Inverse trigonometric functions (Sect. 7.6) · Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions Remark: Derivatives inverse functions can be computed with f−1 0 (x) = 1 f0 f−1(x)

Inverse trigonometric functions (Sect. 7.6)

Today: Derivatives and integrals.

I Review: Definitions and properties.

I Derivatives.

I Integrals.

Last class: Definitions and properties.

I Domains restrictions and inverse trigs.

I Evaluating inverse trigs at simple values.

I Few identities for inverse trigs.

Review: Definitions and properties

Remark: On certain domains the trigonometric functions areinvertible.

1

y y = sin(x)

x− π / 2 π / 2

−1

1

y

x

y = cos(x)

π0 π / 2

−1

π / 2 x

y = tan(x)y

− π / 2

0 x

y y = csc(x)

− π / 2 π / 2

−1

1

y

x

1

−1

0 π / 2 π

y = sec(x)

π / 2

y

x0

y = cot(x)

π


Remark: The graph of the inverse function is a reflection of theoriginal function graph about the y = x axis.

y = arcsin(x)

x

π / 2

− π / 2

1−1

y y = arccos(x)

0

π / 2

π

y

x−1 1

y

x

− π / 2

π / 2

y = arctan(x)

y = arccsc(x)y

−1 0 1

π / 2

− π / 2

x

y = arcsec(x)

−1 10

π / 2

π

y

x

y

0

π / 2

π

x

y = arccot(x)


TheoremFor all x ∈ [−1, 1] the following identities hold,

arccos(x) + arccos(−x) = π, arccos(x) + arcsin(x) =π

2.

Proof:

arccos(−x)

θ

1

y

(θ)x = cos(π−θ)−x = cos

π − θ

θ

x

arccos(x) arccos(x)

θ

1

y

(θ)x = cos x

π/2 − θ

(π/2−θ)x = sin

arcsin(x)




2.

Proof:

arccos(−x)

θ

1

y


π − θ

θ

x

arccos(x)

arccos(x)

θ

1

y

(θ)x = cos x

π/2 − θ

(π/2−θ)x = sin

arcsin(x)




2.

Proof:

arccos(−x)

θ

1

y


π − θ

θ

x

arccos(x) arccos(x)

θ

1

y

(θ)x = cos x

π/2 − θ

(π/2−θ)x = sin

arcsin(x)



arcsin(−x) = − arcsin(x),

arctan(−x) = − arctan(x),

arccsc(−x) = −arccsc(x).

Proof:y = arcsin(x)

x

π / 2

− π / 2

1−1

y y

x

− π / 2

π / 2

y = arctan(x) y = arccsc(x)y

−1 0 1

π / 2

− π / 2

x






Proof:y = arcsin(x)

x

π / 2

− π / 2

1−1

y

y

x

− π / 2

π / 2


−1 0 1

π / 2

− π / 2

x






Proof:y = arcsin(x)

x

π / 2

− π / 2

1−1

y y

x

− π / 2

π / 2

y = arctan(x)

y = arccsc(x)y

−1 0 1

π / 2

− π / 2

x






Proof:y = arcsin(x)

x

π / 2

− π / 2

1−1

y y

x

− π / 2

π / 2


−1 0 1

π / 2

− π / 2

x




I Derivatives.

I Integrals.

Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

Remark: Derivatives inverse functions can be computed with(f −1

)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem

The derivative of arcsin is given by arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.

Proof: For x ∈ [−1, 1] holds

arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)

)For x ∈ [−1, 1] we get arcsin(x) = y ∈

[π

2,π

2

], and the cosine is

positive in that interval, then cos(y) = +√

1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)


[π

2,π

2



1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

)

=1

cos(arcsin(x)


[π

2,π

2



1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)

)

For x ∈ [−1, 1] we get arcsin(x) = y ∈[π

2,π

2



1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)


[π

2,π

2

],

and the cosine is


1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)


[π

2,π

2


positive in that interval,

then cos(y) = +√

1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)


[π

2,π

2



1− sin2(y),

hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)


[π

2,π

2



1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

)

⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.



)′(x) =

1

f ′(f −1(x)

) .

Theorem


1− x2.


arcsin′(x) =1

sin′(arcsin(x)

) =1

cos(arcsin(x)


[π

2,π

2



1− sin2(y), hence

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− sin2(arcsin(x)

) ⇒ arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2.


