICT available in their school? (Research variable: decisions – stage 3 of IDP (Decision))
4. How are teachers practicing integration of ICT in classrooms? (Research variable: practice – stage 4 and 5 of IDP (Implementation and Confirmation))
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Instrument Development
A survey design through a field study was conducted with a purpose of making
descriptive assertions about ICT using teachers of Delhi government schools in order to
discover the distribution of their traits of integrating ICT in teaching (Babbie, 1990). In
order to craft a survey questionnaire, a systematic procedure was followed. Figure 3-1
shows the steps followed in the survey design process.
Figure 3-1. Survey design steps
Draft 1: Initial Survey Items
The initial survey items were composed of well-validated portions of several
knowledge, attitudes, decisions and practice/use surveys that have been used in the
Grable, 2011; Surendra, 2001). There were survey questionnaires which covered one or
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more aspects of the five stages of the IDP model in the context of teacher integration of
ICT for teaching. Though, no survey was found in research that addressed all the five
stages in totality. This research survey brought forth all the five stages on which the
teachers could report their levels and perspectives of ICT integration in classrooms. The
instrument items aligned to the stages of the IDP model included the following sections:
Section 1: Information about computer-related technologies available for teacher use
Section 2: Teachers’ knowledge/skills toward use of computer-related technologies
(Knowledge: Stage 1 of IDP)
Section 3: Teachers’ attitudes about available computer-related technologies
(Persuasion: Stage 2 of IDP using Rogers Innovation Attributes)
Section 4: Teacher self-reports of technology adoption/rejection (Decision: Stage 3 of
IDP)
Section 5: Teacher self-reports on their technology use (Implementation: Stage 4 of
IDP)
Section 6: Teacher self-reports on confirmation of use of computer-related technologies
(Confirmation: Stage 5 of IDP)
Section 7: Teacher background information
Table 3-1 presents the different categories of the survey draft which were
coinciding with the five stages in the IDP and also presents survey subscales and items
which had been adapted from relevant sources.
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Table 3-1. Aligning Survey Categories with IDP stages and subscales adapted from existing surveys
Section Categories Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process
Survey subscales from existing sources
Adapted from sources
Sec 1
Information
about computer-related technologies available for teacher use
▪Accessibility of
computer-related technologies
Schmidt, 1991
Sec 2
Teachers’
knowledge/skills toward use of computer-related technologies
Knowledge stage
1. Recall of information 2.Comprehension of messages 3. Knowledge or skill for effective adoption of innovation
▪Computer In-service Education and Staff Development
▪ Level of adoption of web-technology-based educational systems
▪Teachers’ readiness to use technological tools
▪ Levels of competency toward computers among teachers
Schmidt, 1991 Surendra, 2001 Schmidt, Baran,
Thompson, Mishra, Koehler, Shin, 2011(TPACK)
Padmavathi, 2015
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Table 3-1 Continued.
Section Categories Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process
Survey subscales from existing sources
Adapted from sources
Sec 3 Teachers’ attitudes about available computer-related technologies
Persuasion stage 4. Liking the innovation 5. Discussion of the new behavior with others 6. Acceptance of the message about the innovation 7. Formation of a positive image of the message and the innovation 8. Support for the innovative behavior from the system
▪Teacher attitudes toward computers and computer-related technologies
Corbell, Osbourne, Knezek & Christensen, Grable, 2011 (TAC and TAT)
Sec 4
Teacher self-
reports of technology adoption/rejection
Decision stage
9. Intention to seek additional information about the innovation 10. Intention to try the innovation
▪ Intention to use
ICT ▪ Intention to try
the innovation based on the stages of concern
Ashrafzadeh &
Sayadian, 2015
George, Hall & Stiegelbauer, 2006 (SoCQ)
Sec 5
Teacher self-
reports on their technology use
Implementation
stage 11. Acquisition of additional information about the innovation 12. Use of the innovation on a regular basis 13. Continued use of the innovation
▪ Ways of
computer use ▪Frequency of
ICT usage
Bhalla, 2013 Abrami, Sclater
& Wade, 2006 (TIQ: Version 2)
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Table 3-1 Continued.
Section Categories Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process
Survey subscales from existing sources
Adapted from sources
Sec 6 Teacher self-reports on confirmation of use of computer-related technologies
Confirmation stage 14. Recognition of the benefits of using the innovation 15. Integration of the innovation into one's ongoing routine 16. Promotion of the innovation to others
▪Student use of technology
▪ Adoption and integration of technology
Dawson & Ritzhaupt, 2015 (TUPS)
Ashrafzadeh & Sayadian, 2015
Sec 7
Teacher
background information
▪Teacher
background information
▪ Survey questionnaire
Schmidt, 1991 Martinez, 2012
Draft 2: The Expert Review
The first draft of the survey had 40 items under the seven sections. The five IDP
sections in the survey draft had items placed under the sixteen sub-categories of the
IDP stages (see Appendix A). These items were adapted from existing surveys
mentioned above. A revised questionnaire was drafted on the basis of the expert
review feedback and comments. Four experts reviewed the draft survey items-- two of
them were Professors of Educational Technology, one was a Professor of Educational
Research and another was a Professor of Educational Technology who had also
worked in the Indian educational context. All four experts shared their comments,
feedbacks and edits via email. Revisions were incorporated as each expert review was
received. The first expert reviewer provided feedback on how to make the items more
user-friendly. The previous draft had different sections and sub-sections titles based on
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the IDP model. The expert suggestion was incorporated to remove the sub titles and
information in the survey which might confuse the respondents. All extraneous details
were suggested to be removed. The consistency of the term ‘ICT’ was stressed
throughout the survey as many items which were adapted from the existing surveys
used the terms ‘computers’ and ‘computer-related technologies’. The suggestion was
made to cut down items by merging the questions which seemed connected or
repetitive. Revision was made and the cleaned up survey draft was shared with the
second expert reviewer. She also used the comment feature of the Word document to
share her inputs. Feedback was provided to align the survey items in a way that the
questionnaire looked crisp and focused. Two open-ended questions on teachers’ barrier
and motivating factors to use ICT were suggested to be incorporated in the survey.
Changes were made, and the survey draft was shared with the third expert reviewer
who was not an educational technologist but had agreed to help review the survey
regarding the flow of the content, formatting and alignment. The reviewer provided
inputs on the flow of the questionnaire and suggested to check if ‘in-service training’
was commonly understood by the Indian teachers. The fourth expert reviewer had
experience of working in the Indian education sector. She pointed out several minute
details in terms of the names of ICT tools listed in the survey (e.g. ‘desktop’ would be
more comprehensible by Indian teachers when listed as ‘desktop computer’), terms
used like ‘in-service training’ which might not be common for Indian teachers, and, gave
insight on the kinds of examples which needed to be listed for the Indian respondents
(see Appendix B).
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Table 3-2 highlights the items which were deleted and added in the survey draft
depending on the expert review feedbacks and comments received.
Table 3-2. Changes in the survey instrument made after the expert review round
Items deleted Items added Inputs
Expert Reviewer 1:
Subtitles relating to Rogers' stages of IDP model were removed.
The participants might get confused by extra information.
Questions which did not make explicit connection with the response items were removed. An example was that there was a question about school focus but all the response items were about what teachers feel they were expected to do.
A direct relation between the question and response lists was suggested.
The word 'computers' was being equated with 'ICT’. It was replaced everywhere.
The term 'ICT' was added in places where 'computers' were mentioned.
With this, the focus stays on ICT.
Similar items under different sub-categories were merged or removed for avoiding repetition. For example, ‘How would you rate your acceptance of ICT practices in your school?’ preceded a similar question which stated, ‘How would you rate your image of ICT practices in your school?’ and it was removed.
It was suggested that one could group similar items together even if they were from different parts of IDP. The idea was to make the survey as user-friendly as possible. One could always change how items appear in terms of order during the data analysis.
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Table 3-2 Continued.
Items deleted Items added Inputs
Expert Reviewer 2: More ICT tools options
were added in the 1st section which was on availability of ICT tools in home and school. For e.g., printer, VCD/DVD/, TV, Internet were added to the list.
More choices would broaden the scope for answering for the survey respondents.
Layout for questions seeking response on ICT tools available at home and school were suggested to be the same.
The questions in section 1 on usage of ICT in school were deleted.
There were similar questions under ‘teacher self-reports on their technology use’ in section 5 of the survey draft.
Question no. 7 and 8 were merged into one question asking about teachers’ in-service training received.
Avoid repetition in any item.
ICT adoption/rejection question stated, ‘How would you rate your intention to try ICT?’
This was modified to ‘intention to increase the use of ICT’.
As this survey would be filled by those teachers who had already been using ICT, the question and its following response items needed to be appropriately changed.
The question stem on 'how you have been able to use ICT in teaching in your current position' was changed.
The question was changed to whether there are barriers to using technology on a regular basis.
This change would leave scope for a more focused response. An open-ended item was added to this question.
A question on motivating factors toward using technology was added.
This was added as another open-ended question to seek respondents’ elaborate and specific response.
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Table 3-2 Continued.
Items deleted Items added Inputs
Expert Reviewer 3:
Items including 'in-service instruction' was highlighted.
It was recommended to check if 'in-service' was a commonly used educational term by Indian teachers.
Expert Reviewer 4:
Name of ICT tools mentioned in question 1 and 2 were highlighted to be modified as per the Indian context. For e.g., desktop was changed to desktop computer.
It was suggested that many Indian teachers would not be familiar with technical IT names and terms. Those names should be added which teachers would know in their day-to-day teaching language.
‘In-service instruction’ was highlighted to be checked if is relevant in Indian context or not.
In-service and pre-service have been usually very American terms. Suggestion was made to check if Indian teachers understood the term clearly.
The term 'technology plan' was modified.
Instead, ‘Technology policy’ was used.
It was seen as more of an American term.
Examples of OER given were: YouTube and Google. They were deleted.
For the OER examples, wikis and eBooks were added to the list.
OER was being considered an appropriate query for teacher use. Though, it was suggested to look into the examples of the OER.
Words 'LAN' and 'Broadband' were replaced.
‘Internet’ was used instead.
It was suggested that most of the technical terms were understood by the IT staff in schools. For teachers, simple direct words would elicit correct response.
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Draft 3: Teacher Review
Dillman et al. suggested that conducting cognitive interviews of the survey
questionnaire help in identifying wording, question order, visual design and navigation
problems. Potential survey respondents are asked individually to respond to the
questionnaire in the presence of the interviewer. As a general rule, the number of
interviews conducted as part of cognitive interviews is usually less than twenty. For the
purpose of this research, after the expert review round, six teachers from the Delhi
Government schools took the cognitive interview on the draft survey during my visit to
Delhi in the months of October and November, 2016. As permissions needed to be
obtained to visit government schools, I took permissions from the New Delhi Municipal
Corporation (NDMC) office and AIF to visit their schools. A letter was issued by NDMC
office to visit two of their model technology schools and regarding the AIF-DE schools,
the organization assigned the dates on which I could accompany their field coordinators
to visit some of the DE schools. Video recording in the schools was not permitted until
and unless the government itself had issued a letter of support in this regard. In the
short span of time, I could not seek permission for video recording the cognitive
interviews. Instead, I followed the traditional format of extensive note-taking (see
Appendix C- H).
The six teachers who participated in the cognitive interviews were from the
different Delhi government schools. The first three teachers interviewed were teachers
from the NDMC schools where technology had been placed and was in the process of
being integrated. All these three teachers had conducted their classes using digital
content and short videos. The other three teachers were from the DE schools. I had
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accompanied the DE field coordinators to the schools where DE program was running
and conducted cognitive interviews with some of the teachers after their classes. The
three NDMC schools’ teachers were senior secondary section teachers and the three
DE schools’ teachers were middle and secondary sections teachers. I explained the
process of cognitive interview to all of them and noted their comments, feedbacks and
suggestions related to the draft survey items. I’ve named the teachers as teacher A to
teacher F in the chronological order of our meeting. Teacher A was a Computer
teacher, teacher B was an English teacher, teacher C was a Social Science teacher,
teacher D was a Science teacher, teacher E was a Math teacher, and teacher F was a
Social Science teacher. Out of the six teachers, the first five teachers were female and
the last one was a male teacher. The first three teachers were assigned by the Principal
of the schools and the last three teachers were interviewed after observing their DE
classes. All these teachers had been teaching in the Delhi government schools from the
start of their teaching careers and had over ten years of teaching experience. All the
teachers shared that most of the classes taken in the government schools were held in
Hindi language. During the cognitive interview with teacher A, she mentioned that four
out of the five sections in each class were taken in Hindi medium and only one class
had English medium of instruction. Teacher D mentioned that she had to learn the Hindi
terminologies of Science subject in order to teach in the Delhi government schools. The
survey given to them to read aloud during the cognitive interviews was in English
language. Five of the six teachers mentioned that it would be easier for the teachers to
fill the survey if it was also in Hindi language. The process of the cognitive interview was
91
highly beneficial as it provided the facts and suggestions on the survey draft coming
from the teachers who represented the mass of respondents who took this survey.
Revisions were made in the second survey draft after the cognitive interviews
round with the teachers. The notes of the cognitive interviews with the six teachers
were laid out (see Appendix C-H). It was found out that the term ‘ICT’ was not common
amongst government school teachers in India. They suggested using terms like
‘computer’ and ‘computer-related technologies’. The terms like ‘troubleshooting’, ‘e-
learning’, and ‘programming’ were taken as very technical terms by the teachers.
Suggestions have been made to use simpler terms. As pointed in the expert review, it
was checked during the cognitive interview whether teachers were aware of the term
‘in-service training’ or not. In all the six interviews, teachers mentioned that they were
aware of in-service and pre-service training (Delhi government has been conducting
extensive in-service training for teachers to improve the overall quality of education).
Teachers pointed out that terms which were not common in the Indian context should
be removed. For example, one teacher said that a portable cart was still not used in
India to hold ICT tools whereas another teacher pointed to replace the term
‘instructional’ to ‘educational’ in the survey. On the frequency of use of different kinds of
technologies, all the teachers mentioned that in India, teachers were still not using
emails in government schools. Though, almost all the teachers used WhatsApp groups
to communicate. All the teachers had inputs to share on what response items could be
added to the list of academic and professional qualification of teachers. For e.g. B.Ed,
M.Ed, NET, CTET, TET were added to the professional qualification list. Teachers said
that filling out a physical copy of the survey would be much better for teachers than
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asking them to do a web survey. Teacher E clearly stated that most of the teachers
hesitated using technology and still have a clear preference for paper work. Five out of
six teachers suggested that the survey be both in English and Hindi Language.
Suggestions came to prepare two separate surveys—one in English and one in Hindi
and let the teachers have the choice to pick up whichever survey language they wanted
to fill in.
Table 3-3 highlights the changes made in the survey based on the cognitive
interviews of teachers.
Table 3-3. Changes made in the survey draft after the cognitive interviews with teachers
Items deleted Items added Inputs
Teacher A:
A response item on location of computers in school included ‘computer/ICT lab’. It was modified to ‘IT/ICT lab’.
It was suggested that computer rooms were commonly referred as IT labs in government schools.
The term ‘ICT’ in the survey was replaced.
It was modified with ‘computer-related technologies’.
The teacher suggested that ICT term may not click with all the teachers. She suggested that computer-technology or computer-related technologies might be better understood.
‘Competency’ word replaced.
‘Skill’ was added instead. Suggestion was made to use simpler words which could be comprehended by non-English teachers too.
The word ‘black board’ from one of the response item was replaced.
Instead of black board, ‘traditional chalk and board’ was mentioned.
This provided more clarity to the response item.
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Table 3-3 Continued.
Items deleted Items added Inputs
Teacher B: “ICT’ term was replaced. Instead, ‘computer
technology’ was suggested to be added.
Same as teacher A, teacher B also reiterated that ICT was not commonly known to government school teachers.
TV was added to the list of technologies in school.
The teacher shared with the researcher that lots of government schools have been provided with TV so that students can hear the weekly Modi speech (the Prime Minister’s address to youth screened on TV).
‘Portable cart’ removed from the response item.
It was still not used in India.
Teacher C:
One of the response item included ‘computers as instructional aid’. It was modified.
Instead of ‘instructional’ aid, ‘computers as educational aid’ was added.
It was mentioned that ‘educational’ was used more than the tern ‘instructional’ in the Indian context.
A question on use of WhatsApp was added. It was ‘on average, how often do you use WhatsApp to communicate with teachers?’
Almost all the government school teachers had smart phone and were using WhatsApp. It was suggested that a question on use of WhatsApp should be included in the survey.
M.Phil. and NET were added as response items to educational qualification of teachers.
There should be advanced skills options available in the list of response items.
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Table 3-3 Continued.
Items deleted Items added Inputs
Teacher D:
The word ‘classrooms’ have been replaced in questions which were on use of technologies in classrooms.
Instead, ‘teaching’ was used in its place. Hence the questions were as use of technologies in teaching.
The teacher said that in government schools, usually, students are taken to a lab for technology class. It was still not a part of classroom activity.
A question on ‘teaching qualification’ which is different from teacher’s educational qualification was added.
For example, B.Ed. could be added under the teaching qualification.
Teacher E: The term ‘ICT’ to be
replaced. It was not a known term.
Question number 16 was removed from the survey which had 3 sub-questions: ‘I know how my teaching role has changed when I am using computer-related technologies’; ‘I know that using computer-related technologies require extra time commitments’; ‘I have come to know what other teachers are doing in this area’.
The teacher mentioned that this section could be removed. Firstly, to measure ‘how’ role has changed is difficult for any teacher. Secondly, it was obvious that technology would require extra time. And, thirdly, teachers don’t observe other teachers and hardly get time to discuss about the benefits of technology.
More options added to the teaching qualification response items. 2 items were added- 1) Diploma in Education and 2) Additional (specify).
It was suggested to leave a blank space so that teachers may fill out a qualification which she/he might have and not be present in the options listed.
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Table 3-3 Continued.
Items deleted Items added Inputs
Teacher F:
Pen drive was added to
the list of technology tools available in school.
Many teachers have been using pen drive with minimum instruction.
The term ‘moderate’ in skills level was replaced.
Instead, the word ‘medium’ was used.
The idea was to simplify the English terms used.
CTET (Central Teacher Eligibility Test), TET (Teacher Eligibility Test at State level), and, computer education were added to the teaching qualification.
These were the qualifications which some teachers hold in the context of Indian school teaching.
Discussion with AIF Director
I visited a couple of government schools during my trip to Delhi in 2016. I
explored three specific programs taking place in Delhi government schools. They were
NDMC schools’ technology integration plan, DE program in government schools, and,
Delhi mentor teacher training program where teachers were being trained on innovative
practices in teaching and learning. All the three programs were strong witness toward
the efforts to integrate technology in teaching in Delhi government schools. But NDMC
schools had just launched their technology integration program and mentor teachers
were not necessarily only engaging in technology integration as innovative practices.
