Investigating sport inclusion to the Olympic Games

Running Head: INVESTIGATING THE SPORT INCLUSION AND THE MARKETING ASPECTS OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES 1

Investigating the sport inclusion and the marketing aspects of the Olympic Games

Dora Gyulai

San Jose State University

INVESTIGATING THE SPORT INCLUSION AND THE MARKETING ASPECTS OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

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Introduction

This paper presents different aspects of the Olympic Games. First, I examine various Olympic

sports, such as curling and wrestling, and learn about their selection criteria to the Olympics,

further analyze gender equality of the women’s boxing, women’s artistic gymnastics and

women’s ski jumping. Secondly, I study how the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

distributes its marketing revenue, examine the marketing revolution of Mexican Olympic sports,

and investigate the ambush marketing strategy in the 2012 London Games. Thirdly, I review the

development in the broadcasting and television rights of the London Olympic Games and its new

media coverage for consumers by six countries. Next, I analyze the political issues of the Sochi

Winter Olympics and the unsuccessful proposal of the candidate city, Istanbul. Lastly, I inspect

the motivating factor for Olympic athletes to participate in the Olympics and their post-game

career transition program.


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1. Curling in Canada

The relatively unknown sport curling has been the most dominant in Canada and played

worldwide since 1959. The essay explored the popularity of the sport, the success of Canadian

athletes, and the reason for selecting curling in the Olympic Games. The article also

demonstrated challenges faced by Canadian athletes. (Wieting, & Lamoureux, 2001).

Wieting and Lamoureux (2001) clarified that curling was invented in Scotland in the early 16th

century and as a consequence of the immigration of Scottish folks to Canada, the settlers

established several curling clubs around the country. As the participation in curling expanded

along the Canadian boarders, the sport appeared in the Unites States in the 18th century.

Additionally, curling became popular in Europe as well; hence, Canadian curlers started to

organize international championships. The International Curling Federation was established 1966

and the continuous effort led to the inclusion to the 1998 Winter Olympic Games.

Although, curling started out its Olympic career as a demonstration sport, forming the

International Curling Federation (later World Curling Federation, WCF), and increasing the

number of countries promising investment and membership, curling achieved full inclusion

(Wieting, & Lamoureux, 2001).

Canada’s dominance in curling consisted of four main factors. First, due to the availability of

solid sheet of ice throughout the year, which is a necessity for practicing curling, the weather

conditions have always been excellent. Secondly, the settlers, whose heritage contributed to


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Canada’s national identity, were originated by Scottish people. Thirdly, the emergence of the

railroad allowed expansion from east to west in the provinces of Canada. Lastly, the mutually

beneficial relationship between W.L. Mackenzie Company and Macdonald Tobacco ensured the

dominance of the sport (Wieting, & Lamoureux, 2001).

Even though the number of curlers in Canada is as high as 1.3 million, maintaining the sport has

been a concern. Facts, such as the increasing membership costs and strong impact of other sports

were worrisome causes. To address the current issues, three combined organizational efforts

were used. Grass-roots development in Canada, Europe and the United States included

maintaining club and player memberships from young age until early adolescence. During these

years, curling clubs provided training equipment, but the elite athletic programs were only

common in the United States. As being part of the winter Olympic Games, curling went through

a professionalization process, which involved generating revenue, standardizing rules and

venues, and provisioning salary and expense distribution for elite athletes. In local and in global

marketing, Canada faced a so far unsolvable issue. Canadian curlers wished to resemble the PGA

Golf Tour’s popularity. The Canadian population alone could not produce the required television

revenue, so the resemblance remained just a dream (Wieting, & Lamoureux, 2001).

Given that curling requires strength and precision in making shots, the sport is heavily

demanding on mind and body. Because maintenance expenses are high, curlers must support

themselves during preparation for tournaments, nevertheless, curling remains an enjoyable

Canadian dominant Olympic sport (Wieting, & Lamoureux, 2001).


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2. When (or how) do the Olympics become ‘stale’?

The discussion-based paper presented an ongoing research about some potential Olympic sports.

The authors examined golf, rugby, wrestling, and BMX cycling in the aesthetic aspect of the

Olympic Games. If these sports achieve approval to the Olympic program, that might result in

aesthetic issues (Palmer, & Larson, 2014).

In 2005, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) removed softball and baseball from the

program, although, the Committee added golf and rugby in 2009. Most recently, wrestling faced

the sword of the IOC, which got excluded for a while, but eventually wrestling was reinstated to

the Olympic Games. According to, Palmer and Larson (2014) the aesthetics might have been the

reasons behind these changes (Palmer, & Larson, 2014).

Along with the development of the Olympic Movement, its business programs grew as well. The

biggest business development occurred in television broadcasting, which filtered the scope of the

Olympic Games. The media determined what is aesthetic for the eye, and what the consumers

should watch. Allowing the media to take over the interests of the IOC can conclude in the fade

of the historical values and fair play in the Olympic Movement. Palmer and Larson (2014)

suggested maintaining the public appeal; therefore, keeping the Olympic ideals would mean

distance from the moneymaking business. However, the appeal is highly dependent on various

groups such as media, sponsors, athletes, and consumers. What might be appealing to one group

probably would not be the same to others. Unfortunately, the decision is likely to be in the

moneymaking group’s hand. Despite the historical past, the operation of the IOC and the


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Olympic Games rely on the aesthetic based moneymaking organizations such as sponsors and

media (Palmer, & Larson, 2014).

On one hand, the IOC altered its program by cutting the not so aesthetic sports (softball and

baseball) out and added others. On the other hand, these acts of the Committee limited human

achievement, which had impact on the overall aesthetic judgment of the Olympic competition.