TheoremThe derivative of inverse trigonometric functions are:

arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2, arccos′(x) = − 1√

1− x2, |x | 6 1,

arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2, arccot′(x) = − 1

1 + x2, x ∈ R,

arcsec′(x) =1

|x |√

x2 − 1, arccsc′(x) = − 1

|x |√

x2 − 1, |x | > 1.

Proof: arctan′(x) =1

tan′(arctan(x)

) , tan′(y) =cos2(y) + sin2(y)

cos2(y)

tan′(y) = 1 + tan2(y), y = arctan(x), ⇒ arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2.



arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2, arccos′(x) = − 1√

1− x2, |x | 6 1,

arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2, arccot′(x) = − 1

1 + x2, x ∈ R,

arcsec′(x) =1

|x |√

x2 − 1, arccsc′(x) = − 1

|x |√

x2 − 1, |x | > 1.


tan′(arctan(x)

) ,

tan′(y) =cos2(y) + sin2(y)

cos2(y)


1 + x2.



arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2, arccos′(x) = − 1√

1− x2, |x | 6 1,

arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2, arccot′(x) = − 1

1 + x2, x ∈ R,

arcsec′(x) =1

|x |√

x2 − 1, arccsc′(x) = − 1

|x |√

x2 − 1, |x | > 1.


tan′(arctan(x)


cos2(y)


1 + x2.



arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2, arccos′(x) = − 1√

1− x2, |x | 6 1,

arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2, arccot′(x) = − 1

1 + x2, x ∈ R,

arcsec′(x) =1

|x |√

x2 − 1, arccsc′(x) = − 1

|x |√

x2 − 1, |x | > 1.


tan′(arctan(x)


cos2(y)

tan′(y) = 1 + tan2(y),

y = arctan(x), ⇒ arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2.



arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2, arccos′(x) = − 1√

1− x2, |x | 6 1,

arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2, arccot′(x) = − 1

1 + x2, x ∈ R,

arcsec′(x) =1

|x |√

x2 − 1, arccsc′(x) = − 1

|x |√

x2 − 1, |x | > 1.


tan′(arctan(x)


cos2(y)

tan′(y) = 1 + tan2(y), y = arctan(x),

⇒ arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2.



arcsin′(x) =1√

1− x2, arccos′(x) = − 1√

1− x2, |x | 6 1,

arctan′(x) =1

1 + x2, arccot′(x) = − 1

1 + x2, x ∈ R,

arcsec′(x) =1

|x |√

x2 − 1, arccsc′(x) = − 1

|x |√

x2 − 1, |x | > 1.


tan′(arctan(x)


cos2(y)


1 + x2.


Proof: arcsec′(x) =1

sec′(arcsec(x)

) ,

for |x | > 1.

Then y = arcsec(x) satisfies y ∈ [0, π]− {π/2}. Recall,

sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.

We conclude: arcsec′(x) =1

|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.

Then y = arcsec(x) satisfies y ∈ [0, π]− {π/2}.

Recall,

sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′

=sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y),

sin(y) = +√

1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)

=1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1

= | sec(y)|√

sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.



sec′(arcsec(x)

) , for |x | > 1.


sec′(y) =( 1

cos(y)

)′=

sin(y)

cos2(y), sin(y) = +

√1− cos2(y),

sec′(y) =

√1− cos2(y)

cos2(y)=

1

| cos(y)|

√1− cos2(y)

| cos(y)|,

sec′(y) =1

| cos(y)|

√1

cos2(y)− 1 = | sec(y)|

√sec2(y)− 1.


|x |√

x2 − 1.


Example

Compute the derivative of y(x) = arcsec(3x + 7).

Solution: Recall the main formula: arcsec′(u) =1

|u|√

u2 − 1.

Then, chain rule implies, y ′(x) =3

|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example

Compute the derivative of y(x) = arctan(4 ln(x)).

Solution: Recall the main formula: arctan′(u) =1

1 + u2.

Therefore, chain rule implies,

y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.


|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.

Then, chain rule implies,

y ′(x) =3

|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.


|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.


|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.


|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.


|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.


|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x

⇒ y ′ =4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C


Example



|u|√

u2 − 1.


|3x + 7|√

(3x + 7)2 − 1. C

Example



1 + u2.


y ′(x) =1[

1 +(4 ln(x)

)2] 4

x⇒ y ′ =

4

x[1 + 16 ln2(x)

] . C




I Derivatives.

I Integrals.