AIF’s DE program was a direct fit to be studied for my research. Hence, an agreement
was formed where AIF agreed to assist me in data collection on technology integration
by the teachers of DE schools. I met with the Director of Digital Equalizer, AIF, Mr. J.
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Sundarakrishnan, in their New Delhi office after the cognitive interviews round with
teachers to share the feedback received on the survey. ‘Pretesting’ traditionally has
been referred to asking individuals with special knowledge of the topic or member of the
survey population to complete the questionnaire and report problems experienced
(Presser, Couper, Lessler, Martin, Martin, Rothgeb, & Singer 2004) I requested Mr.
Sundarakrishnan to review the survey and share his views on the survey items. As the
participants of the survey were to be the teachers of DE schools, he reviewed the
survey draft with the notion that the items of the survey be relevant to the teacher
participants. He suggested to include items to seek teachers’ response to specific DE
initiative. For example, in the second section of the draft survey which was to elicit
teachers’ knowledge about the innovation (DE’s techno-pedagogy program in this
study), items on the subject teachers with whom DE program works and the classes in
which DE program runs were added. Designing DE Way of Teaching (DEWoT) and
flipped classrooms have been a part of teacher training in all the DE schools. These
were added as response options in the survey draft item on teacher training received.
Ground level challenges and problems were discussed. Regarding the item detailing the
skills level of teachers on different computer-related technologies, response options i.e.,
downloading from the Internet, uploading to the Internet, adding examples of Logo and
Scratch to the programming option were suggested to be added. In the sixth section of
the draft which aimed at detailing the confirmation of the use of computer-related
technologies by students, a suggestion was made to add an item on equity. Mr.
Sundarakrishnan said, ‘The survey can let us know if boys and girls are using
technology in an equal manner. It would be relevant to see whether teachers see any
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connect between girls/boys and technology’. These suggestions were incorporated in
the survey.
Table 3-4 presents the feedback recommended by the AIF Director. Changes
made to the content of the survey have been highlighted in the table but does not
include the suggestions which were on the technical or grammatical issues.
Table 3-4. AIF Director’s feedback on the survey instrument
Items deleted
Items added
Inputs
An item was added in the
knowledge section which stated – ‘DE program is working with selected teachers of my school.’
As the survey would be
circulated to DE teachers, it was recommended to seek their recall of information on the program.
Another item was added in the knowledge section which was- ‘DE program is working with specific classes of my school.’
These items would assist in knowing about teachers’ knowledge about the DE program.
On the item related to areas in which teachers have received technology training, 3 response items were added to the existing list i.e., 1) to conduct the Digital Equalizer Way of Teaching (DEWoT), 2) to conduct a flipped classroom, and 3) to use educational software (e.g., English Helper, MacMillan)
These were part of DE program and teachers were expected to be trained in these areas. The survey could bring out teachers’ awareness about the trainings which they would have received.
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Table 3-4 Continued.
Items deleted
Items added
Inputs
On school focus toward use of technology by teachers, suggestion was made to break the response items these: 1) provision of professional development of teachers, 2) maintenance of technology software and hardware, and, 3) incentives provided to teachers for using technology in teaching.
It was suggested that these response items would seek teachers’ responses which could be relevant for analysis.
On school expectation toward the use of technology, an addition was made i.e., ‘my school has no expectation.’
This would widen the scope of choices for the respondents.
A question was added to the survey - ‘do you see any difference between girls vs. boys in using computer-related technologies in your class?’
This would be an equity question which could help in knowing whether teachers see any connect between girls/boys and technology.
‘Motivating’ factors to use of technology in teaching was replaced.
Instead of ‘motivating’, ‘inspiring’ was suggested to be used.
‘Motivating’ would be action.
An item was added- ‘How many years have you been teaching with computers-related technologies?’
This would be a specific item on experience using technology.
Another item was added under the demographic information and it was- ‘In which year did you
One would know for how long the respondent has been engaged with technology training.
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receive your first training on teaching with computers?’
Final Survey
The final survey had a total of 34 items spread out in A to G sections (see
Appendix I for English and Appendix J for Hindi). As it came out in the cognitive
interview, both English and Hindi version of the survey questionnaire were finalized and
printed. Google translator was used as the first step to translate the English survey into
Hindi. I simplified the translation to make it easier for the participants to read and
understand the questions. Back translation procedures were used to ensure accuracy of
the survey items. A team of field coordinators at AIF Delhi office who were proficient in
Hindi cross-checked and validated the translation of the survey. The focus was on
accurately translating concepts across the two different languages (Dillman et al, 2009).
Table 3-5 shows the organization of the final survey.
Table 3-5. Organization of the final survey questionnaire: Sections, stages in the IDP and the corresponding items
Section of the survey Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process Items in the survey
A. Information about computer-related technologies available for teacher use
A1. Technology at home A2. Technology at school A3. Location of technology at school A4. Number of computers in school
B. Teachers’ knowledge/skills toward use of computer-related technologies
Knowledge stage 1. Recall of information 2.Comprehension of messages 3. Knowledge or skill for effective adoption of innovation
B1. Information on other teachers integrating technology in teaching B2. Subject teachers with whom DE program works B3. Classes in which DE program runs B4. Awareness about school support B5. Computer-related technologies' trainings received B6. Your skill level
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Table 3-5 Continued.
Section of the survey Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process Items in the survey
C. Teachers’ attitudes about available computer-related technologies
Persuasion stage 4. Liking the innovation 5. Discussion of the new behavior with others 6. Acceptance of the message about the innovation 7. Formation of a positive image of the message and the innovation 8. Support for the innovative behavior from the system
C1. Rate your attitudes toward
computers and computer-related technologies
D. Teacher self-reports of technology adoption/rejection
Decision stage 9. Intention to seek additional information about the innovation 10. Intention to try the innovation
D1. Rate your decision to use computers-related technologies
E. Teacher self-reports on their technology use
Implementation stage 11. Acquisition of additional information about the innovation 12. Use of the innovation on a regular basis 13. Continued use of the innovation
E1. Rate your use of computers-related technologies E2. Frequency of use E3. Use of computers on continuous basis E4. Barriers to use E5. Inspiration to use
F. Teacher self-reports on confirmation of use of computer-related technologies
Confirmation stage 14. Recognition of the benefits of using the innovation 15. Integration of the innovation into one's ongoing routine 16. Promotion of the innovation to others
F1. Benefits for students F2. Integration of computers in teaching routine F3. Promotion of benefits of computers-related technologies
F4. Difference in girls and boys in computer use
F5.School’s technology provisions F6. School’s expectations toward your use of technology
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Table 3-5 Continued.
Section of the survey Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process
Items in the survey
G. Teacher background information
G1. Level of education G2. Teaching qualification G3. Gender G4. Age
G5.Number of teaching years G6. Number of teaching years with technology G7. 1st computers training G8. Primary teaching language G9. Teaching subject G10. School zone G11. Class size
Participants
There were a total of 288 teachers from 72 government schools in Delhi who had
participated in the AIF-DE program during the 2016-2017 academic year. These
teachers were nominated by the Principals of their schools. Each participating school
had selected at least 4 teachers for the DE program who taught Math, Science, Social
Science (SST) and English in the middle section (comprising 6th, 7th and 8th
standards). AIF’s field coordinators conducted weekly visits to these schools and
ensured that these teachers took their classes by integrating the techno-pedagogy
program into classroom practices. The field coordinators hand-delivered the survey
questionnaire to 271 DE teachers.
The participants were described using the teacher background information
elicited from the survey response. Their education, teaching qualification, gender, age,
teaching experiences, technology training, teaching language, subject, school zone,
and, class size were studied. Additional information about the participants and their use
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of computer-related technology were also analyzed from the survey section. Teachers’
responses on their knowledge, attitude, decision and implementation of technology in
teaching were studied in order to answer the four research questions. The participants
filled out the paper survey where three answer options were provided- encircle the right
answer, circle all that apply or fill in the blank.
Data Collection
A cross-sectional survey was conducted with an aim to collect data at one point
in time from the participants. The survey was distributed personally by the AIF field
coordinators to all the DE teachers in the first week of April, 2017. It is said that the
presence of a person to deliver the questionnaire, pick it up, or both, seems to produce
a higher completion rate than other means like mail surveys (Babbie, 1990). The survey
questionnaires were printed in a booklet form and had an introductory letter stating the
purpose of participation in the study (see Appendix I). There were 15 field coordinators
who participated in the survey distribution, each having 5 schools in a zone. They were
guided by an instruction sheet on how to get the surveys filled (See Appendix K). Each
coordinator was given the responsibility of collecting the filled surveys back within a
span of 3 weeks’ time.
Teachers were given the option to choose between the English (see Appendix I)
or the Hindi (see Appendix J) version of the questionnaire. The English survey was
translated into the Hindi version so that those teachers who were more comfortable in
Hindi could fill out their responses better in the Hindi survey. The first level translation
was done by the researcher and the final version was prepared by the AIF field
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coordinators who were proficient in creating Hindi documents. Surveys were collected
back by the field coordinators in the last week of April, 2017.
In order to increase the response rate from the participants, efforts were put to
reduce the total survey error including errors of coverage, sampling, nonresponse, and
measurement (Dillman et al, 2009). Coverage error occurs if the choice of survey mode
may not provide adequate coverage of the population. In this study, it was kept in mind
that most of the government school teachers did not use email and hence a web survey
could not be the source of the survey instrument. Paper survey was administered to
ensure the coverage of the population under study. Coverage error is also possible if
the list from which the sample is drawn does not include everyone in the population. For
this study, all the teachers involved in the AIF-DE program for the academic year 2016-
2017 from all of the 72 schools were approached to answer the survey. Sampling error
is said to result from surveying only some rather than all the members of the population
under consideration for the study and it exists as part of all the sample surveys. A total
population sampling was done in this survey where all the DE teachers for the academic
year 2016-17 were selected to participate. This was administered to address the
sampling error in this survey. Dillman et al. defined nonresponse error as not getting a
response from everyone who received the survey request. Thus, in order to reduce the
nonresponse error, the field coordinators were asked to provide teachers enough time
to complete the survey. Though, it was out of control to ensure that the participating
teachers filled each and every survey question. Measurement error occurs when a
respondent’s response is incomplete, inaccurate or imprecise. This happens more if
respondents misinterpret the meaning of the questions in self-administered surveys. To
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avoid these errors, cognitive interviews were held with a sample of the respondents who
suggested the required changes in the survey in order to lessen any scope of
misinterpretation in the survey. But the fact remains that despite the efforts taken to
increase the response rate in the survey, the actual participants’ response could not be
controlled as it was a voluntary participation and teachers could leave any
question/section if they didn’t feel like answering.
Data Analysis
A coding scheme was created on the survey items (see Appendix L). Alpha-
numerical codes were entered into a survey codebook which was referred for coding of
participant’s responses (see Appendix M). The code of each sub-item was entered on
the first row of an excel spreadsheet and the responses of all the participants were
entered manually. The items with missing response from the participants were marked
NR for no response.
The data analysis included four areas of interpretation. First, the internal
consistency reliability was addressed by calculating Cronbach’s Alpha for the relevant
items under the five sections aligned to the stages of IDP model. Second, the
background information about the participants of the study was presented through the
descriptive statistics on the first and the last sections of the survey. Third, each of the
four research questions was addressed through descriptive analysis. Data were
analyzed though measures of central tendency i.e., mean and median along with
dispersion i.e., range and variance. Themes about inspiration and barriers for teachers
to use technology were analyzed based on the participants’ responses on the two open-
ended survey items as part of answering the last research question (teachers’ use of
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technologies in teaching). Fourth and the last part of the data analysis were cross-
tabulations and correlations in order to understand the relationship between teachers’
knowledge, attitude and decision with their use of technologies respectively.
The participants in this study were described according to their background
information and the way they had access to computer-related technologies for their use.
The format of these survey items was either choose the right answer or fill in the blank.
Each research question was addressed as below:
RQ1- Knowledge- An analysis was conducted on the ‘knowledge’ research variable in the questionnaire on the items related to teachers’ training and skills on computer-related technologies (survey item B6).
A section of the survey (B6) enumerated technological skills. Teachers’ skills on
computer-related technologies were analyzed based on their responses in this section.
The questions were formulated to address how teachers' perceived their own
knowledge of ICT skills. There were 13 sub-items under the section, each further
divided for analysis. Sub-items a to d factored operational skills; sub-items e to g for
editing skills; and, sub-items h to m to analyze their online skills. The rating scale for
these sub-items was nil (1), low (2), medium (3), high (4), and expert (5). The average
levels in the different areas were reported in the results below. Table 3-6 illustrates the
different technical skills sub-items under the three broad categories.
Table 3-6. Technological skills
Skills Survey sub-items
Operational Skills
a) Basic computer operation skill (e.g., opening pages,
using pen drive)
b) Microsoft Word
c) Microsoft Excel
d) Microsoft Power Point
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Table 3-6 Continued.
Skills Survey sub-items
Editing Skills e) Video Editing Tool
f) Picture Editing Tool
g) Audio Editing Tool
Online Skills h) Browsing the Internet
i) Downloading from Internet
j) Uploading to Internet
k) Use of Educational Blogs/Websites
l) Use of Open Educational Resources (e.g. YouTube,
Google)
m) Basic programming skills (e.g. Logo, Scratch)
RQ2 - Attitudes- An analysis was conducted on the ‘attitudes’ research variable in the questionnaire on the items related to teachers’ attitudes about technology practices (survey item C1).
There was a section (C1) in the survey which focused on collecting information
based on teachers’ interpretation of their attitudes about computer-related technologies.
There were 10 sub-items in the section which could be categorized into two -
experiential view and conceptual view of teachers. The experiential view sub-items
(items a, b, d, j) drew information on teachers’ opinion on ICT based on their teaching
experiences. The conceptual view sub-items (items c, e, f, g, h, i) focused on eliciting
information on the thoughts and beliefs of teachers’ about the concept of computer-
related technologies in teaching. The rating scale for these items included strongly
disagree (1), disagree (2), neutral (3), agree (4) and strongly agree (5). The average
levels in the different areas were reported in the results below. Table 3-7 demarcates
the survey questions under the two categories to analyze teachers’ attitude toward
technology integration.
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Table 3-7. Teachers’ attitude through their experiential and conceptual views
Experiential view Conceptual view
a) Working with computers make me
feel tense and uncomfortable
c) Computer-related technologies are an
important part of the future for improving the quality of education
b) I think computer-related technologies make my professional work more difficult
e) WhatsApp groups amongst teachers
are useful resources d) I have colleagues who have positive
experience in teaching with computer-related technologies
f) Computer-related technologies are
necessary tools in both educational and work settings
j) My school supports and encourages
me to integrate technology in my teaching
g) Computers can be useful educational
aids in almost all subject areas
h) There are more disadvantages than advantages in teaching with technology in my situation
i) Teaching with the help of traditional
chalk and board method is the only way to teach effectively
RQ3 - Decisions- An analysis was conducted on the ‘decisions’ research variable in the questionnaire on the items related to teachers’ decision to use computers for teaching purposes (survey item D1).
A section (D1) of the survey investigated on how teachers rated their decision to
use computers for teaching purposes. There were five sub-items which focused on
bringing out teachers’ decision on whether they had decided to use, or increase, or not
use technology in their teaching. The rating scale for these items were strongly disagree
(1), disagree (2), neutral (3), Agree (4), and strongly agree (5). Table 3-8 lists out the
five areas for interpretation.
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Table 3-8. Decision to use computer-based technologies
Decision to use computer-based technologies
Items
Tried to determine usefulness
of ICT
Plan to continue to use ICT in
my teaching
Interested in increasing my use of
ICT in teaching
Used ICT then
decided to stop
it
Never considered integration
of ICT in my teaching
RQ4 - Practices- An analysis was conducted on the ‘practices’ (implementation + confirmation) research variables in the questionnaire on items related to teachers’ use of computer-related technologies and their schools’ expectation toward their use of computers in teaching (survey items E2 and F6).
There was a section (E2) in the survey which was designed to draw information
about teachers’ use of computer-related technologies in their teaching. There were
eleven sub-items and the rating scale was never (1), once in six months (2), monthly
(3), weekly (4), and daily (5). The average levels in the different areas were reported in
the results below. Table 3-9 lists out the items to analyze teachers’ use of computer-
based technologies.
Table 3-9. Teachers’ use of computer-based technologies
List of Use items
Items:
Use computer
for job
Use technologies at home for schoolwork
Use WhatsApp to communicate with teachers
Use email to communicate
with colleagues
Print teaching materials
Use computers
for teaching
Use presentation programs in
class
Use video projector in
class
Ask students to consult
Internet for class
Use Internet to prepare your class
Use Web 2.0
tools
A section (F6) of the survey was based on schools’ expectation toward teachers’
use of computers in teaching. It was significant to analyze how schools confirmed to the
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use of technology by the teachers. There were four items under this section and the
rating scale was strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Table 3-10 lists out the
items on which analysis was done.
Table 3-10. Items to determine confirmation of use of technology
School's expectation toward teachers' use of technology
Items
School expects
teachers to have technical
skills
School expects to teach
combining course content,
technologies and teaching approaches
School has no expectation to use computers
in teaching
Schools expects continuation of use of
technology even without support from DE field coordinators
Cross-tabulations were also tallied to investigate if there was a relationship
between teachers’ knowledge, attitude and decision with their actual use of computer-
related technologies. There were several sub-items under each category which were
averaged to create aggregate values for all the participants under each of the sub-
items. The averaged value of teachers’ knowledge, attitude and decision items were
cross -tabulated over the averaged value of the use of computer-related technologies.
This analysis provided a deeper outlook on teachers’ practice of computers in teaching
and learning.
Lastly, correlation analysis was conducted amongst the same research variables
on which cross -tabulations were computed. Spearman’s rho rank correlation coefficient
was used. It is a non-parametric measure of correlation applied when both variables are
ordinal level. It ranges from -1.0 to +1.0. A negative sign indicates that when the values
for one variable increase, the values for the other variable decrease whereas the
positive sign signals that as value of one variable increases, the value of the other
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variable increases as well (Hahs-Vaughn & Lomax, 2013). This was done to examine if
the ranked pairs were correlated and to what extent.
Validity and Reliability
The survey questionnaire was drafted based on the existing literature and scales,
and was adapted to fit culturally in the Indian context. The survey had the face validity
as the items placed under each category could be associated with the concept being
discussed. Edward Carmines and Richard Zeller (1979) discussed about criterion-
related validity, content validity, and construct validity. Criterion-related validity, also
called predictive validity is strengthened in this study as the criteria on which the
variables were created were based on a robust theoretical framework. To increase the
validity and efficacy of the survey instrument, expert reviews and cognitive interviews
were conducted. First, expert reviews were conducted on the draft survey by involving
educational technologists and other experts in the field of education. Then, cognitive
interviews of the Delhi government school teachers and discussion with the AIF Director
validated the understanding about the clarity, content, grammar, sentence formation,
etc. of items in the survey draft. Finally, all the revisions were incorporated to make the
final version of the survey to ensure that all the desired changes in the instrument had
been incorporated before taking it to the participants. The content validity and construct
validity were also strengthened by the cross-validation of the questionnaire by experts
and teachers in the field (Miller, 1983; Oppenheim, 1966).