The scandal around wrestling pointed out the need for aesthetic reasoning. Wrestling represents

the ancient Olympic sports, considering it as non-popular is mistaken, which can easily result in

a diminished Olympic experience (Palmer, & Larson, 2014).

As a consequence, the authors suggested articulating the aesthetic ideals of the IOC to maintain

the exclusive sport celebration of the Olympics (Palmer, & Larson, 2014).

3. Foucault in Leotards: Corporeal Discipline in Women's Artistic

Gymnastics

The essayistic research story questioned the positive effect of WAG, the women’s artistic

gymnastics. Barker-Ruchti and Tinning (2010) together collected data by observing the lives of

seven women athletes and their two coaches at the Ocean View College, Australia. The article

focused on analyzing WAG’s training culture using Foucault’s concept of “technologies of

dominance” (Barker-Ruchti, Tinning, 2010, p. 17).

Barker-Ruchti and Tinning (2010) conducted a research by examining training sessions and


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interviewing the elite gymnasts and their coaches. The essay provided insight to the specific

aged-based distribution of the gymnasium. The seven girls were separated according to their

ages, usually between two or three apparatuses. Gymnasts were also kept apart from the non-elite

athletes, whose training was less intense. To maximize training efficiency, the gymnasium was

free from distraction; hence, the coaches could observe and train the girls efficiently. The

coaches controlled the gymnasts’ activity by developing strict timetables for gymnastic training

and various levels of learning progressions.

During the training sessions, coaches often used their power by forcing gymnasts to act as they

were told. The inequality and the patriarchal structures adversely affected the relationship

between the Ocean View athletes and their coaches. Such coaching methods allowed coaches to

dominate the girls and even ignore their needs. (Barker-Ruchti, & Tinning, 2010).

As Barker-Ruchti and Tinning, (2010) clarified that the strong leadership also affected the

gymnasts’ professional and personal lives. The control over the athletes’ body adversely affected

the confidence in their abilities. With the highly submissive discipline, coaches prevented

athletes from developing strong individualities and self-determination. The detailed control over

the girls’ gymnastics skills demanded them to scrutinize their bodies. To achieve flawless

performance, they often treated their bodies as a mechanical entity. Despite the disciplined work

ethic and the diligent training, gymnasts often appeared disappointed, because they could not

perform according to the coaches and their own expectations. As time passed, the disciplined

training methods surrendered the girls’ bodies; the gymnasts obeyed any orders; therefore, they

became more efficient in performing gymnastic movements. The success of well-performed


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gymnastic elements resulted in combining difficult motions and greater expectation from

coaches. The coaches demanded more physical control, which caused frustration for the

gymnasts’ as they could not master the combination. Coaches strongly believed that pushing the

gymnasts past their physical limits was the sole way to achieve proficiency (Barker-Ruchti, &

Tinning, 2010).

However, the powerful leadership and corporal discipline led to success. Eventually, the girls

adopted the training culture, and learnt to appreciate the disciplinary training system (Barker-

Ruchti, & Tinning, 2010).

4. Women's Boxing at the 2012 Olympics: Gender trouble?

2012 was a year of success for boxing and its fans. The International Olympic Committee (IOC)

approved women’s boxing for the Olympic Games. Women’s boxing was first introduced in the

London 2012 Olympic Games. With the inclusion of women’s boxing, the 2012 summer

Olympics presented male and female participation in every sport. The IOC has been working

hard on gender equality in the Games; this time, the organization reached the highest percentage

ever counted: 44%. Most sports were open to men and women, with the exception of the female-

dominated rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized swimming (Lindner, 2012).

As Lindner (2012) stated that including women’s boxing in the originally male-dominated

Olympics, “points to the significance of sports as an institutional, cultural and embodied context”

(p. 464). Many people criticized the IOC for its decision, questioning gender issues, sexuality,


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and women’s identity in particular. Some suggested that if female athletes wore mini skirts in the

ring, it would be easier to differentiate between the two genders. Lindner (2012) suggested

studying what sports represent in the traditionally gender focused context. For people in

opposition, women’s intrusion in the sport meant threat, and it was unacceptable. Other sports

associated with strong physical contact, such as soccer, rugby, or wrestling, have been long

accepted in the sport world. It was vital to understand that typically feminine sports like

synchronized swimming required performing womanish, (Lindner, 2012). Within rhythmic

gymnastics and synchronized swimming, the judges evaluated the performances, make-up,

hairstyles, costumes and overall harmony.

By promoting female appropriate sports, women athletes were more likely to be exposed to

media coverage. If feminine sports are emphasized, they benefit more from various sponsorship

deals and advertisements. Many women athletes posed for pornographic magazines just to

strengthen the link between female sports and beauty (Lindner, 2012).

Despite all the arguments about women’s boxing, women have been participating in several

other questionable sports for years. However, the judgment of gender-appropriate sports, where

vulnerable female bodies were in center, dramatically shifted. Boxing is one of the social

contexts in which violence and physical power are required for success. Due to the pain and the

long-term consequences to the human body, Amir Khan believed women should not even

participate in boxing (Lindner, 2012).


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However, an agreement between professional sport businesses and the medical sciences is yet to

come. Nevertheless, by including women’s boxing to the Olympic program, the IOC created a

gender equal competition. Because the games are broadcasted to millions of people, women’s

boxing will gain popularity, especially in the younger generation. In addition, female athletes

stand as role models for children all around the world (Lindner, 2012).