Integrals of inverse trigonometric functions

Remark: The formulas for the derivatives of inverse trigonometricfunctions imply the integration formulas.

TheoremFor any constant a 6= 0 holds,∫

dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.

Proof: (For arcsine only.) y(x) = arcsin(x

a

)+ c , then

y ′(x) =1√

1− x2

a2

1

a=

|a|√a2 − x2

1

a⇒ y ′(x) =

1√a2 − x2




dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.


a

)+ c , then

y ′(x) =1√

1− x2

a2

1

a=

|a|√a2 − x2

1

a⇒ y ′(x) =

1√a2 − x2




dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.

Proof: (For arcsine only.)

y(x) = arcsin(x

a

)+ c , then

y ′(x) =1√

1− x2

a2

1

a=

|a|√a2 − x2

1

a⇒ y ′(x) =

1√a2 − x2




dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.


a

)+ c ,

then

y ′(x) =1√

1− x2

a2

1

a=

|a|√a2 − x2

1

a⇒ y ′(x) =

1√a2 − x2




dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.


a

)+ c , then

y ′(x)

=1√

1− x2

a2

1

a=

|a|√a2 − x2

1

a⇒ y ′(x) =

1√a2 − x2




dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.


a

)+ c , then

y ′(x) =1√

1− x2

a2

1

a

=|a|√

a2 − x2

1

a⇒ y ′(x) =

1√a2 − x2




dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.


a

)+ c , then

y ′(x) =1√

1− x2

a2

1

a=

|a|√a2 − x2

1

a

⇒ y ′(x) =1√

a2 − x2




dx√a2 − x2

= arcsin(x

a

)+ c , |x | < a,∫

dx

a2 + x2=

1

aarctan

(x

a

)+ c , x ∈ R,∫

dx

x√

x2 − a2=

1

aarcsec

(∣∣∣xa

∣∣∣) + c , |x | > a > 0.


a

)+ c , then

y ′(x) =1√

1− x2

a2

1

a=

|a|√a2 − x2

1

a⇒ y ′(x) =

1√a2 − x2


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .

Solution: Substitute: u = 2(x − 1), then du = 2 dx ,

I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a

)+ c . Then, for a =

√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3

)+ c ⇒ I = 3 arcsin

(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .

Solution: Substitute: u = 2(x − 1),

then du = 2 dx ,

I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a


√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3


(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .


I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a


√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3


(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .


I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2

= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a


√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3


(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .


I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a


√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3


(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .


I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a

)+ c .

Then, for a =√

3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3


(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .


I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a


√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3


(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .


I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a


√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3

)+ c

⇒ I = 3 arcsin(2(x − 1)√

3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6√

3− 4(x − 1)2dx .


I =

∫6√

3− u2

du

2= 3

∫du√

3− u2.

Recall:

∫dx√

a2 − u2= arcsin

(u

a


√3,

I = 3 arcsin( u√

3


(2(x − 1)√3

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.

Solution: Recall: ln(t4) = 4 ln(t), Try to complete the square.

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 4 ln(t) + 8

] dt,

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 2(2 ln(t)) + 4− 4 + 8

] dt

I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt

This looks like the derivative of the arctangent.


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.

Solution: Recall: ln(t4) = 4 ln(t),

Try to complete the square.

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 4 ln(t) + 8

] dt,

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 2(2 ln(t)) + 4− 4 + 8

] dt

I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt



Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 4 ln(t) + 8

] dt,

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 2(2 ln(t)) + 4− 4 + 8

] dt

I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt



Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 4 ln(t) + 8

] dt,

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 2(2 ln(t)) + 4− 4 + 8

] dt

I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt



Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 4 ln(t) + 8

] dt,

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 2(2 ln(t)) + 4− 4 + 8

] dt

I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt



Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 4 ln(t) + 8

] dt,

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 2(2 ln(t)) + 4− 4 + 8

] dt

I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt



Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 4 ln(t) + 8

] dt,

I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + 2(2 ln(t)) + 4− 4 + 8

] dt

I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt



Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.

Solution: Recall: I =

∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.

Substitute: u = ln(t) + 2, then du =1

tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du = 6

∫du

22 + u2= 6

1

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)

)+c ⇒ I = 3 arctan

(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.