The internal consistency reliability was calculated with the Cronbach’s Alpha
which tested that removing any item would not contribute to or detract from the high
level of item consistency. There were random missing data in surveys which indicated
that there were many teachers who filled out the survey but did not fill out a few
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responses in between the different sections of the survey. Dismissing the whole survey
as incomplete or not to be considered for analysis would have dropped out several
other relevant information which the participants had shared in the survey. In order to
solve the problem of missing values, Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm on SPSS
software was run on the dataset. This technique replaced missing value by predictive
value. Firstly, Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) test was run on the whole
dataset. It tested the null hypothesis which claimed that the data were missing in a
random fashion. The result of the test proved that the data were randomly missing as
the null hypothesis could not be rejected and no statistically significant difference was
calculated at Sig. = 1.000 value (See Appendix N). Thus, the randomly placed missing
values were replaced by the predictive value and the whole dataset on which
descriptive statistics were run was considered to be a total of 191 filled surveys by the
participants of this study.
The internal consistency reliability addressed by calculating Cronbach’s alpha
was also calculated for the relevant items in the survey under the five sections aligned
to the stages of IDP model. Inter-item correlation matrix was run on individual sections
along with finding the correlation amongst all the five sections of the survey (see
Appendix N). Reliability has been described as the calculation of the ability of an
instrument to measure consistently (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). The evaluation of the
reliability of this survey measured the consistency of this measurement instrument. This
survey measured the different domains of IDP model which brought forward the
perspectives of teachers towards ICT integration. But as all the items in the survey
measured the same construct, measurement of the inter-relatedness of the items within
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the survey was significant. In order for each and every section of the survey to be
reliable for measurements of the results, Cronbach’s Alpha was run which is expressed
as a number between 0 and 1. For the purpose of this study, the sections on knowledge
Most of the participants had B.Ed degree (85.5%) or higher degrees (M.Ed- 12%
and M.Phil- 3.7%), and 11.5% of the teachers had a diploma in education. The Central
Teacher Eligibility Test (CTET) is for Central government teaching jobs while the
Teacher Eligibility Test (TET) is for State-run government schools as teaching
qualification requirements for Class 1 to Class 8. About 39% of teachers had taken
these qualifying tests (36% took CTET, and 3% did TET). Only 9 out of 191 teachers
had some kind of computer certification. There were about 5% of teachers who had
taken National Eligibility Test (NET) which is a qualifying requirement for college and
university teaching. Figure 4-1 reports the teaching qualifications of the participants of
this study.
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Figure 4-1. Teaching qualification
Gender and Age
Seventy-four percent of teachers who filled out the survey were female and 26%
were male. Figure 4-2 charts it out.
Figure 4-2. Gender Figure 4-3. Age
Around 40% of the participants belonged to the age bracket of 31– 40 years old,
and 25% in 20-30 years old and 41-50 years old bracket respectively. This suggested
that teachers who were selected to integrate technology in teaching at their respective
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schools were in the varied age ranging from 20s to 50s. Figure 4-3 shows the
percentage of teachers in different age group.
Teaching Experience, Teaching with Technology, and 1st Technology Training
Majority of the teachers had long years of teaching experience in the Delhi
government schools. Twenty-six percent of these teachers had been working for 16-20
years, 23% worked for 21-25 years, and 21% worked for 11-15 years. Moreover, 5% of
them were more than 30 years in service, while 2% worked in less than five years.
Figure 4-4 charts out the percentage of teachers having a different range of years of
teaching experience.
Figure 4-4. Teaching experience
The emergence of teaching with technology mostly occurred in 2015-2017,
wherein 80 out of 191 teachers started using ICT in teaching three years back, while 63
of them began implementing the application in 2016. Given this, very few of the
participants stated that they had been using technology since 10-15 years ago. The
year 2000 was the earliest season to introduce technology still many teachers were not
trained for the integration. In fact, many of them reported that they just finished their
training between the years 2015-2016. Figure 4-5 shows the number of teachers
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corresponding to the number of years of teaching with technology. Figure 4-6 shows the
number of teachers receiving technology training over the last couple of years.
Figure 4-5. Number of years of teaching with technology
Figure 4-6. Year of receiving 1st time technology training
Language and Subject
Little over half of the teachers surveyed (54.5%) reported teaching in Hindi
language whereas 30.4% of them stated to teach in English language. Around 15% of
them mentioned teaching in both Hindi and English language. Figure 4-7 is a pie chart
that shows the percentage of teachers teaching in Hindi, English and both.
Figure 4-7. Primary teaching language
Thirty-five percent of the participants were using technology in teaching
mathematics, 26% for science and 20% for social science. English teachers comprising
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13% of the participants also used computer software to enhance student’s reading skills
effectively. A small percentage of 6% used technology in teaching ‘other’ subjects in
which the participants mentioned Hindi and History. Figure 4-8 shows the percentage of
teachers teaching different subjects.
Figure 4-8. Primary subject
Class Size
Thirty-one percent of the classes had around 40-50 students, 27% had 30-40
students, and 25% had 50-60 students. Sixteen percent of teachers reported being
teaching in classrooms with more than 60 students. This result is put in a graph in figure
4-9 showing the percentage of schools having varied range of the class size.
Figure 4-9. Class size
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Computer-Related Technologies Available for Teacher Use
The information about computer-related technologies available for teacher use
included the description of technology available at home and school; location of
computer-related technologies in school; and, number of computers available for
teaching in school.
Technology at Home
The majority of the teachers were found to possess smartphone devices (76.4%).
More than half (59.8%) of the participants had Internet access at home and almost half
of them had desktop (45.5%) and laptop (44.7%). Access to other computer-related
technologies i.e., pen drive, printer, tablet and VCD/DVD were seen to be sprucely
available. Only 4 out of 191 teachers mentioned that they did not have access to any
kind of ICT tool at home. Figure 4-10 shows the percentage of teachers possessing
different kinds of technology at home.
Figure 4-10. Technology at home
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Technology at School
The majority of schools were reported to have desktop (76.8%) and projector
(79.9%). Internet was said to be available in 73 out of 191 schools (38%). Almost 42%
of teachers had access to printer and 30% of them to computer software in school.
Some government schools were also reported to have TV/VCD (14%), laptop (13.3%)
and interactive whiteboard (11%). Tablet (1.9%) had rarely found an entry in the
government schools of Delhi. Figure 4-11 shows the percentage of teachers possessing
different kinds of technology at school.
Figure 4-11. Technology at school
Location of Technology in School
The result showed that numerous schools had computer-related technologies in
their IT/ICT lab (74.6%) and CAL lab (61.1%). Some schools (12.4%) also had
computers in their library. There were also teachers (7.3%) who mentioned AIF lab as
the location of technologies in their schools. Figure 4-12 graphs the various location of
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technology at schools.
Figure 4-12. Location of technology at school
Number of Computers in School
Almost half of the participants (49.2%) stated having 5 to 10 computers in school.
Thirty percent had better accessibility with 10 to 20 computers in their school. Five
percent of the total participants shared that they had more than 20 computers. Eight
teachers mentioned having only 1 computer in the school. Figure 4-13 shows this
statistics.
Figure 4-13. Number of computers in school
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Summary of the Participants
Teachers’ background and their access to technology provided a context to
analyze the research questions in the following section. Teachers’ perception of
technologies in teaching was measured in terms of their knowledge, attitude, decision
and practice of computer-related technologies in the classroom. While analyzing
teachers’ ICT knowledge, one might keep in mind that most of the teachers under this
study had received their first technology training in the last three years and only a very
few teachers had any kind of computer certification with them. Though, most of the
participating teachers possessed proper teaching qualification (B.Ed.) and had been
teaching in schools for a long time. In this study, the majority of the teachers deciding
whether to use technologies in teaching or not were in the age range of 20 to 40 years
who, on an average, were teaching a class size of 40 - 50 students. Three-quarters of
the teachers who were analyzed for practicing technologies in teaching were female
teachers who were mostly teaching in Hindi language and taught subjects including
Math followed by science and social studies.
The availability of computer-related technologies with teachers at their home and
in school was also analyzed. Silver (1998) noted that if a school is not prepared as a
whole in terms of its curricula, teaching strategies and innovations in the allocation of
resources, then the teachers who supposedly are the ‘innovators’ are in an impossible
position as institutional norms support or constrain changes. The analysis of the
technological tools accessible, number of computers available and their school locations
was conducted. Majority of the teachers possessed smartphone (76.4%) with them.
This highlighted that mobile revolution was taking place in the country where
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smartphones were available at an affordable rate. It was also in time that in 2016, India
ranked second as the largest smartphone market worldwide, as even average level
individuals were using it (Joshi, 2017). About half of the teachers had desktop, laptop
and Internet at home. Majority of them had access to desktop and projectors while
Internet had started being available at schools. About 50% who had participated in this
study could access 5 to 10 computers in the IT/ICT lab and/or the CAL lab at their
respective schools. The study of teachers’ background and their accessibility to
technologies provided a bigger backdrop picture behind their analysis of perception
towards ICT studied in the next section.
B. Answering Research Questions
Four research questions were prepared to understand the perspectives of
teachers toward ICT integration in Indian classrooms. The following questions were:
RQ1. What are the knowledge, attitudes, decisions and practice of teachers toward ICT
integration in the Indian classroom?
1. How do teachers perceive their own knowledge of ICT use in classrooms? (Research variable: knowledge - stage 1 of IDP (Knowledge))
2. What are teachers’ attitudes about the ICT available in their school? (Research variable: attitudes - stage 2 of IDP (Persuasion))
3. What decisions do teachers make regarding using ICT available in their school? (Research variable: decisions – stage 3 of IDP (Decision))
4. How are teachers practicing integration of ICT in classrooms? (Research variable: practice – stage 4 and 5 of IDP (Implementation and Confirmation))
Teachers’ knowledge, attitude, decision and practice toward ICT integration were
studied. Each of these four categories addressed the four research questions stated
above. Below is the description of each of these questions.
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RQ1 -Teachers’ Skills and Knowledge on Computer-Related Technologies
The results of the ICT operational skills of teachers suggested that 54% of them
noted to have medium skill level in basic computer operations, i.e., opening pages, and
using pen drive. Forty-three percent had medium skill level in Microsoft Word, and 41%
and 42% were reported medium skill level in Microsoft Excel and PowerPoint
respectively. The average level of teachers in ICT operational skills was found to be at a
medium level. Table 4-1 shows the average (mean) rating of the teachers in the
different categories of operational skills out of a scale of 1 to 5.
Table 4-1. Average operational skills
Operational Skills
Mean Std. Deviation Basics 3.31 0.940 Word 2.90 0.993
Excel 2.67 1.0121
PPT 2.73 1.090
Table 4-2 shows the percentage of teachers in each skill category ranging from
nil to expert.
Table 4-2. Percentage of teachers in the different operational skills categories
Looking at the results of teachers’ self-perception toward their technological
editing skills, it was found that over 75% of them believed they were in low/nil level of
editing skills (See table 4.4). Out of the three categories of the editing skills, teachers
responded to be most comfortable with picture editing followed by video and then audio.
Table 4-3 shows the average (mean) rating of the teachers in different categories of
editing skills ranging from 1 to 5.
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Table 4-3. Average editing skills
Editing Skills
Mean Std. Deviation
Video 1.96 1.017
Picture 2.07 1.145
Audio 1.84 0.917
Table 4-4 shows the percentage of teachers in each skills category scaling from
nil to expert.
Table 4-4. Percentage of teachers in the different editing skills categories
Nil Low Medium High Expert
Video 37.70% 38.10% 17.20% 3.10% 3.60%
Picture 38.10% 35% 14.60% 4.70% 6.30%
Audio 41.80% 41.30% 11.50% 2.60% 2.60%
The last set of sub-items under teachers’ skills and knowledge included their
online skills under different aspects like browsing, downloading, uploading, use of
educational blogs/websites, the use of Open Educational Resources (OERs) and basic
programming skills. Majority of the participants’ browsing skills were at medium (29%) to
high (27%) levels and around 25% of them had low and below levels. The graph for
downloading skills remained similar to their browsing skill. In their uploading skills,
almost 40% of teachers admitted to having low/nil level; 30% were at medium level;
20% had high skills; and 10% were experts. Forty-one percent had medium level skill in
the use of educational blogs/websites, 22% had low level, and 18% had high skill rating.
Only 18% had low level, and 4% had nil skill level in the use of OERs i.e., using
YouTube, Google, etc. whereas 78% of them had medium and higher level. In the last
sub-item, around half of the participants reported to have nil level of skill in basic
programming, i.e., Logo, Scratch, etc., and 35% had low skill. Table 4-5 shows the
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average (mean) rating of the teachers in the different categories of online skills scaling
from 1 to 5.
Table 4-5. Average online skills
Online Skills
Mean Std. Deviation Browse 3.32 1.162 Download 3.33 1.162 Upload 2.91 1.288 Use of websites 2.92 1.075 Use of OERs 3.33 1.074 Basic Programming 1.75 0.917
Table 4-6 shows the percentage of teachers in each skills category on the
scaling from nil to expert.
Table 4-6. Percentage of teachers in the different online skills category
Nil Low Medium High Expert
Browse 5.8% 20.4% 28.8% 26.7% 18.3%
Download 7.9% 15.2% 30.9% 28.7% 17.3%
Upload 17.3% 20.9% 27.7% 21.4% 12.5%
Use of websites 10.4% 22.0% 40.7% 17.8% 8.9%
Use of OERs 3.7% 17.8% 36.1% 25.6% 16.7%
Basic Programming 47.5% 34.5% 11.0% 6.8% 0.0%
Summary of RQ1
In order to answer the first part of the research question, ‘How do teachers
perceive their own knowledge of ICT use in classrooms?’ there were items in the survey
which were sub-divided as operational skills, editing skills and online skills, each having
sub-categories for analysis.
In general, teachers reported to be having a medium level of computer operation
skills, low level of editing skills and medium level of online skills. Most of the participants
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had a nil level in their basic programming skill. It suggested that teachers were not
trained or exposed to programming for classroom teaching.
RQ2 - Teachers’ Attitudes about Computer-Related Practices
Teachers’ attitudes toward technology were measured according to their
experiential and conceptual views. Starting with the analysis of teachers’ experiential
views, about 75% of teachers disagreed (41%) and strongly disagreed (33%) that the
technological advancements made them feel tense and uncomfortable whereas 20%
reported to be holding a neutral opinion and only 6% agreed. Similarly, three - quarters
of the teachers surveyed reported to disagree (44%) and strongly disagree (30%) that
computer-related technologies made their work more difficult whereas 17% held a
neutral opinion and 9% of them agreed to it. The next sub-item enquired about teachers’
views on their colleagues having a positive experience in teaching with technologies.
Again, around 75% of teachers agreed (66%) and strongly agreed (14%) whereas 16%
of them held a neutral opinion and 4% disagreed. The pattern was similar in the last
sub-item as well. Seventy-two percent of them agreed and strongly agreed that their
schools supported and encouraged them to integrate technology in teaching whereas
23% remained neutral, and 5% disagreed. Table 4-7 shows the average (mean) rating
in the different categories based on the experiential view of teachers scaling from 1 to 5.
Table 4-7. Average experiential view
Mean Std. Dev
Feeling tense and uncomfortable 2.01 0.891
Making professional work more difficult 2.05 0.925
Colleagues having positive experience 3.905 0.6855
School supporting and encouraging 3.8 0.757
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Table 4-8 shows the percentage of teachers in each of the experiential view
category scaling from strongly disagree to strongly agree.
Table 4-8. Percentage of teachers in the different experiential view categories Strongly
disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
agree
Feeling tense and uncomfortable
32.5% 40.8% 20.9% 5.2% 0.5%
Making professional work more difficult
30.3% 43.9% 16.8% 8.4% 0.5%
Colleagues having positive experience
1.0% 2.6% 16.2% 66.4% 13.6%
School supporting and encouraging
1.6% 2.6% 23.0% 59.6% 13.1%
The second category of sub-items was to analyze teachers’ attitude about
computer-based technologies slotted under their conceptual view. The results had
higher percentage of positive response compared to the ones derived from the
experiential view of teachers. About 94% believed that computer-related technologies
played a very important role in improving the quality of education (61% agreed and 33%
strongly agreed) and 4% of them remained neutral and 2% disagreed. When asked if
WhatsApp groups were useful resources, 88% of them answered positively (63%
agreed and 26% strongly agreed) and 7% held a neutral view whereas 5% of them
disagreed. Ninety percent expressed a positive opinion while answering the survey
which indicated that the teachers felt that computer-related technologies were
necessary tools in both educational and work settings while 7% were neutral and 3%
disagreed with it. The next sub-item to analyze teachers’ attitude asked if computers
can be useful educational aids in almost all subject areas. Eighty-six percent of the
participants responded positively to it (61% agreed, and 25% strongly agreed), 10%
remained neutral, and 4% disagreed. Another sub-item enquired if there were more
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disadvantages than advantages in teaching with technology and 66% disagreed (41%
disagreed and 25% strongly disagreed) to it, and 20% of them remained neutral, while
14% agreed (13% agreed, and 1% strongly agreed). The last sub-item under the
attitude section of the survey sought to find out if teaching with the help of traditional
chalk and board method was the only way to teach effectively. Sixty-six percent again
disagreed (46% disagreed, and 20% strongly disagreed), 17% remained neutral, and
18% agreed (15% agreed, and 3% strongly agreed). Table 4-9 shows the average
(mean) rating of teachers in different categories under the conceptual views scaling
from 1 to 5.
Table 4-9. Average conceptual view Mean Std.
Dev
Technology as important part of future of education 4.24 0.689
WhatsApp groups as useful resources 4.08 0.783
Technology as necessary tools in both education and work settings
4.09 0.693
Computer as useful educational aids in all subjects 4.06 0.759
More disadvantages than advantages in teaching with technology
2.24 1
Traditional chalk and board as the only way to teach effectively
2.34 1.043
Table 4-10 shows the percentage of teachers in each of the conceptual view
category scaling from strongly disagree to strongly agree.
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Table 4-10. Percentage of teachers in the different conceptual view categories Strongly
disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly agree
Technology as important part of future of education
1.6% 0.5% 3.7% 61.2% 32.9%
WhatsApp groups as useful resources
2.1% 2.6% 6.8% 62.8% 25.6%
Technology as necessary tools in both education and work settings
1.6% 1.0% 7.3% 67.5% 22.5%
Computer as useful educational aids in all subjects
1.6% 2.1% 9.9% 61.2% 25.1%
More disadvantages than advantages in teaching with technology
24.6% 40.8% 20.9% 12.5% 1.0%
Traditional chalk and board as the only way to teach effectively
20.4% 45.5% 16.7% 14.7% 2.6%
Summary of RQ2
The second research question to be answered was, ‘What are teachers’ attitudes
about the ICT available in their school?’ The analysis was conducted based on the
experiential and the conceptual views of teachers.