5. The IOC made me do it: Women’s Ski Jumping, VANOC, and the 2010

Winter Olympics

The 2010 Winter Olympic Games was loud from the scandalous fact that the International

Olympic Committee (IOC) refused to include women’s ski jumping to the Vancouver program,

with the Vancouver Organizing Committee (VANOC) on its side, which accepted the decision

without any protest (Young, 2010).

Men’s ski jumping has been in the Olympic Games since 1924, and with the IOC’s decision, ski

jumping remained the only winter sport which was not open to both men and women. In 2006,

the International Ski Federation voted 114-1 to approve the request to the IOC; the following

year, the VANOC sent a supportive letter to the IOC about the inclusion. However, the IOC

Executive Board denied the request because of technical merit and the VANOC did not object.

As a result, ski jumpers filed a discrimination complaint at the Canadian Human Rights

Commission, but all their efforts failed (Young, 2010).

Young (2010) stated that the most significant issues were whether the Olympic Charter applied


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to VANOC and if so, whether the VANOC failed to observe the Charter’s equality rights. The

VANOC argued that only the IOC was in power to set Olympic events. Furthermore, “hosting

the 2010 game is uniquely governmental in nature”, said Madam Justice Fenlon (Young, 2010, p.

98). Financing, planning, organizing, and staging were the key aspects of the VANOC’s

responsibilities during the 2010 Games.

Even though the discrimination of women was not the legal base of the case, it attracted the most

interest. Women’s and men’s ski jumping were easy to compare; hence, the gender trouble

became the center of the argument. Because of the minor differences between the two gender’s

ski jumping results, the IOC did not let women outshine men; therefore, it was purely a gender-

based decision. Even though Madam Justice Fenlon stated that excluding women ski jumpers

from the 2010 Olympic Games was discriminatory, men, for historic reasons, were allowed to

compete. Many people claimed that the IOC’s decision was also based on profit, popularity, and

ticket sales (Young, 2010).

Sport and society have always been connected to each other; thus the gender issues were

critically viewed, yet laws could have been changed to present more equal competition. Because

women ski jumpers were prevented from competing in the 2010 winter Olympic Games, gender

related businesses leave marks on the organization (Young, 2010).

6. IOC Marketing: Media Guide London 2012


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The 2012 London Olympic Marketing Program was created to ensure the financial stability of

the Olympic Movement. Most importantly, by broadcasting and signing sponsor deals, the

program provided access to all sport events during the Olympic Games. The program was able

collect revenue from television rights and sponsorships along with distributing it to the Olympic

Movement (IOC, 2011).

The Olympic Games is the world’s largest sport event, it attracts billions of people; therefore,

making it is the biggest marketing platform in the world. Ticketing, licensing and promoting the

Olympic Movement was the most significant project in the Marketing Program. The revenue was

distributed to several organizations, and 90% of the generated revenue stood in the Olympic

Movement, such as the National Olympic Committees (NOCs), the Organizing Committees of

the Olympic Games (OCOGs), and International Federations (IFs) of several Olympic sports.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) kept the remaining 10% for operational and

administrative purposes (IOC, 2011).

The goal of the Olympic Marketing Program was to protect the Olympic Brand. The widely

recognized five rings signified the Olympic symbol, and represented the Olympic values and

vision. The Olympic value implied friendship, respect, and excellence, which created a unique

identity and harmonized with all cultures around the world. For the duration of the Olympic

Games, London created a unique logo. The logo was modeled by the number 2012, and also

included the Olympic rings. The Olympic brands comprised the mascots, the design of medal

pictograms, and the Olympic Torch, which provided connection among children and adults

(IOC, 2011).


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The IOC, as the owner of the media rights coordinated the radio, Internet, and television

broadcasting during the Games. Approximately 4.8 billion people relied on the IOC for

providing television coverage during the event around the world. In addition, 5,600 television

hours were broadcasted in more than 200 countries (IOC, 2011). With broadcasting 3D live sport

events, the Olympic Broadcasting Services (OBS) transformed The Olympic Games into a mega

event. In recent years, television rights became the single most important source of revenue for

the Olympic Games. The two biggest broadcasting companies were BBC, the host broadcaster,

NBC, from the United States, and several others lined up to present the event worldwide (IOC,

2011).

Olympic sponsorship deals were crucial in hosting the Olympic Games. The IOC established a

TOP Program for its partners, in which the partners provided technical support and funded the

Olympic Games. The biggest sponsors included Coca-Cola, Acer, Atos, the Dow Chemical

Company, GE, Mc. Donald’s, Omega, Panasonic, Procter & Gamble, Samsung, and Visa;

together ensuring the development of the Olympic sports and the promotion of the games (IOC,

2011).

An Olympic Licensing Program was established to facilitate the event. The London OCOG

contracted with several companies to produce and distribute the official licensed products of the

2012 games. These items included soft toys, souvenirs, apparel, electronic games, and 20 other

different product categories (IOC, 2011).

The Olympic Games sought for live spectators; hence, the primary goal in London was to make

as many available seats as possible. In total, 8.8 billion tickets were sold to all venues, with the

lowest ticket price $20. The British organizers operated an exclusive ticket program for family


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members, including discounts and deals. Additionally, in the ticket share program, more than

200,000 tickets were donated, distributed to sport groups, and given to schools in London, as

well as to the rest of the country (IOC, 2011).

The British Government granted the London OCOG with legal rights, under the London

Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act, 2006. This Act authorized the licensees and

partners, and allowed London OCOG to prevent people from creating unauthorized associations

(IOC, 2011).