Substitute: u = ln(t) + 2,

then du =1

tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du = 6

∫du

22 + u2= 6

1

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)


(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.


tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du = 6

∫du

22 + u2= 6

1

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)


(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.


tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du

= 6

∫du

22 + u2= 6

1

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)


(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.


tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du = 6

∫du

22 + u2

= 61

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)


(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.


tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du = 6

∫du

22 + u2= 6

1

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)


(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.


tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du = 6

∫du

22 + u2= 6

1

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)

)+c

⇒ I = 3 arctan(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6

t[ln2(t) + ln(t4) + 8

] dt.


∫6

t[(

ln(t) + 2)2

+ 4] dt.


tdt,

I =

∫6

4 + u2du = 6

∫du

22 + u2= 6

1

2arctan

(u

2

)+ c .

I = 3 arctan(1

2(ln(t)+2)


(ln(√

t)+1)+c .C

Hyperbolic functions (Sect. 7.7)

I Circular and hyperbolic functions.

I Definitions and identities.

I Derivatives of hyperbolic functions.

I Integrals of hyperbolic functions.

Circular and hyperbolic functions

Remark: Trigonometric functions are also called circular functions.

(θ)

y

x1

θ

cos (θ)

sin

The circle x2 + y2 = 1 can beparametrized by the functions

x = cos(θ),

y = sin(θ).

Since these functions satisfy

cos2(θ) + sin2(θ) = 1.

Remark: The parametrization is not unique. Another solution is

x = cos(nθ), y = sin(nθ), n ∈ N.



(θ)

y

x1

θ

cos (θ)

sin


x = cos(θ),

y = sin(θ).


cos2(θ) + sin2(θ) = 1.





(θ)

y

x1

θ

cos (θ)

sin


x = cos(θ),

y = sin(θ).


cos2(θ) + sin2(θ) = 1.





(θ)

y

x1

θ

cos (θ)

sin


x = cos(θ),

y = sin(θ).


cos2(θ) + sin2(θ) = 1.





(θ)

y

x1

θ

cos (θ)

sin


x = cos(θ),

y = sin(θ).


cos2(θ) + sin2(θ) = 1.

Remark: The parametrization is not unique.

Another solution is




(θ)

y

x1

θ

cos (θ)

sin


x = cos(θ),

y = sin(θ).


cos2(θ) + sin2(θ) = 1.




Remark:Hyperbolic functions are a parametrization of a hyperbola.

y(u)

y

x1

x(u)

The hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1 canbe parametrized by the functions

x = f (u), y = g(u),

satisfying the condition

f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.

Remark: A solution is x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =

1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2

− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]

= 1.



y(u)

y

x1

x(u)


x = f (u), y = g(u),


f 2(u)− g2(u) = 1.


2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

x2 − y2 =1

4

[h2 +

1

h2+ 2− h2 − 1

h2+ 2

]= 1.


Remarks:

I The hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1 can be parametrized by

x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],

where h is any non-zero continuous function satisfying

limu→∞

h(u) = ∞, limu→−∞

h(u) = 0, h(0) = 1.

I The hyperbolic trigonometric functions correspond to

h(u) = eu.

DefinitionThe hyperbolic trigonometric functions are defined by

cosh(u) =eu + e−u

2, sinh(u) =

eu − e−u

2.


Remarks:


x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],


limu→∞

h(u) = ∞, limu→−∞

h(u) = 0, h(0) = 1.


h(u) = eu.


cosh(u) =eu + e−u

2, sinh(u) =

eu − e−u

2.


Remarks:


x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],


limu→∞

h(u) = ∞,

limu→−∞

h(u) = 0, h(0) = 1.


h(u) = eu.


cosh(u) =eu + e−u

2, sinh(u) =

eu − e−u

2.


Remarks:


x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],


limu→∞

h(u) = ∞, limu→−∞

h(u) = 0,

h(0) = 1.


h(u) = eu.


cosh(u) =eu + e−u

2, sinh(u) =

eu − e−u

2.


Remarks:


x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],


limu→∞

h(u) = ∞, limu→−∞

h(u) = 0, h(0) = 1.


h(u) = eu.


cosh(u) =eu + e−u

2, sinh(u) =

eu − e−u

2.


Remarks:


x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],


limu→∞

h(u) = ∞, limu→−∞

h(u) = 0, h(0) = 1.


h(u) = eu.


cosh(u) =eu + e−u

2, sinh(u) =

eu − e−u

2.


Remarks:


x =1

2

[h(u) +

1

h(u)

], y =

1

2

[h(u)− 1

h(u)

],


limu→∞

h(u) = ∞, limu→−∞

h(u) = 0, h(0) = 1.


h(u) = eu.


cosh(u) =eu + e−u

2, sinh(u) =

eu − e−u

2.