Overall, teachers held a positive opinion in both their experiential and conceptual
views. Though, higher percentage of teachers remained neutral in responding to the
experiential view items than the ones in the conceptual view items. A high percentage of
teachers chose to remain neutral when asked if their school supported them in
integrating technology in teaching. Many also remained neutral when asked whether
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there were more disadvantages than advantages in teaching with technology. These
suggested that teachers mostly held positive attitude toward ICT but many chose to
remain neutral when had to answer against the school authority or had to outweigh
technological advantages in front of its barriers. The pattern which emerged about
teachers’ attitudes toward technology suggested that about three-quarters of teachers
who participated in technology integration program at their school held positive opinion
and belief toward it.
RQ3 - Teachers’ Decision to Use Computers for Teaching
The first sub-item to determine teachers’ decision in computer usage for teaching
enquired if the participants had tried to determine the usefulness of computers in their
teaching career. There was no teacher who disagreed with it. Seventeen percent of
teachers remained neutral and 83% shared positive opinion (74% agreed and 8%
strongly agreed). The next item was to determine if the teacher planned to continue
teaching with computer-related technologies. No teacher strongly disagreed and only 3
disagreed whereas 18.3% of teachers remained neutral and 80% gave a positive
response to it (67.02% agreed and 13.15% strongly agreed). The third decision-based
sub-item was whether the teacher was interested in increasing one’s use of computer-
related technologies in one’s teaching activity. Again, to this, only 1 teacher disagreed
and 21% remained neutral whereas 78% gave a positive response (64% of teachers
agreed and 14% of them strongly agreed). The next sub-item had a negative tone as it
stated that a teacher used technology in teaching for some time but then decided to
stop using it anymore. Forty-six percent of teachers disagreed and 13% strongly
disagreed to it. Twenty-six percent remained neutral whereas 13% agreed and 2% of
teachers strongly agreed. The last sub-item was again in a negative tone and enquired
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if the teacher had never considered the integration of computers technology in one’s
teaching. To this, 22% teachers strongly disagreed and 48% disagreed. Fourteen
percent of teachers remained neutral to this question whereas 15% of them agreed to it
and 2% strongly agreed. Table 4-11 shows the average (mean) rating of the teachers in
the different categories to determine teachers’ decision to use computer-based
technologies scaling from 1 to 5.
Table 4-11. Average decision to use computer-based technologies Mean Std. Dev.
Tried to determine usefulness of ICT 3.91 0.5
Plan to continue to use ICT in my teaching 3.91 0.611
Interested in increasing my use of ICT in teaching 3.92 0.607
Used ICT then decided to stop it 2.46 0.933
Never considered integration of ICT in my teaching 2.27 1.024
Table 4-12 shows the percentage of teachers in each category on the scale from
strongly disagree to strongly agree.
Table 4-12. Percentage of teachers in the different decision categories Strongly
disagree Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly agree
Tried to determine usefulness of ICT
0.0% 0.0% 17.3% 74.3% 8.4%
Plan to continue to use ICT in my teaching
0.0% 1.6% 18.3% 67.0% 13.1%
Interested in increasing my use of ICT in teaching
0.0% 0.5% 20.9% 64.3% 14.1%
Used ICT then decided to stop it
12.6% 46.0% 26.1% 13.6% 1.6%
Never considered integration of ICT in my teaching
22.0% 47.6% 13.6% 15.2% 1.6%
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Summary of RQ3
The third research question was ‘What decisions do teachers make regarding
using ICT available in their school?’ There were five sub-items in the survey to analyze
teachers’ decision toward the use of computers in teaching.
The results suggested that about 80% of teachers surveyed found usefulness of
ICT; planned to continue using ICT in their teaching; and, showed readiness to increase
its use as well. It was about 15% of the teachers who used ICT and then stopped using
it; and had never considered integration of ICT in their teaching.
RQ4 - Teachers’ Use of Computer-Related Technologies and their Schools’ Expectation toward their Use of Computers in Teaching (Practice- Implementation and Confirmation)
A weekly usage of computers was reported by sixty-three percent of teachers for
their work and 67% of them for using computers for teaching purposes. Thirty-eight
percent teachers said to have weekly usage of technologies at home for schoolwork
whereas 30% said to have used it daily and 28% said monthly. The only usage of
technology by teachers which received daily usage response was the use of WhatsApp
to communicate with other teachers. When asked about the usage of email to
communicate with colleagues, there was a mixed response by the teachers as 32% of
teachers said to be using email monthly, 26% said to never have used email, 21% said
to have used it once in six months and 15% said to have used it daily. On how often did
teachers print teaching material, 40% said monthly, 26% said weekly, 19% said once in
six months and 11% said never. More than half of the teachers said to have used
presentation programs weekly e.g. PowerPoint and video projectors in classes (59%
and 60% of teachers respectively). There were three sub-items based on web usage.
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Majority of the teachers responded that on a weekly basis they asked their students to
consult Internet materials for classes (43%); used the Internet themselves to prepare for
classes (43%); and, used Web 2.0 tools e.g. wiki, YouTube, Google, etc. for classes
(43%). Table 4-13 shows the average (mean) rating of the teachers in the different
categories to determine teachers’ use of computer-based technologies scaling from 1 to
5.
Table 4-13. Average teachers’ use of computer-based technologies
Mean Std. Dev
How often do you use a computer for your job? 3.7 0.7
How often do you use technologies that you have at home for schoolwork (e.g., smart phone, tablet)?
3.9 0.9
How often do you use WhatsApp to communicate with teachers?
4.6 0.7
How often do you email to communicate with colleagues? 2.5 1.2
How often do you print teaching materials? 3 1
How often do you use computers for teaching? 3.7 0.8
How often do you use presentation programs (e.g., PowerPoint) in classes? 3.3 1.1
How often do you use video projectors in classes? 3.4 1
How often do you ask students to consult Internet materials for your classes? 3.5 1
How often do you use the Internet to prepare your classes? 3.5 1
How often do you use Web 2.0 tools (e.g., Wiki, Blog, YouTube, Google, FB, Twitter) for your classes?
3.4 1.1
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Table 4-14 shows the percentage of teachers in each category on the scale from
never to daily usage.
Table 4-14. Percentage of teachers in the different use categories
Never Once in six months
Monthly Weekly Daily
How often do you use a computer for your job?
1% 5% 24% 63% 8%
How often do you use technologies that you have at home for schoolwork (e.g., smart phone, tablet)?
1% 4% 28% 38% 30%
How often do you use WhatsApp to communicate with teachers?
1% 2% 4% 21% 72%
How often do you email to communicate with colleagues?
26% 21% 31% 15% 6%
How often do you print teaching materials?
11% 19% 40% 26% 5%
How often do you use computers for teaching?
4% 3% 21% 66% 6%
How often do you use presentation programs (e.g., PowerPoint) in classes?
13% 7% 20% 59% 2%
How often do you use video projectors in classes?
9% 7% 21% 60% 3%
How often do you ask students to consult Internet materials for your classes?
5% 8% 30% 43% 14%
How often do you use the Internet to prepare your classes?
5% 7% 30% 41% 14%
How often do you use Web 2.0 tools (e.g., Wiki, Blog, YouTube, Google, FB, Twitter) for your classes?
8% 12% 27% 43% 9%
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Under the practice category, both, implementation and confirmation of the use of
technology were assessed. Teachers’ uses of technology mentioned above stated the
implementation. For the confirmation part, schools’ support toward teachers’ use of
technology was analyzed.
When teachers were asked to report on school’s expectation from them to have
technical skills to use technology, 75% of them stated positive response towards it
(67.5% agreed and 8.9% strongly agreed). Seventeen percent of teachers remained
neutral and only 6.8% disagreed with it. The next item enquired whether or not the
school expected the teacher to teach lessons that appropriately combined one’s course
content, technologies, and teaching approaches, and to this,79% teachers responded
positively (69.5% agreed and 9.4% strongly agreed). To this, 17.8% teachers remained
neutral whereas only 3.1% teachers disagreed. The next item to which the teachers
responded was the question which stated that the school had no expectation from the
teacher to use computers in teaching. To this, 63% teachers disagreed (43% disagreed
and 20% strongly disagreed), 20% remained neutral and 16% teachers agreed (14%
agreed and 2% strongly agreed). The last item under this section stated that the school
expected the teacher to continue using computers in teaching despite there was no
support from AIF’s field coordinators. This confirmed whether the ICT integrating
program in teaching at Indian schools actually was sustainable or not. Fifty-six percent
of teachers agreed (50% agreed and 6% strongly agreed), 32% remained neutral and
10% disagreed. Table 4-15 shows the average (mean) rating categories to determine
teachers’ confirmation to use computer-based technologies out of 1 to 5.
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Table 4-15. Average school’s expectation toward teachers’ use of technology
Mean Std. Deviation
School expects teachers to have technical skills 3.76 0.749
School expects to teach combining course content, technologies and teaching approaches
3.85 0.614
School has no expectation to use computers in teaching
2.327 1.0435
Schools expects continuation of use of technology even without support from DE field coordinators 3.54 0.84
Table 4-16 shows the percentage of teachers in each category on the scale from
strongly disagree to strongly agree.
Table 4-16. Percentage of teachers in the different school expectation categories
Strongly disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
School expects teachers to have technical skills
0.5% 6.3% 16.7% 67.5% 8.9%
School expects to teach combining course content, technologies and teaching approaches
0.0% 3.1% 17.8% 69.5% 9.4%
School has no expectation to use computers in teaching
20.9% 43.4% 19.5% 13.6% 2.1%
Schools expects continuation of use of technology even without DE support
1.0% 9.4% 32.4% 50.2% 6.7%
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Summary of RQ4
The last research question was, ‘How are teachers practicing integration of ICT
in classrooms?’ There were survey items directed to seek participants’ responses to
gauge both the implementation and confirmation part.
There were eleven sub-items that focused on the implementation of teachers’
use of computers in teaching. On an average, 52% of the participants reported to be
using eight out of the eleven sub-items on a weekly basis. These were on use of
computer for job, use of technologies at home for school work, use of computers for
teaching, use of presentation programs in class, use of video projector in class, asking
students to consult Internet for class, use of Internet to prepare for class and use of web
2.0 tools.
The only usage on a daily basis was the use of WhatsApp to communicate with
other teachers. The use of email and printing materials were the ones used on a
monthly basis or even fewer times by the majority of teachers.
The confirmation part of the practice of ICT by the teachers was done through
the analysis of schools’ expectation toward their use of computers in teaching. The
result of this section suggested that teachers of around three-quarters of the schools
believed that their schools expected them to implement technology in teaching while
half of them believed that technology integration in teaching would remain sustainable in
the long run, even without the support from the DE field coordinators.
The results of this research noted that the teachers in the Delhi government
schools were exploring the use of ICT in their teaching. Sixty percent teachers
responded ‘yes’ to the question, ‘Have you been able to integrate computers use in your
teaching routine?’ In another item stating a more specific detail about current use of
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technologies in teaching on a continuous basis, 65% of teachers responded ‘yes’ which
reiterated that 60-65% of Delhi government school teachers were already
using/adopting ICT in their teaching. Whether they would continue to use technology
without the support of DE program or not was a separate set of analysis. Another item
in the survey directed into analyzing teachers’ acceptance of the technology was, ‘Have
you been able to promote the beneficial use of computers to your colleagues?’ To this,
85% responded positively which indicated that most of the teachers realized the
benefits of the techno-pedagogical tool which they had been using as part of the DE
program. When asked if they felt computers integration in their classrooms had been
beneficial for their students, 95% teachers responded positively. This confirmed that
teachers had no doubts about the benefits of technology use for students’ learning.
One of the surveyed items in this study was based on school’s expectation
toward teachers’ use of computers in teaching. Three-quarters of them agreed that their
schools expected them to have the technical skills to use technology and teach lessons
that appropriately combined course content, technologies and teaching approaches.
Sixty-one percent of the participants disagreed when asked if their schools had no
expectation from them to use computers in teaching. And, little over half of the teachers
(53%) agreed that their schools expected them to continue using computers in teaching
despite having no support from DE field coordinators. There was another survey item
that highlighted school’s provision. Over half of the teachers responded that their
schools provided professional development training in computer use for teachers along
with providing maintenance of computer-related technologies. Though, around three-
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fourth of teachers said that their schools did not provide any incentives/rewards for the
use of computers in teaching.
Inspiration and Barriers for Teachers in Using Technologies
Both inspiration and barriers for teachers in using computer-related technologies
in classrooms were analyzed to find out themes reported by the participants which
impacted their use of computers in teaching and learning. Below are the descriptions of
both the factors.
Inspiration for Teachers to Use Computer-Related Technologies in Teaching
The teachers in this study narrated factors that inspired them to use computer-
related technologies in their teaching. The most common theme recorded was that
students were more motivated and enthusiastic during the technology-enabled classes.
They seemed to enjoy learning and paid more attention to teachers. A teacher stated, ‘It
makes teaching and learning easy and interesting and students enjoy learning. It helps
students participate pro-actively during discussions. It improves knowledge retention. It
encourages individual learning.’
The digital content were said to be innovative, interesting and apt for lesson
planning. Teachers stated that syllabus related materials were on YouTube and other
online medium. Many said that the topics of science which were difficult to explain orally
could easily be taught with the help of computers.
Students were also attracted with the visual aids used during the class. Learning
by visualizing helped students a lot in enhancing their learning capacity. In a lecture
method, students primarily used listening as their major sense. When computers were
introduced in teaching, more senses have been involved for better understanding.
Active discussion and demonstration took place in classrooms.
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Some teachers wrote that it was not just the students’ interest but their own
interest as well to create more effective teaching environment in their class. A teacher
commented, ‘In DE program, English Helper and Macmillan software helped me a lot.
The technology has really changed my teaching-learning process.’ These technologies
have created a more efficient, reliable, and convenient ways of learning. It has changed
the way teaching was initiated in government schools. It introduced creative and
entertaining activities in the Indian education sector. A teacher remarked, ‘Almost all
work and tasks are computer based and online these days. Apt knowledge of computer-
related technologies is thus a necessity.’
These tools have been significant in improving the performance of slow learners
as well. Three-fourth of the teachers reported no difference between girls vs. boys in
using computer-related technologies in their class. Teachers stay motivated to use
technology when their students benefitted directly from its use.
Barriers for Teachers to Use Technology in Teaching
The teachers in this study listed different responses when asked to mention
about the barriers to using technology on a regular basis. One of the major problems
highlighted was scheduling conflicts to incorporate technology in teaching. Competing
demands such as time-bound weekly syllabus, adjusting several components within a
single period, and, taking class in computer rooms requiring prior scheduling in time-
table were reported. A teacher wrote, ‘…Because of time table which is already fixed,
we cannot make suitable arrangements or we cannot reschedule the classes.’ Another
teacher remarked, ‘In school, we have to manage our schedule according to daily
deadlines. We are not able to teach according to our plans. There are chores which
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have to be completed then and there. Our syllabus would also lag behind if we give
extra time to students on computers.’
Lack of computer units was mentioned by the teachers. A teacher wrote as a
challenge, ‘Insufficient computers. Moreover, all available computers are not in working
condition.’
Another teacher said, ‘There is a separate classroom for computers. Computers
are not enough. There are problems with scheduling computer class for every subject.’
As not all the classrooms had computers, it resulted in longer duration to accommodate
all the students to have access to computers.
Internet access also posed as one of the big challenge for teachers.
Lack of computer knowledge was another set of barriers noted. Some teachers
also commented that it was difficult to manage traditional classes and technology
related lessons together. A teacher remarked, ‘…sometimes we can resonate better
without technology.’
Some of the specific problems encountered by the teachers of the Delhi
government schools were extra work load, shortage of time (for preparation and
implementation), lack of infrastructure (space problem), resources and support, power
interruption in schools, big class size, support from the school, insufficient training, lack
of content related to lessons, need for smart boards and Internet, involvement in non-
teaching activities, first generation learners of English language, old style teaching
ways, lack of coordination with other teachers, some students not taking technology
seriously, and expensive facilities.
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C. Cross-Tabulations and Correlations
Teachers’ Knowledge and ICT Usage
The first cross -tabulation was computed between teachers’ knowledge (B6) and
the use of computer-related technologies category (E2). A cross -tabulation was created
on an aggregate value for each of the sub-items in both of the categories. An interaction
between them projected how the teachers with varied knowledge level used
technologies in their teaching. Table 4-17 shows the number of teachers with different
knowledge levels using computers in teaching with respect to different use levels.
Table 4-17. Teachers’ knowledge and their use (Knowledge*Use) of computer-related technologies
Use 1=
Never
2=Once in 6
months
3= Monthly
4= Weekly
5= Daily
Total
Knowledge
1=Nil 0 3 2 3 1 9
2=Low 0 8 33 36 1 78
3=Med 1 1 23 48 1 74
4=High 0 0 7 17 0 24
5=Expert 0 0 2 1 3 6
Total 1 12 67 105 6 191
The inter-relationship showed that the majority of teachers belonged to the low
and medium levels of ICT knowledge and almost half of them used computer-related
technologies at weekly basis and the other half used these at monthly basis. Sixteen
percent of teachers reported to possess high and expert level of ICT knowledge and
most of them also used computers in teaching at weekly basis followed by monthly
basis.
It was observed that teachers possessing any level of technological knowledge
exhibited weekly and monthly usage of computer-related technologies in teaching.
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Teachers’ Attitude and ICT Usage
The next cross -tabulation was formulated between teachers’ attitude (C1) and
their ICT usage (E2). There were a few negatively toned sub-items which were reversed
for calculation. Aggregate value of the sub-items of both the variables were calculated
and compared for analysis. The inter-relationship between these two variables showed
how teachers’ attitude impacted their ICT use. Table 4-18 shows the number of
teachers with different attitude levels using computers in teaching at different use levels.
Table 4-18. Attitude and use (Attitude * Use) of computer-related technologies
Use 1=
Never
2=Once in 6
months
3= Monthly
4= Weekly
5= Daily
Total
Attitude
1= Strongly Disagree
0 0 0 0 0 0
2= Disagree
0 0 0 0 0 0
3= Neutral
0 8 5 16 1 30
4=Agree 1 4 56 66 2 129
5=Strongly Agree
0 0 6 23 3 32
Total 1 12 67 105 6 191
The cross -tabulation between these variables stated that there was no teacher
with negative attitude who used computer-related technologies in teaching. The majority
of teachers (129 out of 191) held positive attitude and half of them used computers at
weekly basis and the other half used at monthly basis. A few teachers who held neutral
and extremely positive (strongly agree) attitude also used technologies at a weekly
basis followed by some at monthly basis. What stood out was that most of the Indian
teachers had favorable attitude and used ICT both at the weekly and monthly level.