7. CIMA a Marketing Revolution in Mexican Olympic Sports

In 1998, The Mexican National Sports Commission (CONADE) intended to increase the number

of medals won by Mexican athletes in the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. In order to do so, the

Commission established an Olympic Sponsorship Program (CIMA). The sponsorship program

intended to raise more financial resources to prepare well for the upcoming Olympics. A private

sponsorship fund was set up, through which the Commission extended the budget for Olympic

preparation. For effective project management, the Commission was required to develop two

new groups to fund management as well as marketing and sponsorship (Guzmán, & Sisniega-

Campbell, 2012).

To implement its strategy, CONADE first estimated a budget necessary to support the Olympic

Sports in Mexico. As opposed to the 1996 budget of one million-dollars, an additional five

million dollars were set aside to run the Olympic preparation program in 1998. After forming

CIMA, the budget was generated from both private and government sectors without affecting the


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Commission’s federal budget allocation. Sponsorship for CIMA was also sought from Mexico’s

two primary television networks- Televisa and TV Azteca. The television network arrangement

included an opportunity for sponsoring organizations to buy advertisement interface from one of

the two television networks at a particular amount, half of which was contributed to the CIMA

fund. Additionally, the government also contributed double of the sponsor’s payments. Thus

with significant resources under their belt, the Olympic preparation program could operate more

effectively. Telmex, Omnitrition, and Cervecería Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma were the three

primary sponsoring organizations. The sponsors and the government collectively provided

CIMA with one million dollar support each, over the 1999-2000 period (Guzmán, & Sisniega-

Campbell, 2012).

As a result of substantial financial support and effective project management strategies, Mexico

performed exceedingly well in the 2000 Olympic Games. Athletes won 6 Olympic medals,

which also included the first ever gold medal won by a Mexican woman. With appropriate

support and training facilities, Mexican athletes showcased commendable performance and

proved to the world that they are equally competent in the world of sports (Guzmán, & Sisniega-

Campbell, 2012).

Guzmán and Sisniega-Campbell (2012) in their research adjusted Cornwell's 1995 six-step

model of sponsorship development in order to learn lessons from the CIMA sponsorship

experience. According to the situation analysis section in their research, establishing effective

sponsorship relationships was the key to understanding and maintaining the market environment.

Furthermore, in favor of reserving a beneficial sponsorship relationship, the goals of the sponsor


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and the sponsored party had to match. Well-determined sponsorship objectives were operated

and coordinated according to the mutual goals. In addition to determining the objectives,

building a sponsorship-oriented strategy was crucial, and the sponsored entity had to consider the

benefit of the sponsor’s investment as well. It is important to note that the sponsored party must

analyze in advance how the values of the partner could match their identity. Otherwise at a later

stage, the sponsored entity will have to respond flexible to the sponsor’s implementation needs,

as was the case with CIMA. Lastly, the sponsored entity’s responsibility includes facilitating and

providing adequate brand visibility to the sponsor, as per its requirements.

To summarize, attracting sponsors and maintaining a mutually beneficial relationship with

partners must be market-driven, and the business-to-business aspects must lead the sponsorship

discussions as was done by CIMA (Guzmán, & Sisniega-Campbell, 2012).

8. Towards the Regulation and Restriction of Ambush Marketing? The First

Truly Social and Digital Mega Sports Event: Olympic Games, London

2012

The London 2012 Olympic Games was the largest sport event since 1984, which included 11

TOP sponsors of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Together the sponsors generated

$730 million in revenue, which was approximately half of the entire Committee (Chanavat,

2014). In return, supporters gained the right to utilize Olympic brands. However, when

illegitimate entities used the Olympic brands and symbols, the value of marketing rights lost

their efficiency. Since the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the number of social media ambushers


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dramatically increased and was troublesome on the Tour de France and the FIFA (International

Federation of Football Associations) World Cup as well. During the 2012 London Games 200

million people used twitter; hence, when Michael Phelps promoted an unauthorized brand, such

as Louis Vuitton, the IOC questioned him for publishing pictures before the legal closing date of

the sponsorship deal. The essay investigated several ambush-marketing cases to highlight legal

tools for brand protection and raise awareness regarding the power of social media (Chanavat,

2014).

As Chanavat (2014) clarified that ambush marketing has been a cheap marketing strategy, in

which unauthorized companies promote themselves in order to divert attention away from the

official sponsors and decrease their efficiency. To deal with such operations, sponsors and

sponsored entities put pressure on the event organizers and restrict the sponsorship deals.

However, ambush marketing remains popular on social media use: such as twitter, Facebook,

and YouTube. Since the IOC experienced violation to the Olympic brand, the organization

reinforced the protection rights by a caution campaign against ambush marketing. The London

Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games (LOCOG) applied three main laws for protection.

First, the Olympic Symbol Act in 1995 prohibited the use of the Olympic logos without

authorization. Second, the London Olympic and Paralympic Games 2006 Act restricted the use

of the verbal and non-verbal language of the Olympic Games. Lastly, the London Olympic

Games and Paralympic Games 2011 Act controlled the advertising activities (Chanavat, 2014).

The intense use of social media during the 2012 Olympics shifted the sponsorship business, and

opened up long-lasting customer loyalty. By providing the first social and digital Olympic


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Games, LOCOG created a platform for effective ambush marketing. For instance, the Jamaican

sprinter Yohan Blake raised awareness to Tourbillon by wearing the brand’s watch during the

100 meters finals. According to the IOC regulations, he was only allowed to wear Omega

products, which was the official sponsor of the Olympic Games. This move created a media

sensation; therefore, the IOC discussed to disqualify Blake (Chanavat, 2014).

As a consequence of the high social media coverage and live broadcasting, unauthorized

marketing actions increased; hence, the sport business must adjust its regulations to the

current standards (Chanavat, 2014).