Definitions and identities

DefinitionThe complete set of hyperbolic trigonometric functions is given by

cosh(x) =ex + e−x

2, sinh(x) =

ex − e−x

2,

tanh(x) =sinh(x)

cosh(x), coth(x) =

cosh(x)

sinh(x),

csch(x) =1

sinh(x), sech(x) =

1

cosh(x).

Remarks:

I These functions satisfy identities similar but not equal tothose satisfied by circular trigonometric functions.

I We have seen one of these identities:

cosh2(x)− sinh2(x) = 1.



cosh(x) =ex + e−x

2, sinh(x) =

ex − e−x

2,

tanh(x) =sinh(x)

cosh(x), coth(x) =

cosh(x)

sinh(x),

csch(x) =1

sinh(x), sech(x) =

1

cosh(x).

Remarks:






cosh(x) =ex + e−x

2, sinh(x) =

ex − e−x

2,

tanh(x) =sinh(x)

cosh(x), coth(x) =

cosh(x)

sinh(x),

csch(x) =1

sinh(x), sech(x) =

1

cosh(x).

Remarks:





TheoremThe following identities hold,

cosh2(x)− sinh2(x) = 1,

sinh(2x) = 2 sinh(x) cosh(x), cosh(2x) = cosh2(x) + sinh2(x),

cosh2(x) =1

2

[1 + cosh(2x)

], sinh2(x) =

1

2

[−1 + cosh(2x)

].

Proof: (Only double angle formula for sinh.)

sinh(2x) =1

2

[e2x − 1

e2x

]=

1

2

[(ex

)2−

( 1

ex

)2].

Recalling the formula a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a− b),

sinh(2x) =2

4

[ex +

1

ex

][ex − 1

ex

]= 2 cosh(x) sinh(x).





cosh2(x) =1

2

[1 + cosh(2x)

], sinh2(x) =

1

2

[−1 + cosh(2x)

].


sinh(2x) =1

2

[e2x − 1

e2x

]=

1

2

[(ex

)2−

( 1

ex

)2].


sinh(2x) =2

4

[ex +

1

ex

][ex − 1

ex






cosh2(x) =1

2

[1 + cosh(2x)

], sinh2(x) =

1

2

[−1 + cosh(2x)

].


sinh(2x) =1

2

[e2x − 1

e2x

]

=1

2

[(ex

)2−

( 1

ex

)2].


sinh(2x) =2

4

[ex +

1

ex

][ex − 1

ex






cosh2(x) =1

2

[1 + cosh(2x)

], sinh2(x) =

1

2

[−1 + cosh(2x)

].


sinh(2x) =1

2

[e2x − 1

e2x

]=

1

2

[(ex

)2−

( 1

ex

)2].


sinh(2x) =2

4

[ex +

1

ex

][ex − 1

ex






cosh2(x) =1

2

[1 + cosh(2x)

], sinh2(x) =

1

2

[−1 + cosh(2x)

].


sinh(2x) =1

2

[e2x − 1

e2x

]=

1

2

[(ex

)2−

( 1

ex

)2].


sinh(2x) =2

4

[ex +

1

ex

][ex − 1

ex






cosh2(x) =1

2

[1 + cosh(2x)

], sinh2(x) =

1

2

[−1 + cosh(2x)

].


sinh(2x) =1

2

[e2x − 1

e2x

]=

1

2

[(ex

)2−

( 1

ex

)2].


sinh(2x) =2

4

[ex +

1

ex

][ex − 1

ex

]

= 2 cosh(x) sinh(x).





cosh2(x) =1

2

[1 + cosh(2x)

], sinh2(x) =

1

2

[−1 + cosh(2x)

].


sinh(2x) =1

2

[e2x − 1

e2x

]=

1

2

[(ex

)2−

( 1

ex

)2].


sinh(2x) =2

4

[ex +

1

ex

][ex − 1

ex



Example

Compute both cosh(ln(7)) and sinh(2 ln(3)).

Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.

We conclude that cosh(ln(7)) =25

7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7))

=1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]

=1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]

=1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3))

=1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]

=1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]

=1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9

⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =40

9.C


Example


Solution:

cosh(ln(7)) =1

2

[e ln(7) +

1

e ln(7)

]=

1

2

[7 +

1

7

]=

1

2

50

7.


7.