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Teachers’ Decision and ICT Usage
Lastly, a cross -tabulation was conducted to see interaction between teachers’
decision (D1) and their ICT usage (E2). Aggregate values for both the variables were
computed while the negatively toned questions were reversed for appropriate analysis.
Table 4-19 shows the number of teachers with different decision levels using computers
in teaching with respect to different use levels.
Table 4-19. Teachers’ decision and ICT usage (Decision * Use)
1=
Never 2= Once in 6 months
3= Monthly
4= Weekly
5= Daily
Total
Decision
1=Strong Disagree
0 0 0 0 0 0
2=Disagree 0 0 0 1 0 1
3=Neutral 0 9 19 21 1 50
4=Agree 1 3 45 72 3 124
5=Strongly Agree
0 0 3 11 2 16
Total 1 12 67 105 6 191
The result of this cross -tabulation showed that again there was almost no
teacher who decided to strongly disagree/disagree to use computers in teaching.
Neither were there many teachers who had strongly agreed to use technologies and it
was found that most of those teachers had decided to use computer-related
technologies at weekly basis. Most of the teachers (140 out of 191) positively decided to
use computer-related technologies at weekly followed by monthly basis. Amongst those
teachers who were neutral in their decision to use technologies in teaching, almost half
of them used these at weekly level and the other half did it at monthly level. Most of the
teachers had favorably decided to use ICT in teaching and were using these on a
weekly basis.
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Correlation Analysis
Spearman’s correlation was run on teachers’ knowledge, attitude and decision
research variables with their use of computers research variable respectively (See
Appendix O). Table 4-20 shows the correlations between these variables.
Table 4-20. Spearman's Rho Correlations of knowledge, attitude and decision with usage
Comparison Correlation Coefficient
P
Knowledge vs. Usage .239** 0.001
Attitude vs. Usage .207** 0.004
Decision vs. Usage .234** 0.001
N = 191
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The correlation coefficient was .239 amongst teachers’ knowledge and their
usage; .207 amongst teachers’ attitude and their usage; and, .234 amongst teachers’
decision to use computers and their usage in teaching. The p-value for all these three
interactions were smaller than the alpha value (0.01). These results suggested that
there existed statistically significant small to moderate positive correlation between
teachers’ knowledge and their usage; teachers’ attitude and their usage; and, their
decision and usage.
Summary of Cross-Tabulations and Correlations
Three sets of cross-tabs were computed namely, teachers’ knowledge and their
use of ICT; teachers’ attitude towards the use of ICT, and teachers’ decision and their
use of ICT. All these variables were analyzed in order to study teachers’ perspectives in
terms of factors including knowledge, attitude and decision to use computers in
teaching. The cross -tabulation for these categories expanded the understanding of the
relationship amongst the four variables. The results of cross tabulations showed that
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technology usage was mostly at weekly followed at monthly basis amongst teachers
possessing any level of knowledge and having either positive or neutral attitude and
decision toward it.
The correlation analysis between the four variables (see Appendix O)
strengthened cross -tabulations findings as it was found that a positive relationship
existed between teachers’ knowledge, attitude and decision with their use of computer-
related technologies in teaching. There was only a small to moderate positive
correlation found amongst these variables which again supported the interactions found
in the cross tabulations. This also fell in line with Roger’s IDP model where the
variables- knowledge, attitude, decision and use were posited as the stages of
innovation where covariance among the set of variables existed, though without their
time order. It could be suggested from the correlations that an increase in the level of
teachers’ technological knowledge, attitude and decision could positively impact their
usage of computer-related technologies in their classroom teaching.
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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION
Summary of the Study
The responses of teachers who were participating in AIF’s technological
integration program in teaching and learning at government schools of Delhi, India were
studied in order to analyze their perception toward their use of computer-based
technologies in classrooms. Some of the major highlights which could be observed from
the analysis suggested that recently (especially in the last three years) a lot of the
teachers received technology advancement training and many started to use ICT in
their teaching. Broadly, teachers were at a medium level of technological skills and
knowledge and held a positive attitude toward integrating technologies in teaching. The
majority of the teachers had been using ICT on a weekly basis and had decided to
continue its use in future. Schools had been supportive toward teachers to continue
their exploration of technological use in teaching and learning.
No teacher ever denied the usefulness of computer-based technologies. The
participants were aware that there were teachers in their school who were integrating
technology in teaching. Most of them (94%) were aware that the DE program was a part
of 6th, 7th and 8th grade of their school and eighty-seven percent of them knew that the
program was being implemented in science, math, social studies and English. Teachers
perceived that technology was the need of the time and had been positively using these
resources with the assistance of AIF’s DE program.
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Discussion
RQ1 – How Do Teachers Perceive their Skills and Knowledge on Computer-Related Technologies? As stated in previous sections of this study, teachers’ perceptions of their own
technological competence was measured in terms of their operational skills (basic
computer operation, Microsoft Word, Excel, and PPT), editing skills (picture, audio and
video editing) and online skills (browsing, downloading, uploading, use of websites, use
of OERs, and basic programming). Most of the teachers reported that they had
moderate operational and online skills but relatively low editing capability.
With regard to operational skills, the result suggested that most of the teachers
were moderately competent in basic technological operational skills. Many initial teacher
technological trainings have mostly focused on how to operate computers. About 70%
of the teachers in the study reported of receiving professional training on computer
operations, comparable to rates reported for teachers in private schools (Rastogi &
Malhotra, 2012; Upreti & KJ, 2011). Although this was encouraging, there were still
teachers in the study who reported having low skills in basic computer operations.
Looking at the results for online skills, the majority of the teachers reported
medium level of competence in browsing, downloading, uploading, using websites and
using OERs. Although the use of digital media in government school education is fairly
new in the Indian context, many of the teachers had received training on Digital
Equalizer Way of Teaching (DEWoT) and Flipped Classroom (FC) from AIF- DE
program. The AIF-DE program focused on working with teachers to harness the
potential of digital media to promote constructive knowledge, active learning and
2010). This study also reinforced these findings in the context of Delhi government
schools where the teachers reported presence of only 5 to 10 computers on an average
along with the need for focused technological training as huge factors impacting the use
of computer-related technologies in classrooms. There have been day-to-day level
operational barriers faced by the teachers integrating the DE program in the Delhi
government schools which need to be resolved.
The education department of the Indian government has started awarding
teachers of the government schools for exemplary use of technologies in their teaching.
This is a novel beginning in the direction of recognition of teachers though the data
shows that the number of teachers allotted for recognition from each state has just been
a few. The teachers in this study reported lack of recognition and appreciation for the
use of technologies in teaching. It would be suggested to schools to recognize teachers'
noteworthy use of ICTs on a frequent basis. Monetary benefits are huge source of
motivation. In case if monetary incentives could not be awarded, even recognition of
teachers’ good work in staff meetings, notice boards or morning assembly would be a
great source of motivation for the teachers to continue practicing the innovation.
There is a need for techno-pedagogical inclusion by all the teachers, and, for all
the subjects. So far, technological integration was being practiced in math, science,
social studies and English. Students of all the subjects should benefit from technological
integration in teaching and learning. Also, students of all the classes from K- 12 and not
just of grade 6, 7 and 8th should reap the benefits of AIF-DE program.
Key Take Away and Recommendations
RQ1: Teachers of the Delhi government schools in this study reported to have moderate level of technological operational competence. Their online skill was at
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medium level too despite digital media being fairly new in the Indian school education. Their editing skill was found to be mostly at nil level.
Efforts should be made towards making teachers’ techno-pedagogical skills at a
high/expert level to ensure effective technological integration. The majority of teachers
reported having received training in operating computers. However, their skill level did
not qualify for an advanced level. It is highly suggested to provide a more focused and
target-oriented teacher training to achieve the goal of advancement.
Digital media is significant in enhancing the quality of education and it can be
achieved through its pedagogical integration in teaching and learning (Bhat & Beri,
2016). To make teachers' online skills high, it would be recommended to share with
them about the digital resources available and train them on how to efficiently use these
resources in enriching their course content delivery.
The teachers reported a beginning toward the use of technological content in the
schools of Delhi but the creative use of technological teaching resources would come
with the advancement in their editing skills. Training on digital content creation would
provide the teachers with skills of digital storytelling, websites and blog creation, etc.
which could be strong mediums of expressions in teaching.
RQ2- Teachers were more positive about accepting the idea of technological integration in teaching compared to what they felt about their teaching experiences with technology.
In order to assist teachers have favorable experiences with technology, it would
be recommended that just teacher training program would not be sufficient. Some of the
frequently quoted barriers for teachers to use innovative technologies in this study have
been lack of hardware, lack of software, problems with finding enough time to learn
about computers, and scheduling conflicts with integrating lessons using computers. All
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kinds of barriers in the school ecosystem have to be removed in order to make teachers
feel more confident and positive about their teaching experiences with computer-related
technologies.
RQ3- Teachers were exploring the use of ICT in their teaching. They wanted to continue and even increase technological integration in their classroom practices. Most of the teachers realized the benefits of the techno-pedagogical tools which they had been using as part of the DE program. They felt that computers integration in their classroom teaching had been beneficial for their students.
One of the most important and challenging issues in information system research
has been to understand why people accept or reject technology (Davis, Bagozzi &
Warshaw, 1989; Huang & Liaw, 2004). There could be different predictors like
perceived self-efficacy, anxiety, liking, usefulness, etc. to determine teachers’ decision
to use or not to use computer-related technologies in teaching. The teachers of this
study reported to have had favorably decided to use ICTs in classrooms.
Teachers in this study had shown interest in continuing and even increasing their
technological integration in their teaching. The teachers mentioned about their
immediately felt benefits of the techno-pedagogical integration in teaching. Research
has been conducted reinforcing the need for technology competent teaching. This
would encourage teachers’ will and desire to strengthen their consideration towards
application of ICTs in classrooms.
RQ4- Teachers were integrating technologies in teaching on a weekly basis. Their schools showed expectations from them in regard to usage of ICTs in classroom but did not provide any incentive/reward for the use of computers in teaching. There have been operational barriers to using technology on a regular basis.
Teachers should be assisted with tools to measure and monitor the changes
taking place in their teaching role when using computer-related technologies in
classrooms. It would be very significant to evaluate and monitor understanding, usage,
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and progress. Evaluation of their technological use and integration would be a helpful
exercise for the teachers to further analyze its pros and cons in classroom practices.
The teachers in this study reported that technological integration in classroom
practices also depended on school leadership. There is a need for a continuous ICT
integration training not just for the teachers but also for the school administrators so that
they can understand the benefits and challenges associated with ICT integration in
teaching.
At the school institutional level, it would be recommended to involve teachers in
the decision-making process of how to effectively integrate technology in teaching. As
this is a fairly new innovative practice being promoted in Delhi public schools, teachers’
involvement in preparing how to monitor and evaluate the program would not just give
them ownership but at the same time would ensure better implementation of the
program.
Summary of Recommendations
There is a lot to be done to increase the ICT integration in school education
which can be achieved by continued focus from all the stakeholders involved in
education. There is a huge need for a targeted technological teacher training in order to
assist integration of educational technologies within classroom curriculum. In fact, until
teachers are provided with sustainable training in ICT- enabled teaching pedagogies
and methodologies and until lack of technological infrastructural resources are met, not
much change can be envisioned. Teachers envisage computer-related technologies to
change the paradigm of teaching and learning. Availability of Internet in the Indian
government schools is still very limited. Broadband and Internet facilities have to spread
out massively to be explored and exploited for educational purposes. Although, the
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increasing accessibility of smartphones and mobile devices have revolutionalized
technological access to the teachers at a level which had never been witnessed before.
Also, the new technology and services which schools adopt need to be evaluated at
short intervals.
Conclusions
Application of ICT in teaching and learning in Indian classrooms is a recent
phenomenon despite the fact that government paid attention to it since several decades
while technological integration in education was receiving global attention. There
existed several challenges for the program implementation. Many private players
emerged in the education sector with liberalization and globalization taking place in
India in the1990s and 2000s. Still, not much could be done alone by the
private/developmental organizations as the Central and the state government have
control on about 75% of schools in India which are government/government-aided
schools. Hence, an emergent trend in the Indian schools had been public-private
partnership where the private implementing agencies partner with public institutes for
shared responsibilities of program implementation, monitoring and evaluation. This
research analyzed how teachers of the government schools of Delhi perceived
technological integration in their classroom practices, as being part of DE program run
by America India Foundation, an international developmental organization. This study is
significant for both government schools and AIF as it presents results from the
perspectives of the teachers who are the main players in successful implementation of
technological program. The government schools gave approval and AIF came out with
the DE program to be implemented at these schools. But if the teachers don’t perceive
of running this program as significant then this could lead to failure of the innovative
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practice. This research focused on teachers’ perspectives to analyze what were their
knowledge, attitudes, decisions and practice toward technological integration in
government schools. All the stakeholders involved in ICT integration in teaching and
learning should learn from this research about teachers’ position in their understanding
and commitment to implement such innovative practice in classrooms.
A valid and reliable survey instrument has been created as a part of this
research. The instrument was adapted from existing literature and was contextualized in
the Indian classroom scenario. This survey can be used to study similar investigations
in different schools. A comparative study of ICT integration in all the schools at the
national level would be recommended using this survey instrument.
In this study, a little over half of the teachers reported to have medium level of
technological skills and three-fourth of them mentioned of having positive attitude,
deciding to use technology, and practicing computer-based technologies on a weekly
basis. Previous research have mentioned that teachers’ knowledge and attitudes toward
use of ICT in classrooms hold utmost significance for its proper integration. As per the
results of this study, all the educational stakeholders working in the direction of
technological integration in the Indian classrooms should notice that even after receiving
professional development training, it’s just about half of the teachers implementing ICT
who had medium level of technological knowledge and the next closest number of
teachers possessed low level of technological knowledge. The results also showed that
majority of the teachers thought highly about the concept of technological integration in
education though there existed huge scope to enhance their views and opinions by
working on providing them favorable experiences with the use of computer-related
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technologies in their teaching activities. Also, even with teachers’ use of computer-
related technology in classrooms, this study projected just little over half of the
participants to be using technologies in teaching on a weekly basis and the next closest
number of teachers were at the monthly usage level. These results about the
knowledge, attitude and technological use of teachers from this study strongly suggest
to program implementing agencies to hold focused and specific technological teacher
training programs to ensure that teachers’ knowledge and attitude advance
exponentially which could lead to stronger integration of ICT in classrooms.
Fullan (1985) suggested three phases in the field of planned educational change.
Those were adoption, implementation and institutionalization. It could be interpreted
from this research that the Indian government schools’ teachers, by being a part of the
technological integration program and receiving weekly support by AIF coordinators
were at a stage where they could be said to be adopting the program and moving in the
next direction of implementation stage where they would run the program with their own
motivation and felt-need requirements. There is still a long way to go but the pace of
expansion of integration is really fast and needs to be studied.
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APPENDIX A 1ST DRAFT OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT SHARED WITH EXPERT REVIEWERS
Initial Survey Instrument
For the purpose of this survey, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is referring to all the digital technologies- that is, computers, laptops, printers, handhelds, interactive whiteboards, software programs, etc. that teachers use for instructional purposes in schools. It will be commonly referred as computers and computer-related technologies in this survey. Please answer all of the questions.
I. Information about ICT available for teacher use Accessibility of computers and computer-related technologies
Instruction: This section includes questions about the accessibility of computer-related technologies for you. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 1) Do you currently have a computer in your home which you use?
□ Yes □ No
2) Do you currently have a tablet in your home which you use? □ Yes □ No
3) Do you currently have a smart phone which you use? □ Yes
□ No 4) Do you have access to computers for instructional use in your school?
□ Always □ Sometimes □ Not often □ Rarely □ Never
5) Do you have access to Internet for instructional use in your school? □ Always □ Sometimes □ Not often □ Rarely □ Never
6) Which types of computer-related hardware is available for instructional use in your school? (Circle all that apply)
□ Desktop □ Laptop □ Tablet □ Interactive White Board □ LCD Projector □ Printer □ VCD/DVD □ Local Area Network (LAN)
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□ Wi-Fi hotspot □ Any other (specify)
____________________________________________________________ 7) Do you have computer-related software available for instructional use in your school?
□ Yes □ No □ Don’t know
If yes, of all the computer software programs you have used for instructional purposes, please list the name of three programs you use most often. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8) Where are the computers and computer-related technologies designated for instructional uses located in your school? (Circle all that apply)
□ In computer lab(s) □ In classrooms □ In library □ In staff room □ On a portable cart □ Any other (specify) ____________________________________________________________
II. Teachers’ knowledge/skills toward ICT integration A.) Recall of information Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 9) Have you participated in any computer-related technologies in-service training/workshop/ course?
□ Yes □ No
10) If yes to the above question, which statement best describes the in-service training you receive in regard to technological devices?
□ Specific device skills training (training on specific applications) □ Curriculum integration (how to integrate successfully) □ A combination of skills training and curriculum integration □ Something else (specify) ________________________________________________________
□ Not applicable 11) In what computer-related technologies have you received in-service instruction? (Circle all that apply)
□ Computer based instruction (e.g., drill and practice, tutorials, simulations) □ Computer tools (e.g., word processor, database, spreadsheet) □ Telecommunications/Distance Learning □ Programming
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□ Web 2.0/multimedia □ Computer hardware (Troubleshooting) □ Examples of integration into specific curriculum areas □ Any other (specify) ____________________________________________________________ □ Not applicable
12) Do you think that an adequate number of ICT in-service training/workshop/ course have been available to teachers in your school?
□ Yes □ No
13) In general, have you been able to find ICT in service opportunities appropriate for your needs?
□ Yes □ No
14) To your knowledge, does your school have a technology plan? □ Yes □ No □ Don't know
15) What has been your school focus toward use of ICT in classrooms? □ Use ICT extensively □ Use ICT sometimes □ Use ICT rarely □ Never use ICT □ Use ICT when needed □ Any other (specify) ____________________________________________________________ B.) Comprehension of messages Instruction: Please rate your understanding on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you. 16) What has been your school’s focus toward your integration of ICT in classroom teaching?
SD D N A SA
I should have the technical skills to use technology □ □ □ □ □
I should know about technologies that I can use for understanding and doing my course content. □ □ □ □ □
I should be able to choose technologies that enhance the teaching approaches for a lesson □ □ □ □ □
I should be able to teach lessons that appropriately combine my course content, technologies, and teaching approaches □ □ □ □ □
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C.) Knowledge or skill for effective adoption of ICT Instruction: Please rate your level of competency toward each on the below categories on the rating scale of Low, Moderate, High. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you. 17) What is your competency level in the following categories?