9. Investigating Broadcasting Rights Revenues of Olympics and their Effect

on the Development of the Games

During the past Olympic Games, countries supported themselves from a small source of income,

but the increasing number of participant countries, sport branches, and athletes, required more

financial support for organizing the competition. Over the years, the organization of the games

became expensive; therefore, cities have difficulty coping up with the costs. The primary focus

of this study was to examine the revenues and the broadcasting rights of the previous Olympic

Games (Kalkavan, Ozdilek, Gulac, & Altinok, 2013).

Being aware of the fact that the Olympics is the biggest sport event in the world, contributes to

the city’ economy, export, tourism, and investment. The Olympics is also the most expensive, so

only developed countries could successfully bid for organizing the event. Over time of the

Olympic history, the first city, which made profit hosting the Olympics, was Los Angeles, in


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1984. At that time, the ABC Channel broadcasted 180 hours of the competition and paid $225

million for it. Soon after, the broadcasting business boosted the revenue of the Olympic Games

(Kalkavan, Ozdilek, Gulac, & Altinok, 2013).

The generated revenue of the Olympic Games belongs to the International Olympic Committee

(IOC). The following are the distribution of the revenue in order: broadcasting rights, the

Olympic sponsorship (TOP) program, the IOC’s official supplier and licensing programs,

internal sponsorship, ticket sales, and the host country licensing activities. The major part of the

generated revenue derives from the broadcasting deals and from the TOP Program. The

organizing committees of the Olympic Games oversee the ticket sales and the local sponsorship

incomings. It is crucial to understand how the IOC distributes its revenue. By allocating 92% of

the income to the Olympic Movement, the IOC keeps only 8% for administration expenses. The

IOC utilizes its income to support the organizing committee with 20% of the revenue, and 10%

is allocated to referee costs. Travel Aids participants receive another 10%, while 2/3 of the

remaining income goes to the organizers. Lastly, 1/3 of the income remains at the IOC itself,

which shares it with the International Federations (IFs) and National Olympic Committees

(NOCs) (Kalkavan, Ozdilek, Gulac, & Altinok, 2013).

In today’s world, television is the most popular medium, through which sport culture can form,

and the Olympics is a perfect example of the relation between sports and television. During the

games, television brings popularity to Olympic sports; moreover, sport organizations allocate

financial resources to sports by the payments for the broadcasting rights. Since the 1984 Los

Angeles Olympics, which collected $286.9 million in broadcasting revenue, the business


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improved to a professional level. By the 2012 London Games, the broadcasting revenues

gradually increased to $3.800 million. Further, over the 1993-2008 period, the initial 48% of TV

rights gradually grew till 52% of the total IOC revenue by 2008. These facts prove that the most

significant revenue source of the Olympic Games comes from selling the broadcasting rights

(Kalkavan, Ozdilek, Gulac, & Altinok, 2013).

Consequently, the payments for the broadcasting rights ensured the host cities’ to organize the

Olympic Games and provide revenue to the IOC. (Kalkavan, Ozdilek, Gulac, & Altinok, 2013).

10. IOC could launch Olympic OTT network next year

In August 2014, Sport Business Journal shared an article about launching a potential Olympic

Network. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has a brilliant new idea to attract more

viewers. The Committee bases this idea of a digital network on a feasibility study. The

organization will present its project to the IOC board members in December 2014, who will then

decide about this innovation (Mickle, 2014).

Lumme, the Managing Director of IOC TV and Marketing Services coordinates the project and

plan to invest $100 million to create the channel. This investment, which funds the broadcasting

rights from NBC, would be used only for initial costs of the network. IOC TV would feature live

and on-demand programing with a wide variety of Olympic Sports. The purpose of creating the

network is to “raise the profile of the Olympic brand and Olympic values,” said Lumme (Mickle,

2014).


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The Olympic channel would focus on broadcasting the Olympic Games, promote Olympic sports

off-season, and introduce diversity of sports to the younger generation. Within the 40,000 hours

of footage, the channel could support the profile of Olympic athletes and Olympics itself

(Mickle, 2014). Between years of the Olympic Games, the channel could concentrate on showing

World Championships and other worldwide sport events, from which the international

federations can benefit as well. The channel would position kid friendly events to educate the

new generation and raise awareness of the importance of Olympic sports. The IOC is convinced

that the network could introduce sports, promote the Olympic values, facilitate the health

benefits of sports, and educate kids and adults about the history of Olympic Games.

According to Lumme, generating revenue is not the priority. He believes that the principal role

of the channel is the recognition of Olympic Games and the promotion of sports. Looking for

corporate sponsors would be a secondary task for Lumme, who plans to attract broadcasting

partners to buy featured programs. Lumme targets special markets, such as the United States

Olympic Committee (USOC), which expressed interest in networking in the past (Mickle, 2014).

Lumme will promote the project to International Federations and national Olympic committees,

“This is all in development”, said Lumme. If the IOC board members accept launching the

network in December 2014, Lumme will target for worldwide recognition from several sponsors

(Mickle, 2014).

11. A Unified Version of London 2012: New-Media Coverage of Gender,


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Nationality, and Sport for Olympics Consumers in Six Countries

In previous Olympic Games, traditional media coverage such as newspaper and television,

showed biases in terms of gender, race, and nationality, which resulted in inaccurate historical

records. This study was designed to demonstrate an agenda setting theory on the more equitable

coverage (Internet) of sport events in the 2012 London Olympic Games were presented to media

costumers on news websites in 6 different countries. Several people documented that the

methods with which the media presented the sport events to consumers had significant effects on

individuals and cultures. This study examined the online media coverage of the 2012 London

Games. The authors selected 6 countries to determine the differences in the Olympic experience

(Eagleman, Burch, & Vooris, 2014).

The agenda setting theory showed the power of media, which influenced the topics people think

about and the way they think about them. The primary focuses of this study were race, gender,

and nationality, examined throughout online media coverage. With the use of quantitative

content analysis methodology, authors provided accurate data of each country’s media coverage

during the 2012 Games. The 6 countries were Kenya, Brazil, China, Great Britain, Australia, and

the United States. The highest number of monthly visitors to a news website was in the United

States with more than 62 million viewers. However, the Australian website was the least popular,

with only 7.4 million visitors. The authors generated codes by categorizing the articles according

to race, gender and nationality. The United States did not excel with its Yahoo! News. The most

Olympic articles were coded in Great Britain, which with its 1,410 codes, outshined the second


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highest China, which listed 847 articles. Coders worked during the 16-day period of the Olympic

Games, and coded in 3,886 articles (Eagleman, Burch, & Vooris, 2014).

Eagleman, Burch, and Vooris (2014) stated that despite the use of new media, minor biases were

found. The results showed that all 6 news websites provided more coverage for male athletes

than female athletes. The most significant difference between male and female coverage was

noted in Kenya. 84.4% of the online media talked about men, 4.1% mentioned women, 5.5%

were the combined gender data, and the non-gender focused information showed 5.9%. Both

Great Britain and Kenya published significantly more information of their own athletes than any

other country. The authors examined the most popularly represented sports in each country and

found that countries valued each sport differently. China and Kenya both underrepresented

rowing, and the United Stated overrepresented basketball. The writers also noted that the

placement of certain sports on the websites demonstrated a variety of results in each country.

To summarize, the study gained knowledge of the online media coverage of 6 countries.

Consequently, the sport news websites provided more equitable media coverage during the 2012

Summer Olympic Games than the traditional media outlets in previous games (Eagleman, Burch,

& Vooris 2014).

12. The Negative Impacts of Hosting Mega-Sporting Events and Intention to

Travel: A Test of the Crowding-Out Effect Using the London 2012 Games

as an Example


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The study investigated the negative effects of hosting a mega-sport event by using the London

2012 Summer Olympic Games as an example. The authors collected questionnaires and

conducted an explorative factor analysis to identify the negative effects of travelling to the

London Games. Dongfeng and Wilson (2014) examined whether there was a relationship

between the destination and the intention to visit (Dongfeng, & Wilson, 2014).

The authors found 6 major factors that negatively impacted travelling to the Olympic Games:

crowding out, crime, road traffic, terrorism, price inflation, and environmental impact. Students

in 3 Shanghai Universities were asked to fill out a survey about the negative travel-related

impacts of the 2012 Olympic Games. The researchers collected 397 surveys just 6 weeks before

the beginning of the games to ensure that participants were exposed to sufficient information.

The results showed that 56.7% of the respondents were female and 43.3% were male. Only 20%

of the participants travelled outside of China, and a lower 7.6% of the total students have visited

the United Kingdom before. However, 372 out of 397 students were aware of the 2012 London

Games (Dongfeng, & Wilson, 2014).

Dongfeng and Wilson (2014) conducted a factor analysis to examine the negative factors of

travelling from China to the United Kingdom for the duration of the Olympic Games. A total of

19 items were identified on 6 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. Dongfeng and Wilson

(2014) stated that the 6 factors included “the security and crime concern, travel inconvenience,

service quality degradation, price inflation, pollution and environment concern, and risk of

disease” (p. 167). However, the participants answered the service quality degradation alike;

hence, it was eliminated from the research. Results were drawn from the remaining 5 factors and


25

showed that the most significant negative travel impacts was the travel inconvenience followed

by the price inflation and security and crime. Respondents seemed to be unconcerned about the

risk of diseases or the environmental factor (Dongfeng, & Wilson, 2014).

The study showed that the examined Chinese university students were concerned about the travel

inconvenience and the costs of traveling to London. By investigating different gender, age, and

socio-demographic backgrounds, future researchers can draw more accurate conclusions about

the negative impacts of traveling to the Olympic Games (Dongfeng, & Wilson, 2014).

13. Lord of the (Five) Rings

In July 2007, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) was determined to select Sochi, Russia

for hosting the 2014 Winter Olympic Games. The decision raised domestic, security, and

international boycott issues (Arnold, & Foxall, 2014).

First, the international lesbian, gay, bisexual and transsexual (LGBT) community proposed

boycott against Sochi to host the games. President Putin’s opposition of nontraditional sexual

relations was well known, and became a low in 2013. The law was to protect Russian youth from

expanding homosexual rights; moreover it became a concern to Olympic athletes who must

respect the Russian regulations and laws. Yet the IOC declined the boycott, and was satisfied

that the Russian law did not violate the IOC’s charter. The second boycott supported the

Circassian people in Russia. In the 19th century, many Circassian were expelled from their own

area during the southern expansion, which referred to as genocide. Nevertheless, the IOC


26

expressed its opposition and announced that any national Olympic Committee, which refuses to

participate in the Olympic Games for political reasons, risks a throw out of the Olympic

movement (Arnold, & Foxall, 2014).

The 2014 Winter Games was surrounded with many domestic issues. From the beginning, Putin

considered the Sochi Games as his “pet project” (Arnold, & Foxall, 2014, p. 6). His goal was to

develop the Sochi region into a world-class winter resort, so he invested $12 billion and ensured

a long-term development project. The government owned project conducted the Olympic

Construction Company and owned other primary investors in the games. With such federal

centered activity, the local authorities were appointed only passive roles. In addition to the initial

expenses, the Sochi 2014 costs increased to $51 billion, caused by the corrupt political economy.