Low Medium High
Basic computer operation skill □ □ □
Knowledge of Software application □ □ □
Computer hardware □ □ □
Microsoft Word □ □ □
Microsoft Excel □ □ □
Microsoft Power Point □ □ □
Video Editing Tool □ □ □
Picture Editing Tool □ □ □
Audio Editing Tool □ □ □
Surfing on Internet □ □ □
Making/Operating Educational Blogs □ □ □
Use of Open Educational Resources □ □ □
Basic programming skills □ □ □
Use of Internet □ □ □
III. Teachers’ attitudes about available ICT
D.) Liking the ICT practices Instruction: Please rate your liking toward ICT practices on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA 18) How would you rate your liking toward ICT in your school?
SD D N A SA
I like learning about computers □ □ □ □ □
Working with a computer makes me feel tense and uncomfortable □ □ □ □ □
I think computers make my professional work more difficult □ □ □ □ □
Computer-related technologies are an important part of the future for improving the quality of education □ □ □ □ □
E.) Discussion of the new behavior with others Instruction: Please rate the question on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA 19) Please rate whether you discuss about ICT practices with others or not.
SD D N A SA
I like to talk to others about teaching with computers □ □ □ □ □
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F.) Acceptance of the message about ICT Instruction: Please rate the following categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA 20) How would you rate your acceptance of ICT practices in your school?
SD D N A SA
It is fun to figure out how computers work □ □ □ □ □
Computers are necessary tools in both educational and work settings □ □ □ □ □
Computers can be useful instructional aids in almost all subject areas □ □ □ □ □
Teaching with the help of a black board is the only way to teach effectively □ □ □ □ □
G.) Formation of a positive image of ICT Instruction: Please answer the following semantic differential questions. Choose one location between each adjective pair to indicate how you feel about computers. 21) How would you rate your image of ICT practices in your school?
“To me, using computers for my professional productivity is.”
Exciting □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Unexciting
Appealing □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Unappealing
Fascinating □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Mundane
“For my students, using computers in the classroom is.”
Exciting □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Unexciting
Appealing □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Unappealing
Fascinating □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Mundane
H.) Support for the innovative behavior from the system Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 22) Do you feel your school helps you to integrate technology effectively in your curriculum?
□ Yes □ No
23) Do you feel rewarded by your school when you integrate ICT into classroom practices?
□ Yes □ No
24) Please share how your school has supported you in adopting ICT practices in teaching.
IV. Teacher self-reports of ICT adoption/rejection I.) Intention to seek additional information about ICT Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA 25) How would you rate your intention to seek information about ICT?
SD D N A SA
I would like to know how my role will change when I am using computer-related technologies □ □ □ □ □
I would like to know the effect of use of ICT on my professional status □ □ □ □ □
I would like to know what resources are available if we decide to adopt the computer-related technologies □ □ □ □ □
I would like to have more information on time and energy commitments required by the computer-related technologies □ □ □ □ □
I would like to know what other teachers are doing in this area □ □ □ □ □
I would like to know how computer-related technologies is better than what we have now □ □ □ □ □
J.) Intention to try ICT Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of 0- never; 1- rarer than once a month; 2- monthly; 3- weekly; 4- almost daily 26) How would you rate your intention to try ICT?
How interested are you in using ICT in your teaching activity? 0 1 2 3 4
Do you intend to use ICT in your teaching activity? 0 1 2 3 4
V. Teacher self-reports on their technology use K.) Acquisition of additional information about ICT Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA 27) Have you already acquired information about ICT integration in classroom?
SD D N A SA
I know how my role has changed when I am using computer-related technologies □ □ □ □ □
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I know the effect of use of ICT on my professional status □ □ □ □ □
I know what resources are available when we have adopted the computer-related technologies □ □ □ □ □
I have information on time and energy commitments required by the computer-related technologies □ □ □ □ □
I have come to know what other teachers are doing in this area □ □ □ □ □
I know how computer-related technologies is better than what we have now □ □ □ □ □
L.) Use of ICT on a regular basis Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of 0- never; 1- rarer than once a month; 2- monthly; 3- weekly; 4- almost daily 28) How frequently do you use ICT?
On average how often do you use a computer for your work? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you email to communicate with students? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you email to communicate with colleagues? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you print teaching materials? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you use computers in classrooms for teaching? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you use presentation programs (e.g., PowerPoint) in classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you use video projectors in classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you ask students to consult Internet materials for your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you use the Internet to prepare your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you use Web 2.0 tools (e.g., Wiki, Blog, YouTube, FB, Twitter) for your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average how often do you use e-learning platforms (e.g., Moodle, Blackboard, etc.) for your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
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M.) Continued use of ICT Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 29) Have you been able to use computers and computer-related technologies in teaching on a continuous basis? □ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): ____________________________________________________________
VI. Teacher self-reports on confirmation of ICT use N.) Recognition of the benefits of using ICT Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 30) Do you feel ICT integration in your classroom teaching has been beneficial for your students? □ Yes □ No □ Have not reached this stage □ Any other (specify): ____________________________________________________________ O.) Integration of ICT into teacher’s ongoing routine Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 31) Have you been able to integrate ICT use in your teaching routine? □ Yes □ No □ Have not reached this stage □ Any other (specify): ____________________________________________________________ Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of 0- never; 1- rarer than once a month; 2- monthly; 3- weekly; 4- almost daily 32) How would you envision ICT integration in the coming days?
How interested are you in using ICT in your teaching activity in the future? 0 1 2 3 4
How probable do you think it is that within the next five years you would use ICT significantly more in your teaching activity? 0 1 2 3 4
P.) Promotion of ICT to others Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 33) Have you been able to promote the beneficial use of ICT to your colleagues?
□ Yes
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□ No □ Have not reached this stage □ Any other (specify): ____________________________________________________________
VII. Demographic Information Teacher background information Direction: Please mark the option which best answers the question or fill in the blank. 34) What is the highest level of your education?
□ 12th pass □ Bachelors □ Masters □ PhD
35) What is your gender? □ Female □ Male
36) What is your age? __________________________________________________________________ 37) How many years have you been teaching? _______________________________________________ 38) What is the primary language that you teach in?
□ English □ Hindi □ Other (Please specify) ________________________________________________________
39) Which subject do you primarily teach? □ Math □ Science □ English □ Hindi □ Social Studies □ Computers/Media □ Fine Arts □ Other ___________________________________________________________
40) What is the average class size that you teach? □ Less than 20 students □ 20-30 students □ 30-40 students □ 40-50 students □ 50-60 students □ More than 60 students
Thank you for your participation!
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APPENDIX B DRAFT 2 OF THE SURVEY BASED ON EXPERT REVIEW
Initial Survey Instrument For the purpose of this survey, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) refers to all the digital technologies- that is, computers, laptops, projectors, printers, handhelds, interactive whiteboards, software programs, etc. that teachers use for instructional purposes in schools. It will be commonly referred to as computers and computer-related technologies in this survey. Please answer all of the questions.
I. Information about ICT available for teacher use
Instruction: This section includes questions about the availability of computer-related technologies for you. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 1) Which of these technologies do you have in your home which you use? (Circle all that apply)
2) Which of these technologies do you have in your school which you use? (Circle all that apply)
□ Desktop Computer
□ Laptop □ Tablet □ Projector
□ Interactive White Board (Smart board)
□ Printer □ VCD/DVD □ Internet (LAN /Server)
□ Any other (specify):
3) Where are the computers and computer-related technologies designated for instructional uses located in your school? (Circle all that apply)
□ In computer/ICT lab(s) □ In classrooms □ In the library □ In staff rooms □ On a portable cart □ Any other (specify) _____________________________________________________
II. Teachers’ knowledge/skills toward ICT integration
Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. 4) In what computer-related technologies have you received in-service instruction? (Circle all that apply)
□ Computer based instruction (e.g., drill and practice, tutorials, simulations) □ Computer tools (e.g., word processor, database, spreadsheet) □ Telecommunications/Distance Learning □ Programming
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□ Web 2.0/multimedia □ Computer hardware (troubleshooting) □ Examples of integration into specific curriculum areas □ Any other (specify) _____________________________________________________ □ Not applicable
5) Would you be interested in more in-service ICT training opportunities? □ Yes □ No
6) In general, have you been able to find ICT in-service opportunities appropriate for your needs?
□ Yes □ No
7) To your knowledge, does your school have a policy on technology integration in teaching practices?
□ Yes □ No
8) What has been your school focus toward use of ICT in classrooms? □ Use ICT extensively □ Use ICT sometimes □ Use ICT rarely □ Never use ICT □ Any other (specify) _____________________________________________________ 9) What has been your school’s focus toward your integration of ICT in classroom teaching? Instruction: Please rate your understanding on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you.
SD D N A SA
My school expects me to have the technical skills to use technology □ □ □ □ □
My school expects me to teach lessons that appropriately combine my course content, technologies, and teaching approaches □ □ □ □ □
10) Do you feel your school helps you to integrate technology effectively in your curriculum?
□ Yes □ No
11) Do you feel rewarded by your school when you integrate ICT into classroom practices?
□ Yes □ No
12) Please share how your school has supported you in adopting ICT practices in teaching.
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_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 13) What is your competency level in the following categories? Instruction: Please rate your level of competency toward each of the categories below on the rating scale of Low, Moderate, High.
Low Medium High
Basic computer operation skill □ □ □
Microsoft Word □ □ □
Microsoft Excel □ □ □
Microsoft Power Point □ □ □
Video Editing Tool □ □ □
Picture Editing Tool □ □ □
Audio Editing Tool □ □ □
Browsing the Internet □ □ □
Making/Operating Educational Blogs □ □ □
Use of Open Educational Resources (e.g. Wiki, ebooks) □ □ □
Basic programming skills □ □ □
III. Teachers’ attitudes about available ICT 14) Please rate the following items related to your attitudes about ICT. Instruction: Please rate your attitudes about ICT practices on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD D N A SA
Working with ICT tools makes me feel tense and uncomfortable □ □ □ □ □
I think ICT makes my professional work more difficult □ □ □ □ □
Computer-related technologies are an important part of the future for improving the quality of education □ □ □ □ □
I like to talk to others about teaching with ICT □ □ □ □ □
ICT are necessary tools in both educational and work settings □ □ □ □ □
ICT can be useful instructional aids in almost all subject areas □ □ □ □ □
Teaching with the help of a black board is the only way to teach effectively □ □ □ □ □
To me, using ICT for my professional productivity is exciting □ □ □ □ □
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For my students, using ICT in the classroom is exciting □ □ □ □ □
IV. Teacher self-reports of ICT adoption/rejection
15) How would you rate your decision to use ICT for instructional purposes? Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD D N A SA
I plan to use ICT in my teaching activity □ □ □ □ □
I am interested in increasing my use of ICT in my teaching activity □ □ □ □ □
V. Teacher self-reports on their technology use
16) Please rate your information regarding ICT use in classroom Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD D N A SA
I know how my teaching role has changed when I am using computer-related technologies □ □ □ □ □
I know that using computer-related technologies require extra time commitments □ □ □ □ □
I have come to know what other teachers are doing in this area □ □ □ □ □
17) How frequently do you use ICT? Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of 0- never; 1- rarer than once a month; 2- monthly; 3- weekly; 4- almost daily
On average, how often do you use a computer for your job? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you use technologies that you have at home for schoolwork (e.g., smart phone, tablet) 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you email to communicate with students? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you email to communicate with colleagues? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you print teaching materials? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you use computers in classrooms for teaching? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you use presentation programs (e.g., PowerPoint) in classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you use video projectors in classes? 0 1 2 3 4
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On average, how often do you ask students to consult Internet materials for your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you use the Internet to prepare your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you use Web 2.0 tools (e.g., Wiki, Blog, YouTube, FB, Twitter) for your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
On average, how often do you use e-learning platforms (e.g., Moodle, Blackboard, etc.) for your classes? 0 1 2 3 4
18) Have you been able to use computers and computer-related technologies in teaching on a continuous basis in your current position? □ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ 19) Please mention what are the barriers to using technology on a regular basis (e.g., not enough computers, scheduling conflicts, power/internet access problems, lack of support/repair services, etc.) ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 20) If applicable, please mention what have been the motivating factors which have led to using ICT more than what you had been doing before? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
VI. Teacher self-reports on confirmation of ICT use
21) Do you feel ICT integration in your classroom teaching has been beneficial for your students? □ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ 22) Have you been able to integrate ICT use in your teaching routine? □ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ 23) Have you been able to promote the beneficial use of ICT to your colleagues?
□ Yes □ No
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□ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________
VII. Demographic Information 24) What is the highest level of your education?
□ 12th pass □ Bachelors □ Masters □ PhD
25) What is your gender? □ Female □ Male
26) What is your age? __________________________________________________________ 27) How many years have you been teaching? ______________________________________ 28) What is the primary language that you teach in?
□ English □ Hindi □ Other (Please specify) _________________________________________________
29) Which subject do you primarily teach? □ Math □ Science □ English □ Hindi □ Social Studies □ Computers/Media □ Fine Arts □ Other ________________________________________________________________
30) What is the average class size that you teach? □ Less than 20 students □ 20-30 students □ 30-40 students □ 40-50 students □ 50-60 students □ More than 60 students
Thank you for your participation!
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APPENDIX C COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER A
Ms. Jasjeet Kaur (name changed) was a middle school Computer teacher at a New Delhi government school. The Principal of the school had made an announcement for Ms. Kaur to come to the Principal’s room from a hand set which was next to her chair. In about five minute’s time, Ms. Kaur came in the office. The Principal requested both the researcher and the teacher to sit on the couch at the back side of her office and conduct the cognitive interview. In order to break the ice, I informed her about myself and my research and asked her about her experience of working with technology in her current job. She explained to me that she had recently taken a class on the solar system for 7th std. students using the interactive white board and the e-content which has been shared with the teachers. The educational contents were stored in the computers in both English and Hindi languages. E-content of four subjects i.e., Math, Science, Social Science and English were put on the computers in the schools. She informed the researcher that teachers were still getting acquainted with the electronic content. As a teacher proficient in use of computers, she has already explored the electronic content. She mentioned about the in-built lesson plans which are already there to assist teachers in preparing for their classes. The software also has the feature for the teachers to create their own lesson plan. She also informed that each class is for 40 minutes but so far the ICT based classes have been only for 10-15 minutes of the initial class time. When asked about the medium of teaching in the school, the teacher informed that out of the five sections of each class, one section is run in English medium and the other four sections are in Hindi medium. She informed that as teachers will become comfortable with ICT with training and usage, the time of use of ICT in classrooms will also increase slowly.
I explained to the teacher about the cognitive interview process and requested her to read aloud the survey questionnaire and pause wherever she had any confusion or had to raise any concern. I gave the copy of the survey draft to the teacher, and she started to read the draft in a low voice. By the time she reached the third sentence of the beginning paragraph, she had gained some confidence. I kept taking notes as Ms. Kaur read and stopped with her comments.
On item no.2, she said wi-fi option could be given. On item no. 4, IT room can be an option. At many government schools, the
computer room is different from the IT room. She showed agreement by her tone and nodding of head wherever she felt the
items were clear. She would also give examples of how things are clear to her. For example, she mentioned on item no. 5 that their Principal Mam had discussed the software and hardware of tools with the teachers.
On item no. 14, she mentioned that the word ‘competency’ might not be easy for all the teachers to understand. That may be replaced by the word ‘skill’.
On coming to the item no. 15, the teacher appreciated the visual box for the ease of understanding of the content. ‘Visuals are very helpful’, mentioned the teacher. One of the sub-item under item no. 15 included the word ‘black board’. She specified that it is not clear. She suggested to replace it with traditional method/ chalk and board.
She continued reading the rest of the survey draft and kept re-affirming the items as she found them clear to understand. When I asked her about the ease of the survey
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for the teachers, she said that the survey is clear and should be fine for the teachers to fill it up. She also mentioned that most of the teachers in government schools are comfortable in the Hindi language. But if the survey is written in simple and non-technical English language then it should be fine for the teachers to fill it up. I thanked Ms. Kaur for her taking out time to do the cognitive interview.
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APPENDIX D COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER B
Ms. Manisha (name changed) was the second participant for the cognitive interview. She was an English teacher in senior secondary section. I had a discussion with the Principal of the school on the scenario of ICT in her school. She then announced for two teachers to come in the Vice Principal room which was empty. The cognitive interviews could be held there. I waited in the room for the teacher to come. Ms. Manisha came in the room. I introduced myself and my research and explained to her about the process of the cognitive interview. The teacher informed that she had once participated in filling a survey questionnaire and had found it relevant. After settling in, I gave her the copy of the survey draft to read it aloud and talk out whatever comes to her mind.
On introduction paragraph, the teacher stopped on the very first line of the description and stated that ICT is not a very common term. The more commonly known term amongst teachers is computer technology.
On item 2, the teacher paused for a few seconds and mentioned that they also have a TV in their hall. ‘We use the TV for the students to hear Modi’s (the Prime Minister of India) speech addressed to the youngsters’, said the teacher. She also informed that they were also using recorders for ASL and English spoken activity.
On item 3 which was about the access of technologies to teachers on a scale of 0 to 4, the teacher said that this sounds similar to item 2. She suggested that I may merge the two items together.
On the option listings of item 4, she mentioned that portable cart is not yet relevant in the Indian context.
The teacher stopped on the option listing of item 5 and mentioned that she is not able to understand what ‘telecommunication/Distance Learning’ meant.
She continued reading the items and the options aloud affirming that those were clear to understand. When she reached item no. 14, I asked her if the term ‘competency’ will be clear for teachers to comprehend. She said that it is fine despite being a little technical term. She also mentioned that usually they terms and questions should be fine for young teachers. Old teachers are completely ignorant of the technical terms.
On item 15, while listing out the sub-items, she mentioned that sub-items 1 and 2 sound very similar. ‘You might want to have just one of the two’, said the teacher.
On item 18, the teacher asked me, ‘what do you mean by e-learning platform?’ Though the sub-item had examples listed, she could not understand it. I explained to her about the concept. The teacher mentioned that e-learning platform has not been integrated in the schools in India. ‘Probably, higher education institutes and professors might be aware of it’, said the teacher.
There were a few items which the teacher re-read twice to better understand the question and then said ‘okay’ before moving on to the next item. On item 25, the teacher suggested that we can divide the item into two separate questions - one can be on academic qualification of teachers and second can be on their professional qualification. She suggested that some of the listings under professional qualification can include- B.Ed, M.Ed, Computer-related Diplomas/ Certificate/ courses.
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At the end, I asked if there’s any suggestion if she would want to make. To this the teacher responded that if feasible, the survey should be bilingual. Teachers might be more comfortable with survey in the Hindi language. On asking whether a survey link sent on whatsApp will be filled out or not, she said that it’s tricky. But she said with certainty that most of the teachers will be comfortable filling out a paper survey. I thanked the teacher for her time and participation!