The Sochi development project also troubled with political protests, such as completing the

facilities on time and finishing the transportation and energy infrastructure (Arnold, & Foxall,

2014).

Arnold and Foxall (2014) stated that the world’s biggest concern about Russia hosting the 2014

Winter Olympic Games was the security issue. In many occasions Russian residents were racist,

several nationalist movements unfolded, and the country was a threat to non-white people.

Therefore, the Olympic athletes, spectators and officials were all subject to security threat in

Sochi.

For the first time ever, viewers of the Olympic Games were required to obtain prescreening for

sport events. This move of the Russian government diminished the attendance of the games and


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clearly proved the president’s desire to restore the country’s previous power (Arnold, & Foxall,

2014).

14. The Fifth Attempt to Host The Olympiad; Istanbul’s Bid For 2020

Summer Games

Hosted in every four years, the Olympic Games represent a grandiose sport event around the

world. The designated cities enter a bidding process to host the event. As a result of a global

media exposure, cities hope to increase long-term tourism revenues. In 2011, Istanbul, Tokyo,

and Madrid were selected as finalists to impress and convince the International Olympic

Committee (IOC) that they are the suitable hosts. A year later all three candidates demonstrated

the best of their abilities for hosting the 2020 Summer Olympics. Among the cities, Istanbul

intended to create a legacy because of its mostly Muslim population. The city applied to host the

event 4 times previously but did not succeed (Ozbey, 2013).

Turkey has been in the Olympics since 1908, competing in the summer and winter games as

well. In the recent 2012 London Olympics the Turkish team totaled in 114 athletes, and won 5

medals. During the bidding process Istanbul showed a strong governmental support, and

Turkey’s largest companies sponsored the bid with more than $20 million. The lack of the

National Paralympic Committee and the undeveloped public transport and infrastructure

prevented Istanbul from hosting the previous Olympic Games (Ozbey, 2013).

Ozbey (2013) conducted a qualitative research to investigate Istanbul’s troubles to host the


28

Olympics. The interviewed participants highlighted three main themes of the overall Olympic

Commitment of Istanbul. First, the governmental commitment theme was created and separated

into 8 groups. The IOC ensured that the government of Turkey attaches a support promise to the

bidding application form. Further, the political and economic stability of the candidate city were

the two key factors for the IOC. To host the event, the bidding city was responsible for

democracy and civic liberty of the nation. Turkey struggled sustaining a national sport strategy,

lacked an ad-hoc Bidding Committee, and an international lobbying firm, which were crucial for

the IOC. In previous attempts the Turkish organizers were inexperienced to host the Olympics,

and the religious factors adversely affected the bidding process (Ozbey, 2013).

Secondly, the 6 codes of the Olympic Games commitment were discussed. The interviewed

participants in the qualitative research questioned the Turkish sport education, and said that the

Olympic culture must be part of the national education. They also signified the importance of the

medals won by Olympic and Paralympic athletes. The IOC reported that Istanbul possesses great

event management experience; however, another Turkish city Izmir already hosted a mini

Olympics, which reduced the chances of Istanbul. Additionally, Turkey should have focused

more on the public awareness of the Olympic Games, as well as prepare elite bidding

professionals. Moreover, there was no significant support from colleges, universities, and major

sporting clubs (Ozbey, 2013).

Thirdly, Istanbul’s commitment to the Olympic Games was questioned, which included 5 codes.

Admittedly, Istanbul is a charming city and a popular tourist destination, so organizing the

Games would significantly increase the tourism revenues. However, the biggest issue was the


29

long transportation time between the venues, which prevented the city to host the Olympics.

Regarding safety and security issues, Istanbul demonstrated notable abilities, thus the executive

board of the IOC was positive about Istanbul’s capabilities of building and completing 25 new

facilities for the time of the Olympics (Ozbey, 2013).

It is now evidence that Istanbul did not win its 5th attempt to host the Olympic Games. However,

it is noteworthy that the city is a popular tourist destination, has never hosted the Olympics

before, is improving its economic power, and is granted with endless support of the government

(Ozbey, 2013).

15. Participation Motives of Special Olympics Athletes

The Special Olympics sport event is organized for special needs people to improve their physical

fitness and motor skills, and develop their social interactions. The motivation behind the Special

Olympics is to help mentally retarded (MR) people demonstrating competence through sport

(Shapiro, 2003).

The purpose of the study was to investigate the importance of various reasons upon participation

in the Special Olympics. 147 MR athletes were interviewed, and filled out a sport motivation

questionnaire designed for MR athletes. A total of 14 reasons were selected to represent the 7

most and the 7 least important reasons for participating in sports. The top reasons for

participation in the Olympics in order were to win ribbons and medals, to play with other people

on the team, to exercise, to do something they are good at, to have fun, to travel to new places,


30

and to feel important. The less crucial reasons included: to improve their skills, to laugh, to get

out of the house, to be popular, to relax, to challenge themselves, and the parents/friends force

(Shapiro, 2003).

MR participants were aware why they chose to participate in the Special Olympics. Having fun,

exercising and doing something they are good at represented task oriented motives. Travelling

and playing with other people reflected the athletes’ social incentive goals. It is noteworthy that

the coaches had exceptional responsibility in preparing athletes for the competition. Coaches

provided task oriented training sessions, in which they allocated time for fun and excitement by

creating challenging activities, facilitated opportunities for weight monitoring, provided relaxing

time for athletes to maintain friendships, and emphasized improvement for winning ribbons and

medals (Shapiro, 2003).

Shapiro (2003) clarified by using the above-mentioned techniques, coaches established a task-

oriented environment; therefore, MR people established positive self-concept and motivation for

long-term sport participation.