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APPENDIX E COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER C
Ms. Soni (name changed) was the third teacher for the cognitive interview of the draft survey questionnaire. She was a Geography teacher of the senior secondary section in the same government school where teacher B was. Once Ms. Manisha completed her interview session, she went outside and informed Ms. Soni to go to the Vice-Principal’s office for the interview. Ms. Soni entered the office in a couple of minutes and greeted the researcher. I introduced myself and the research. Both the researcher and the teacher struck a casual conversation which helped each of them to understand their work and get comfortable in undertaking a cognitive interview process. The teacher excitedly said that the best part of technology is for the map work. ‘The way of showing map through digital content is very good. I have used it for taking a quiz in my class. Changes are good’ positively asserted the teacher. I explained to her about how to go ahead with the cognitive interview and requested her to read the survey draft loudly with pauses for questions, comments and feedbacks.
The teacher started reading the questionnaire in a timid voice. To ease her, I mentioned that lots of teachers had different kinds of queries so please feel free to let me know if anything is not clear to her.
Till item no. 5, the teacher didn’t show any point of concern or question. Listing out the response options under item no. 5, she mentioned that the terms such as simulations, hardware, and telecommunications are technical. It would be good if these could be simplified.
She continued reading the following items and stopped at item no. 11 where she read the question, ‘Do you feel your school helps you to integrate technology effectively in your curriculum?’ and said that it would be difficult for the teachers to answer these kinds of questions as no one would like to talk against the school or the Principal. She suggested that instead, the term ‘school policy’ can be used to solicit information on school support questions.
On item no. 14, the teacher asked the meaning of the term ‘competencies’ and when I asked her if ‘skills’ would be easier to understand to which she agreed. On the response option listing in the same item, the teacher asked, ‘what is blogs?’ I tried to explain the concept to her. She mentioned that she feels that these terms are still not common amongst Indian teachers. She suggested that an option of flow chart/ graph can be added in the response list.
While moving forward, the teacher suddenly stopped and asked the researcher, ‘Tell me one thing—won’t it effect the eye sight of students and teachers if they look at the screen during the block teaching class which is for one hour?” After a bit of discussion, I reminded the teacher to continue reading the survey loudly.
On item no.15, the teacher suggested instructional aid could be replaced by ‘educational’ aid. She said, ‘You see, educational aid is easy to understand.’ She continued with her opinion that teachers need to get habitual with ICT. Teaching in today’s world is so challenging.
On item no. 17, the teacher re-read the second sub-item and said, ‘time and energy commitment’ part is complicated. What do you mean by this?’ I explained about the intent of the question and the teacher requested to re-word it.
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Coming on the third sub-item of item no. 18, the teacher shared that teachers in government schools are still not using lots of email services. But, what is being used to communicate is WhatsApp group messaging. ‘We don’t have time to open email’, said the teacher to the researcher.
On the 25th item no. which seeks information on education level of the respondents, the teacher suggested that M.Phil and NET can be added to the list. When asked about her opinion on what should be the language of the survey, the teacher mentioned that English should be fine. ‘Asking the teachers to fill out a physical copy of the survey questionnaire will be easier to get filled up response than tracking if they’ve done the survey online or not’, said the teachers. I thanked the teacher for her participation!
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APPENDIX F COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER D
Ms. Preeti (name changed) was the fourth teacher who participated in the cognitive interview. She was a Science teacher of middle section in a government school in New Delhi. I had attended her DE class session which she took with students of 7th std. before requesting her to participate in the interview. I congratulated her for conducting an excellent flipped classroom Science session using ICT. I shared my feedback on the class which she had taken. Short videos were shown to the class followed by group discussion and activity-based learning sessions. The whole class was engaged in learning and optimum utilization of ICT tools was visible. I explained to the teacher about the purpose of the cognitive interview and requested her to read aloud the survey draft and share what goes in her thoughts as she reads the survey items.
The teacher started reading the draft questionnaire. Coming on item no. 3, she pointed that one of the rating scale can include the option of ‘twice in a week’. Reading the sub-questions of item no. 3 itself, she stated that the three sub-items were sounding very similar.
On item no. 5, the teacher mentioned that all the response options which had been stated were ‘advanced’ ones. She shared that teachers have usually worked on PPT, downloading of PPT. ‘Not all teachers are computer-savvy’, said the teacher.
On item no. 8, the teacher clarified from the researcher as to what kind of technology plan is being talked about? I explained to her that it means if there’s any school technology policy.
On item number 9, the teacher shared that the question should be modified to ask about the use of ICT in ‘teaching’ instead of asking about the use of ICT in ‘classroom. ‘Classroom becomes very specific and in government schools things have to be flexible to ascertain them. To have an ICT class, we may have to go to a lab or the conference room of the school if it is free’, said the teacher.
The teacher was reading the items in a tone as if she understood the survey items or not in a situation if she has to fill out this survey. She paused on item no.15 and re-read the last sub-item which read as, ‘For my students, using ICT in the classroom is exciting’. She suggested to change the word ‘classroom’ from the sub-section to something like ‘lab’ as students mostly come to the lab room to attend classes using ICT. For item no. 17 again, the teacher reiterated not to use the word ‘classroom’.
Reaching to item no. 18, the teacher stated that item no. 3 and 18 look so similar. ‘Wasn’t this asked earlier?’ queried the teacher. Looking into the sub-items of item no. 18, the teacher mentioned that emailing is not common amongst teachers. ‘Teachers mostly uses WhatsApp, FB, messenger’, she said. Also, E-learning was something she had never heard of, stressed the teacher.
Coming to item no. 25, Ms. Preeti also stated that seeking teachers’ professional qualification in addition to their academic qualification would make sense.
She suggested that ‘bilingual’ can be stated as an option under item no. 29 which asks about the primary language that a teacher teaches in.
I asked the teacher about her views whether the form should be in English as is or should also be interpreted in Hindi. To this, the teacher mentioned that it would be better if the survey is in both Hindi and English. I thanked the teacher for the participation!
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APPENDIX G COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER E
Ms. Resham Bhargava (name changed) was the fifth teacher for the cognitive interview. She was a math teacher of the middle and secondary sections in a New Delhi government school. I attended her DE class on a Math topic with 8 std. students. Due to some technical challenges, the PowerPoint which had the e-content and videos related to the class topic could not be pulled up. The teacher still went ahead with taking the class covering other aspects of the DE model i.e., project-based learning, student engagement, and reflection. After the class finished, I approached to Ms. Bhargava and explained to her about my research and need to conduct a cognitive interview. She agreed to take out some time for the interview and we sat in the empty class where she had taken her last class session. I requested the teacher to let me know a little bit about her teaching background. She informed me that she has been teaching in the education sector for the last 15 years. So far, she has worked in four schools. For the first eleven years of her teaching, she had taught mathematics in the primary section (1st to 5th std.) and for the last four years, she has been teaching math to secondary section in the present school where she is working. She mentioned that sometimes she has to take math class of middle section classes as well if the Principal of the school allots her the task. The teacher mentioned that her school has been a DE school for the last 2 years. ‘The field coordinator of AIF has taught computer operation to the teachers in this school. For the last 8 months, I have started to use AIF presentations/content’, said Ms. Bhargava. I explained to her about the process of the cognitive interview and requested her to read out aloud and share what comes in her thoughts.
The teacher started reading the survey draft with a clarity of tone and speech. She paused at item no. 2 and said that she doesn’t know what is ‘LAN’.
Coming to item no. 3, she read the sub-items and mentioned that the first and the third sub-items were sounding similar. Reading the next item, the teacher asked the researcher, ‘what does ICT mean?’ I reminded her that the definition is on the first line of the survey draft itself. She said that this term is not very common amongst teachers.
Like other teachers who had taken the cognitive interview, Ms. Bhargava also found the sub-items under item no. 5 as very technical and specifically asked, ‘what is programming?’
On item no. 7, she suggested the researcher to make the question clear by mentioning that it is asking about ICT in-service opportunities ‘in the school’. Mentioning ‘school’ will make the question clear for teachers.
She read the following items and expressed clarity of content till she reached on item on 17. Reading the first sub-item, she asked how a teacher is expected to measure ‘I know how my teaching role has changed?’ The second sub-item demanded clarity of structuring of the statement. The part on ‘time and energy commitments’ was not clear. Also, on the third sub-item, the teacher said, ‘we don’t observe other teachers…once in a month we have faculty meeting. But the 4 teachers involved in AIF’s program can only talk on broad benefit of technology. We’ve actually never talked more on each other’s content, etc.’
On item number 25, this teacher, like others, also mentioned that more response options can be added to the teacher qualification question. For e.g., she said, diploma in
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education and an empty space for any unique qualification can be added to the response items.
When asked about her opinion about the language of the survey draft, the teacher mentioned that a Hindi translation of this survey will be better for most of the teachers in the government schools. On the mode of the survey, the teacher clearly said that paper survey is more reliable source for the researcher. The teacher frankly said, ‘Any technical thing is being hesitated. If a web link disappears then it will be a huge problem for teachers to bring it back.’ She also suggested that having both Hindi and English content in one questionnaire will make it too big. Having both Hindi and English survey separate will be a good idea. Depending on their comfort, teachers can choose which one to pick to fill it out. I thanked Ms. Bhargava for the participation and the inputs!
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APPENDIX H COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER F
The last was the sixth cognitive interview held in New Delhi which was with Mr. Arun Grover, a Social Science teacher in the middle and secondary sections of a New Delhi government school. I attended and observed his DE class which was on ‘cultures, places and people’. The teacher utilized the e-content in the AIF presentations stored in the laptop that was placed in the class. There were short videos which were played for better understanding and increased class participation. After the class, I requested Mr. Grover to participate in the cognitive interview. I explained to him about the interview and he agreed to take out time to do this. Once the teacher finished his class, he came back to the classroom where I was waiting for the interview. The teacher settled down and started reading the survey draft aloud.
On item no. 2 which seeks input on technologies available at school, the teacher suggested that I can add the option of pen drive. ‘I think teachers are getting used to using pen drives with minimum instruction these days’, said Mr. Grover.
On item no. 3, the teacher smiled and said that the answer will be 0 for all the teachers when asked if they’ve internet in school. Also, on the third sub-item, he said that the relevance of the item is less as there is very little computer-related software in schools.
Reaching on item no. 4, the teacher clearly stated that it’s getting difficult to comprehend the question in English language. He suggested that the survey should also be in Hindi.
On item no. 5, he mentioned that the response options look complicated. ‘Easy terms should be put here’, said the teacher. For example, he said, ‘troubleshooting’ word is complicated.
‘This is fine’, said the teacher, reading the 6th item. The researcher figured out that the teacher did not make the right interpretation of item no. 7 and she explained the question to him. Most of the times, the teacher was reading each item two times to understand what it meant.
On item no. 14, the teacher suggested to replace the word ‘moderate’ with ‘medium’. On the next item, he read the sub-items and mentioned that these attitude questions are also covered in the AIF feedback forms which they fill.
The second sub-item of item no. 17 which was on the time and energy commitments was not clear to the teacher.
On the frequency of use of technology question (item no. 18), the teacher mentioned, ‘At least we do use computer twice in a year for evaluation’. The teacher further said that they use google a lot and maximum people use YouTube and Wiki. On the last sub-item, the teacher asked the researcher, ‘What is moodle?’ I explained the concept of distance learning to the teacher.
Reading the question on the barriers which teachers face in using technology, the teacher stated his own barrier which he faces in his current teaching. He said, ‘Usually projector is hung up. But here the infrastructure doesn’t support it. Here, it’s on a table, you see!’
On item no. 21, which was a long statement asking about the motivating factors to use technology, the teacher suggested it to be re-constructed in a simpler manner.
189
On the teacher qualification item (item no. 25), the teacher suggested to add B.Ed, CTET (Central Teacher Eligibility Test) and TET (Teacher Eligibility Test) to the list. Also, computer education can be added to the list, said the teacher.
On the last item of the questionnaire (item no. 31) the teacher smiled and confidently said that as Delhi is divided into educational zones, some zones are much more populated than others. ‘It will be mostly having over 60 students in the North-East zone, whereas in the Central zone, the number of students will not go over 40.’
I thanked Mr. Grover for his participation and inputs!
190
APPENDIX I FINAL DRAFT (DRAFT 3) OF THE SURVEY BASED ON TEACHER REVIEW AND
DISCUSSION WITH AIF DIRECTOR
April 1, 2017 Dear Teachers, I am writing to request for your participation in this survey titled, ‘Exploring teachers’ perspectives toward technology integration in teaching’. You have been selected to participate in this survey as you have been associated with AIF’s Digital Equalizer (DE) program at your school. You are one of those teachers who have conducted classes using electronic content and have utilized features of DE’s techno-pedagogy program. In order to get a perspective of technology integration in teaching, all the teachers of different Delhi government schools who had participated in DE program in the academic year 2016-2017 have been selected to fill out this research survey. To answer the survey should only take about 10-15 minutes of your time. Your responses are voluntary and will be kept confidential. It is very important that you provide your honest and genuine opinions in the survey. If you have any questions about this study, please contact Shilpa Sahay at [email protected] or WhatsApp at +1-404-697-7640. For information regarding your rights as a research participant contact UF’s Institutional Review Board at [email protected] or 352-392-0433. By taking a few minutes to share your thoughts and opinions about your perspective on technology integration, you will be helping a great deal in exploring how Indian teachers perceive of technology in present times education. Your insight would be valuable! I hope you enjoy completing the questionnaire. Many Thanks, Shilpa Sahay PhD Candidate, University of Florida
Survey Instrument For the purpose of this survey, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) refers to all the digital technologies- that is, computers, laptops, projectors, printers, interactive whiteboards, software programs, etc. that teachers use for teaching purposes in schools. It will be commonly referred to as computers and computer-related technologies in this survey. Please answer all of the questions.
A. Information about computer-related technologies available for teacher use
Instruction: This section includes questions about the availability of computer-related technologies for you. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. A1) Which of these technologies do you have in your home which you use for preparing for your classes? (Circle all that apply)
A2) Which of these technologies do you have in your school which you use for teaching purposes? (Circle all that apply)
□ Desktop computer
□ Laptop □ Tablet □ Projector
□ Interactive White Board (Smart board)
□ Printer □ TV/VCD/DVD □ Internet
□ Pen drive □ Computer software
□ Any other (specify):
A3) Where are the computer-related technologies located in your school? (Circle all that apply)
□ In IT/ICT lab □ In classrooms □ In the library □ In staff rooms □ In CAL Lab □ Any other (specify) ____________________________________________________________
A4) How many computers are available for teaching in your school? (Circle the right answer) □ 1 computer □ 1-5 computers □ 5-10 computers □ 10-20 computers □ 20 or more computers
B. Teachers’ knowledge/skills toward use of computer-related technologies
Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you. Yes No B1) I know there are teachers in my school who are integrating
192
technology in teaching. Y N B2) DE program is working with selected teachers of my school. Y N (If yes, teachers of which subjects?) □ Science □ Math □Social Studies □English □ Hindi
□Any other specify): ____________________________ B3) DE program is working with specific classes of my school. Y N (If yes, which classes?) □ class 6 □ class 7 □ class 8 □ class 9 □ class 10 □ any other specify): ____________________________ B4) I am aware of the readiness of my school to support teachers in technology integration in teaching. Y N B5) I have received training in computer-related technologies Y N (If yes, in what?)
□ To operate a computer □ To use computer tools (e.g., MS Word, Excel, PPT) □ To create lesson plan on a computer □ To conduct the Digital Equalizer Way of Teaching (DEWoT) □ To conduct a flipped classroom □ To use educational software (e.g., English Helper, MacMillan) □ Any other (specify): ____________________________
B6) What is your skill level in the following categories? Instruction: Please rate your skill level toward each of the categories below on the rating scale of Nil skill, Low skill, Medium skill, High skill, Expert skill
Nil Low Medium High Expert
Basic computer operation skill (eg., opening pages, using pen drive)
1 2 3 4
5
Microsoft Word 1 2 3 4
5
Microsoft Excel 1 2 3 4
5
Microsoft Power Point 1 2 3 4
5
Video Editing Tool 1 2 3 4
5
Picture Editing Tool 1 2 3 4
5
Audio Editing Tool 1 2 3 4
5
Browsing the Internet 1 2 3 4
5
Downloading from Internet 1 2 3 4
5
Uploading to Internet 1 2 3 4
5
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Use of Educational Blogs/Websites 1 2 3 4
5
Use of Open Educational Resources (eg. YouTube, Google)
C. Teachers’ attitudes about available computer-related technologies
C1) Please rate the following items related to your attitudes about computer technologies. Instruction: Please rate your attitudes about technology practices on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD D N A SA
Working with computers make me feel tense and uncomfortable 1 2 3 4 5
I think computer-related technologies make my professional work more difficult 1 2 3 4 5
Computer-related technologies are an important part of the future for improving the quality of education 1 2 3 4 5
I have colleagues who have positive experience in teaching with computer-related technologies 1 2 3 4 5
WhatsApp groups amongst teachers are useful resources 1 2 3 4 5
Computer-related technologies are necessary tools in both educational and work settings 1 2 3 4 5
Computers can be useful educational aids in almost all subject areas 1 2 3 4 5
There are more disadvantages than advantages in teaching with technology in my situation 1 2 3 4 5
Teaching with the help of traditional chalk and board method is the only way to teach effectively 1 2 3 4 5
My school supports and encourages me to integrate technology in my teaching 1 2 3 4 5
D. Teacher self-reports of technology adoption/rejection
D1) How would you rate your decision to use computers for teaching purposes? Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD D N A SA
194
I have tried to determine the usefulness of computers in my teaching situation 1 2 3 4 5
I plan to continue to use computer-related technologies in my teaching activity 1 2 3 4 5
I am interested in increasing my use of computer-related technologies in my teaching activity 1 2 3 4 5
I used technology in teaching for some time but then decided to stop using it anymore 1 2 3 4 5
I have never considered the integration of computers technology in my teaching 1 2 3 4 5
E. Teacher self-reports on their technology use E1) Please rate your response toward your use of computer-related technologies in teaching Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD D N A SA
I know about the changes taking place in my teaching role when I am using computer-related technologies 1 2 3 4 5
I know that using computer-related technologies require extra time commitments 1 2 3 4 5
I consciously plan out a lesson plan when I am using technology in teaching 1 2 3 4 5
E2) How frequently do you use computer-related technologies? Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of 1- never; 2- once in six months ; 3- monthly; 4- weekly; 5- daily
Never
Once in six months Monthly Weekly Daily
On average, how often do you use a computer for your job? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you use technologies that you have at home for schoolwork (e.g., smart phone, tablet) 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you use WhatsApp to communicate with teachers? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you email to communicate with colleagues? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you print teaching materials? 1 2 3 4 5
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On average, how often do you use computers for teaching? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you use presentation programs (e.g., PowerPoint) in classes? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you use video projectors in classes? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you ask students to consult Internet materials for your classes? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you use the Internet to prepare your classes? 1 2 3 4 5
On average, how often do you use Web 2.0 tools (e.g., Wiki, Blog, YouTube, Google, FB, Twitter) for your classes? 1 2 3 4 5
E3) Have you been able to use computers and computer-related technologies in teaching on a continuous basis in your current position? □ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): ______________________________________________________________________ E4) Please mention what are the barriers to using technology on a regular basis (e.g., not enough computers, scheduling conflicts, power/internet access problems, lack of support/repair services, etc.). ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ E5) Please share what inspires you to use computer-related technologies in your teaching. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
F. Teacher self-reports on confirmation of use of computer-related technologies
F1) Do you feel computers integration in your classroom teaching has been beneficial for your students? □ Yes □ No
196
□ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ F2) Have you been able to integrate computers use in your teaching routine? □ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ F3) Have you been able to promote the beneficial use of computers to your colleagues?
□ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ F4) Do you see any difference between girls vs. boys in using computer-related technologies in your class?
□ Yes □ No □ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ F5) Does your school provide the following?
Yes No Don’t Know
Professional development training in computer use for teachers
□ □ □
Maintenance of computer-related technologies in school □ □ □
Incentives/rewards for teachers to use computers in teaching
□ □ □
F6) What has been your school’s expectation toward your use of computers in teaching? Instruction: Please rate your understanding on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you.
SD D N A SA
My school expects me to have the technical skills to use technology 1 2 3 4 5
My school expects me to teach lessons that appropriately combine my course content, technologies, and teaching approaches 1 2 3 4 5
My school has no expectation from me to use computers in teaching
1 2 3 4 5
My school expects me to continue using computers in teaching even after there is no support from DE field coordinators 1 2 3 4 5
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G. Demographic Information G1) What is the highest level of your education?
□ 12th pass □ Bachelors □ Masters □ PhD □ Any other (specify):
_____________________________________________________ G2) What are your teaching qualifications? (Circle all that apply) □ Diploma in Education
□ B. Ed □ M.Ed □ M.Phil □ Computer diploma/ certificate □ NET □ CTET □ TET □ Any other (specify): _____________________________________________________ G3) What is your gender?
□ Female □ Male
G4) What is your age? _____________________________________________________ G5) How many years have you been teaching? _____________________________________________________ G6) How many years have you been teaching with computers-related technologies? _____________________________________________________ G7) In which year did you receive your first training on teaching with computers? _____________________________________________________ G8) What is the primary language that you teach in?
□ English □ Hindi □ Other (Please specify) ________________________________________________
G9) Which subject do you primarily teach? □ Math □ Science □ English □ Social Studies □ Other __________________________________________
G10) Which school zone do you teach in?
□ North zone □ North West zone □ North East zone
□ West zone □ Central zone □ New Delhi zone
□ East zone □ South East zone □ South zone
G11) What is the average class size that you teach?
198
□ Less than 20 students □ 20-30 students □ 30-40 students □ 40-50 students □ 50-60 students □ More than 60 students
Thank you for your participation!
199
APPENDIX J GOOGLE TRANSLATION OF THE SURVEY (DRAFT 3) IN HINDI
सरे्वक्षण उपकरण
इस सरे्वक्षण के प्रयोजन के लिए, सूचना और संचार प्रौद्योलिकी (आईसीटी) सभी लिलजटि technologies- है
BI. Information on other teachers integrating technology in teaching yes (1)
no (0)
B2. Subject teachers with whom DE program works yes (1)
no (0)
B3. Classes in which DE program runs yes (1)
no (0)
B4. Awareness about school support yes (1)
no (0)
B5. Computer-related technologies' trainings received yes (1)
no (0)
B6. Your skill level Nil (0)
Low (1)
Medium (2)
High (3)
Expert (4)
C1. Rate your attitudes toward computers and computer-related technologies SD (0)
D (1)
N (2)
A (3) SA (4)
D1. Rate your decision to use computers-related technologies SD (0)
D (1)
N (2)
A (3)
SA (4)
E1. Rate your use of computers-related technologies SD (0)
D (1)
N (2)
A (3)
SA (4)
E2. Frequency of use Never (0)
Once in six months (1)
Monthly (2)
Weekly (3)
Daily (4)
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E3. Use of computers on continuous basis yes (1)
no (0)
E4. Barriers to use Themes
E5. Inspiration to use Themes
F1. Benefits for students yes (1)
no (0)
F2. Integration of computers in teaching routine yes (1)
no (0)
F3. Promotion of benefits of computers-related technologies yes (1)
no (0)
F4. Difference in girls and boys in computer use yes (1)
no (0)
F5. School’s technology provisions yes (1)
no (0)
F6. School’s expectations toward your use of technology SD (0)
D (1)
N (2)
A (3)
SA (4)
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APPENDIX M THE SURVEY CODEBOOK
A survey on:
‘Exploring teachers’ perspectives toward technology integration in teaching.’
A research study conducted by: Shilpa Sahay
PhD Candidate, University of Florida In association with:
American India Foundation, New Delhi Unique ID#---
212
April 6, 2017 Dear Teachers, I am writing to request for your participation in this survey titled, ‘Exploring teachers’ perspectives toward technology integration in teaching’. You have been selected to participate in this survey as you have been associated with AIF’s Digital Equalizer (DE) program at your school. You are one of those teachers who have conducted classes using electronic content and have utilized features of DE’s techno-pedagogy program. In order to get a perspective of technology integration in teaching, all the teachers of different Delhi government schools who had participated in DE program in the academic year 2016-2017 have been selected to fill out this research survey. To answer the survey should only take about 20-30 minutes of your time. Your responses will not be connected with your name, and so will be anonymous. Your responses are voluntary and you can skip any question that you don’t want to answer. It is very important that you provide your honest and genuine opinions in the survey. Your filling out this survey is taken as your consent of participation in this research. There are no direct benefits, risks, or compensation for participating in the study. If you have any questions about this study, please contact Shilpa Sahay at [email protected] or WhatsApp at +1-404-697-7640 or Dr. Kara Dawson at [email protected] or call at +1-352-273-4177. For information regarding your rights as a research participant contact UF’s Institutional Review Board at [email protected] or +1-352-392-0433. By taking a few minutes to share your thoughts and opinions about your perspective on technology integration, you will be helping a great deal in exploring how Indian teachers perceive of technology in present times education. Your insight would be valuable! I hope you enjoy completing the questionnaire. Many Thanks, Shilpa Sahay PhD Candidate, University of Florida
For the purpose of this survey, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) refers to all the digital technologies- that is, computers, laptops, projectors, printers, interactive whiteboards, software programs, etc. that teachers use for teaching purposes in schools. It will be commonly referred to as computers and computer-related technologies in this survey. Please answer all of the questions.
F. Information about computer-related technologies available for teacher use
Instruction: This section includes questions about the availability of computer-related technologies for you. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you or fill in the blank. A1) Which of these technologies do you have in your home which you use for preparing for your classes? (Circle all that apply) (To mark as 1 if selected or else mark it as 0)
□ Desktop computer A1_DC
□ Laptop A1_Lap □ Tablet A1_TAB
□ Smart Phone A1_SP
□ Printer A1_Prin □ VCD/DVD A1_VCD □ Internet A1_Int
□ Pen Drive A1_PD
□ None A1_None □ Any other (specify): A1_Other
A2) Which of these technologies do you have in your school which you use for teaching purposes? (Circle all that apply) (To mark as 1 if selected or else mark it as 0)
A3) Where are the computer-related technologies located in your school? (Circle all that apply) (To mark as 1 if selected or else mark it as 0)
□ In IT/ICT lab A3_IT □ In classrooms A3_class □ In the library A3_Lib □ In staff rooms A3_Staff
214
□ In CAL Lab A3_Cal □ Any other (specify) A3_Other
____________________________________________________________ A4) How many computers are available for teaching in your school? (Circle the right answer) □ 1 computer 1 □ 1-5 computers 2 □ 5-10 computers 3 □ 10-20 computers 4 □ 20 or more computers 5
G. Teachers’ knowledge/skills toward use of computer-related technologies
Instruction: Please mark the option which best answers the question for you.
Yes(Y) 1 No(N) 0
B1) I know there are teachers in my school who are integrating technology in teaching. Y N B2) DE program is working with selected teachers of my school. Y N (If yes, teachers of which subjects?) (To mark as 1 if selected or else mark it as 0)
□ Science B2_Sci □ Math B2_Math □Social Studies B2_ssc □English B2_Eng □ Hindi B2_Hin □Any other specify): B2_Other____________________________
B3) DE program is working with specific classes of my school. Y N (If yes, which classes?) (To mark as 1 if selected or else mark it as 0)
□ class 6 B3_cl6 □ class 7 b3_cl7 □ class 8 B3_cl8 □ class 9 B3_cl9 □ class 10 B3_cl10 □ any other specify): B3_other ____________________________ B4) I am aware of the readiness of my school to support teachers in technology integration in teaching. Y N B5) I have received training in computer-related technologies Y N (If yes, in what?) (To mark as 1 if selected or else mark it as 0)
□ To operate a computer B5_operate
215
□ To use computer tools (e.g., MS Word, Excel, PPT) B5_use □ To create lesson plan on a computer B5_create LP □ To conduct the Digital Equalizer Way of Teaching (DEWoT) B5_DEWoT □ To conduct a flipped classroom B5_FC □ To use educational software (e.g., English Helper, MacMillan) B5_software □ Any other (specify):
B5_other__________________________________________ B6) What is your skill level in the following categories? Instruction: Please rate your skill level toward each of the categories below on the rating scale of Nil skill, Low skill, Medium skill, High skill, Expert skill
Nil 1
Low 2 Medium 3 High4
Expert5
a) Basic computer operation skill (eg.,
opening pages, using pen drive)
1 2 3 4
5
b) Microsoft Word 1 2 3 4
5
c) Microsoft Excel 1 2 3 4
5
d) Microsoft Power Point 1 2 3 4
5
e) Video Editing Tool 1 2 3 4
5
f) Picture Editing Tool 1 2 3 4
5
g) Audio Editing Tool 1 2 3 4
5
h) Browsing the Internet 1 2 3 4
5
i) Downloading from Internet 1 2 3 4
5
j) Uploading to Internet 1 2 3 4
5
k) Use of Educational Blogs/Websites 1 2 3 4
5
l) Use of Open Educational Resources
(eg. YouTube, Google)
1 2 3 4
5
m) Basic programming skills (eg. Logo,
Scratch)
1 2 3 4
5
H. Teachers’ attitudes about available computer-related technologies
C1) Please rate the following items related to your attitudes about computer technologies.
216
Instruction: Please rate your attitudes about technology practices on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD 1 D 2 N 3 A 4 SA 5
a) Working with computers make
me feel tense and uncomfortable 1 2 3 4 5
b) I think computer-related
technologies make my
professional work more difficult 1 2 3 4 5
c) Computer-related technologies
are an important part of the future
for improving the quality of
education 1 2 3 4 5
d) I have colleagues who have
positive experience in teaching
with computer-related
technologies 1 2 3 4 5
e) WhatsApp groups amongst
teachers are useful resources 1 2 3 4 5
f) Computer-related technologies
are necessary tools in both
educational and work settings 1 2 3 4 5
g) Computers can be useful
educational aids in almost all
subject areas 1 2 3 4 5
h) There are more disadvantages
than advantages in teaching with
technology in my situation 1 2 3 4 5
i) Teaching with the help of
traditional chalk and board
method is the only way to teach
effectively 1 2 3 4 5
j) My school supports and
encourages me to integrate
technology in my teaching 1 2 3 4 5
217
I. Teacher self-reports of technology adoption/rejection D1) How would you rate your decision to use computers for teaching purposes? Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD 1 D 2 N 3 A 4 SA 5
a) I have tried to determine the
usefulness of computers in my
teaching situation 1 2 3 4 5
b) I plan to continue to use computer-
related technologies in my teaching
activity 1 2 3 4 5
c) I am interested in increasing my use
of computer-related technologies in
my teaching activity 1 2 3 4 5
d) I used technology in teaching for
some time but then decided to stop
using it anymore 1 2 3 4 5
e) I have never considered the
integration of computers technology in
my teaching 1 2 3 4 5
E. Teacher self-reports on their technology use
E1) Please rate your response toward your use of computer-related technologies in teaching Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA
SD 1 D 2 N 3 A 4 SA 5
a) I know about the changes taking place
in my teaching role when I am using
computer-related technologies 1 2 3 4 5
b) I know that using computer-related
technologies require extra time
commitments 1 2 3 4 5
c) I consciously plan out a lesson plan
when I am using technology in
teaching 1 2 3 4 5
218
E2) How frequently do you use computer-related technologies? Instruction: Please answer the below categories on the rating scale of 1- never; 2- once in six months ; 3- monthly; 4- weekly; 5- daily
Never 1
Once in six months 2
Monthly 3
Weekly 4
Daily 5
a) On average, how often do you
use a computer for your job? 1 2 3 4 5
b) On average, how often do you
use technologies that you have
at home for schoolwork (e.g.,
smart phone, tablet)? 1 2 3 4 5
c) On average, how often do you
use WhatsApp to communicate
with teachers? 1 2 3 4 5
d) On average, how often do you
email to communicate with
colleagues? 1 2 3 4 5
e) On average, how often do you
print teaching materials? 1 2 3 4 5
f) On average, how often do you
use computers for teaching? 1 2 3 4 5
g) On average, how often do you
use presentation programs (e.g.,
PowerPoint) in classes? 1 2 3 4 5
h) On average, how often do you
use video projectors in classes? 1 2 3 4 5
i) On average, how often do you
ask students to consult Internet
materials for your classes? 1 2 3 4 5
j) On average, how often do you
use the Internet to prepare your
classes? 1 2 3 4 5
k) On average, how often do you
use Web 2.0 tools (e.g., Wiki,
Blog, YouTube, Google, FB,
Twitter) for your classes? 1 2 3 4 5
E3) Have you been able to use computers and computer-related technologies in teaching on a continuous basis in your current position?
219
□ Yes 1 □ No 0 □ Any other (specify): (Write the answer)__________________________________________________ E4) Please mention what are the barriers to using technology on a regular basis (e.g., not enough computers, scheduling conflicts, power/internet access problems, lack of support/repair services, etc.). (Write the answer)_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ E5) Please share what inspires you to use computer-related technologies in your teaching. (Write the answer)_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
F. Teacher self-reports on confirmation of use of computer-related technologies F1) Do you feel computers integration in your classroom teaching has been beneficial for your students?
220
□ Yes 1 □ No 0 □ Any other (specify): (Write the answer)__________________________________________________ F2) Have you been able to integrate computers use in your teaching routine? □ Yes 1 □ No 0 □ Any other (specify): (Write the answer) _________________________________________________ F3) Have you been able to promote the beneficial use of computers to your colleagues?
□ Yes 1 □ No 0 □ Any other (specify): (Write the answer)
_________________________________________________ F4) Do you see any difference between girls vs. boys in using computer-related technologies in your class?
□ Yes 1 □ No 0 □ Any other (specify): (Write the answer)
_________________________________________________ F5) Does your school provide the following?
Yes 1 No 0 Any other (specify): (Write the answer)
a) Professional development training in
computer use for teachers □ □
b) Maintenance of computer-related
technologies in school □ □
c) Incentives/rewards for teachers to use
computers in teaching □ □
F6) What has been your school’s expectation toward your use of computers in teaching? Instruction: Please rate your understanding on the rating scale of Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA. Please mark the option which best answers the question for you.
221
SD 1 D 2 N 3 A 4 SA 5
a) My school expects me to have
the technical skills to use
technology 1 2 3 4 5
b) My school expects me to teach
lessons that appropriately
combine my course content,
technologies, and teaching
approaches 1 2 3 4 5
c) My school has no expectation
from me to use computers in
teaching 1 2 3 4 5
d) My school expects me to continue
using computers in teaching even
after there is no support from DE
field coordinators 1 2 3 4 5
G. Demographic Information
G1) What is the highest level of your education?
□ 12th pass 1 □ Bachelors 2 □ Masters 3 □ PhD 4 □ Any other (specify): (Write the answer)
_________________________________________________ G2) What are your teaching qualifications? (Circle all that apply) (To mark as 1 if selected or else mark it as 0)
□ Diploma in Education G2_dip □ B. Ed G2_B.Ed
□ M.Ed G2_M.Ed □ M.Phil G2_M.Phil □ Computer diploma/ certificate G2_Comp □ NET G2_NET □ CTET G2_CTET □ TET G2_TET □ Any other (specify): G2_other
_____________________________________________________ G3) What is your gender?
□ Female 1 □ Male 2
G4) What is your age? (Write the answer) ________________________________________________________
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G5) How many years have you been teaching? (Write the answer) ______________________________ G6) How many years have you been teaching with computers-related technologies? (Write the answer) __________
G7) In which year did you receive your first training on teaching with computers? (Write the answer) ______________ G8) What is the primary language that you teach in?
□ English 1 □ Hindi 2 □ Other (Please specify) (Write the answer) _______________________________________________
G9) Which subject do you primarily teach?
□ Math 1 □ Science 2 □ English 3 □ Social Studies 4 □ Other (Write the answer)
_______________________________________________________________ G10) Which school zone do you teach in?
□ North zone 1 □ North West zone 2 □ North East zone 3
□ West zone 4 □ Central zone 5 □ New Delhi zone 6
□ East zone 7 □ South East zone 8 □ South zone 9
G11) What is the average class size that you teach?
□ Less than 20 students 1 □ 20-30 students 2 □ 30-40 students 3 □ 40-50 students 4 □ 50-60 students 5 □ More than 60 students 6
Thank you for your participation!
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APPENDIX N CORRELATION MATRICES
Table B6- Correlation matrix for teachers’ knowledge (skill level) categories
Table C1- Correlation matrix for teachers’ attitudes categories
Table D1- Correlation matrix for teachers’ decision categories
Table E2 and F6- Correlation matrix for teachers’ implementation and confirmation (use) categories
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Table B6+C1+D1+E2+F6- Correlation matrix for all the IDP domains (knowledge, attitude, decision and practice (implementation + confirmation))
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Shilpa Sahay did her doctorate in Educational Technology at University of
Florida, USA in fall 2018. She was the course Instructor of EME2040 - Introduction to
Educational Technology and had taught undergraduate students at UF. Her research
has been on studying teachers’ perception towards integrating technology in
classrooms in India. She has also worked on projects involving analysis of use of iPads
and computers by children at community centers and has conducted content analysis
on mobile applications for dyslexic population. She did her master’s degree in
International Education at New York University, USA. Prior to that, she had another
master’s degree in Social Work and bachelor’s degree in Political Science from Delhi
University, India. She has over a decade of work experience with grass root NGOs, UN
bodies, research group at universities, and multinational organizations. She interned at
places like UN Headquarters for six months and aspires to work on educational projects
that can solve real-world problem of illiteracy and lack of education. She wants to
explore potentialities of digital learning narrowing the traditional North-South global