16. Olympic Sport and the Ideal of Sustainable Development

The current Olympic environmental efforts orient toward reducing the negative environmental

effect of Olympic events and represent less ecological ideals. Loland (2006) clarified that

considering that the Olympics require large amounts of nonrenewable resources, such as support

systems, construction of new sport facilities, development of infrastructure, and extensive


31

traveling of competitors, they should not be organized. From the ecology point of view, there are

two types: shallow ecology, which reflects to the quantifiable measures of an environmental

action, and deep ecology, in which the philosophical premises are concerned (Loland, 2006).

According to Loland (2006), any development will ideally ensure the same future possibilities to

the new generation as the current one. The first criterion of sustainable development is that the

human life continues indefinitely. This means that the Olympic sports must be practiced to

provide the future generation the same possibilities to accomplish their goals. In ball games, the

performances are built around technical and tactical skills, which have to be learned through

training sessions, and the athletes perform them in direct competitions. Therefore, actual

performances cannot easily be compared over time, so ball games provide indefinite

development to the future generation. In contrast, records sports, such as swimming and running,

are more problematic. Results can be compared easily over time, so new generations have to

train and beat the current records. Thus, every new record represents the use of a nonrenewable

resource, and a pause in the indefinite development.

The following criteria examine the human cultural development through the ideals of complexity

and diversity. The second criterion is that human individuals can flourish. Considering the

inequalities in training conditions, athletes develop in various rhythms. The developing

procedure depends on their talent and trained abilities. The third criterion demonstrates that

sport performances are complex procedures, in which the two main features are the genetic

potential and the environmental influences. Athletes demonstrate bio-motor abilities, general

skills, and sport-specific skills. All Olympic sports require complex skills in a regulated system;


32

however, the degree of complexity varies in every sport (Loland, 2006).

Loland (2006) transforms sport requirements into more equal conditions in several ways. For

instance, changing running distances and surfaces would invigorate the running sport. Loland

(2006) also suggests introducing more diverse sports to the Olympics to globalize the games.

Such competitive actions from all continents would emphasize the main principles of the

Olympics and its sustainability.

Loland (2006) showed that Olympic sports could express ideal sustainable development if they

transform into technical and tactical complexity. By opening the Olympic sports to a more

diverse competition, sporting life can continue indefinitely, and new sporting generations can

flourish (Loland, 2006).

17. Olympic Athletes’ Experiences of a Post Games Career Transition

Program

For Olympic athletes, career transition meant two things: for many athletes career transition

involved the end of a 4-year Olympic preparation period or transition out of the sport itself. This

study was designed to facilitate sportsmen’ and sportswomen’s ability to handle the emotional

pressure of Olympic events. By conducting a qualitative research, the Irish Institute of Sport

(IIS) examined 10 athletes who participated in a three-tier career transition program. The first

level took place shortly after the competition, which meant a 20 minutes check-up with the

athlete. The goal of the first stage was to normalize the athlete’s experience of the competition


33

and clarify his or her plan for the following days. By doing so, experts provided written and

verbal information of the support program components. 4-5 weeks later, the second level took

place, in which athletes participated in group-workshops and psychologists tried to normalize the

Olympic experience. At the third stage, if athletes needed additional support, IIS Director

provided them with individual sessions (McArdle, Moore, & Lyons, 2014).

McArdle, Moore, and Lyons (2014) interviewed 10 participants from which 2 were Paralympic

and 8 were Olympic athletes. Among the 10 people, 6 were male and 4 were female athletes.

Interviewers raised the same questions to each participant; the main topics were: the athlete’s

experience of the support program, the benefits of the mental help program, and comparison to

previous psychological programs. As a result of the authors’ research, athletes demonstrated

diversity in age, gender, and sports. Half of the athletes were older than 31 years old and were

previous Olympians, 8 athletes trained full time, and 9 of them participated in individual sports.

7 out of 10 people stated that the proximity of the competition prevented them from benefitting

from the mental check-up in the first tier. However, all athletes agreed that about a month after

the Olympics, a psychological debrief felt useful, only if the athletes could determine the exact

time. However, the last part of the second tier did not result in consensus. 50% of the participants

did not believe in the benefits of a group workshop. Lastly, only 1 participant thought positively

about the third, clinical tier (McArdle, Moore, & Lyons, 2014).

To conclude, the Irish Olympic participants felt grateful for the psychologists, because the

experts helped them understand and handle the post-game experiences. Athletes were positive

about the benefit of pre-Olympic and post-Olympic treatment, and would engage in it in the


34

future as well. However, athletes suggested the authors to consider different communication

methods for greater reach, and to ease the support program location issue by having the group

session taught via the Internet (McArdle, Moore, & Lyons, 2014).


35

Conclusion

This paper showed several aspects of the Olympics, in which I learned that the IOC sets high

requirements for all sports to include them to the games. Further, the IOC took crucial steps for

creating gender equality in the Olympic Games. After investigating the media guide of the

London Summer Games, I understood that the sponsorship deals and the broadcasting rights

became the most significant revenue source for the IOC. By analyzing the political concerns of

the recent Winter Olympics, one can agree that the domestic, security and international issues

attenuated the credibility of the games. Lastly, I learned the major motivating factors of why

Olympic athletes’ keep participating in the competition, and studied the Irish career transition

program, which provided mental and emotional help to athletes to stably prepare for the Olympic

Games.

I suggest further research in examining sport inclusion to the Olympics in a diversity of sports.

Additionally, I wish to explore the financial structure of organizing the Olympic Games, and

study the reasons of the extremely high costs.


36

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