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[e2 ln(3) − 1

e2 ln(3)

]=

1

2

[e ln(9) − 1

e ln(9)

]

sinh(2 ln(3)) =1

2

[9− 1

9

]=

1

2

80

9⇒ sinh(2 ln(3)) =

40

9.C






Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

TheoremThe following equations hold,

sinh′(x) = cosh(x) cosh′(x) = sinh(x)

tanh′(x) =1

cosh2(x)coth′(x) = − 1

sinh2(x)

sech′(x) = − sinh(x)

cosh2(x)csch′(x) = − cosh(x)

sinh2(x).

Proof: (Only for sinh.)

sinh′(x) =1

2

(ex − e−x

)′=

1

2

(ex − e−x (−1)

)sinh′(u) =

1

2

(ex + e−x

)⇒ sinh′(x) = cosh(x).




tanh′(x) =1


sinh2(x)



sinh2(x).


sinh′(x) =1

2

(ex − e−x

)′=

1

2

(ex − e−x (−1)

)sinh′(u) =

1

2

(ex + e−x





tanh′(x) =1


sinh2(x)



sinh2(x).


sinh′(x) =1

2

(ex − e−x

)′

=1

2

(ex − e−x (−1)

)sinh′(u) =

1

2

(ex + e−x





tanh′(x) =1


sinh2(x)



sinh2(x).


sinh′(x) =1

2

(ex − e−x

)′=

1

2

(ex − e−x (−1)

)

sinh′(u) =1

2

(ex + e−x





tanh′(x) =1


sinh2(x)



sinh2(x).


sinh′(x) =1

2

(ex − e−x

)′=

1

2

(ex − e−x (−1)

)sinh′(u) =

1

2

(ex + e−x

)

⇒ sinh′(x) = cosh(x).




tanh′(x) =1


sinh2(x)



sinh2(x).


sinh′(x) =1

2

(ex − e−x

)′=

1

2

(ex − e−x (−1)

)sinh′(u) =

1

2

(ex + e−x



Example

Compute the derivative of the function y(x) = etanh(3x).

Solution:y ′(x) = etanh(3x) tanh′(3x) 3.

We only need to remember the first two formulas in the Theoremabove, since

tanh′(x) =( sinh(x)

cosh(x)

)′=

sinh′(x) cosh(x)− sinh(x) cosh′(x)

cosh2(x)

tanh′(x) =cosh2(x)− sinh2(x)

cosh2(x)=

1

cosh2(x).

We conclude that y ′(x) =3etanh(3x)

cosh2(3x). C


Example





cosh(x)

)′=


cosh2(x)


cosh2(x)=

1

cosh2(x).


cosh2(3x). C


Example



We only need to remember the first two formulas in the Theoremabove,

since


cosh(x)

)′=


cosh2(x)


cosh2(x)=

1

cosh2(x).


cosh2(3x). C


Example





cosh(x)

)′

=sinh′(x) cosh(x)− sinh(x) cosh′(x)

cosh2(x)


cosh2(x)=

1

cosh2(x).


cosh2(3x). C


Example





cosh(x)

)′=


cosh2(x)


cosh2(x)=

1

cosh2(x).


cosh2(3x). C


Example





cosh(x)

)′=


cosh2(x)


cosh2(x)

=1

cosh2(x).


cosh2(3x). C


Example





cosh(x)

)′=


cosh2(x)


cosh2(x)=

1

cosh2(x).


cosh2(3x). C


Example





cosh(x)

)′=


cosh2(x)


cosh2(x)=

1

cosh2(x).


cosh2(3x). C






Integrals of hyperbolic functions

TheoremFor every real constant c the following expressions hold,∫

sinh(x) dx = cosh(x) + c ,

∫cosh(x) dx = sinh(x) + c ,∫

sech2(x) dx = tanh(x) + c ,

∫csch2(x) dx = − coth(x) + c ,

Proof: The derivative of each right-hand side above is theintegrand in each left-hand side

Remark: There are many other integration formulas, but the onesabove are the most frequently used.


















Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .

Solution: We try the substitution u = 3x − ln(2), then du = 3 dx .

I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2

∫cosh(u) du = 2 sinh(u) + c .

We conclude that I = 2 sinh(3x − ln(2)) + c . C

Remark: If needed, one can rewrite the sinh above as

sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .

Solution: We try the substitution u = 3x − ln(2),

then du = 3 dx .

I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2




sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .


I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2




sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .


I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3

= 2




sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .


I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2

∫cosh(u) du

= 2 sinh(u) + c .



sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .


I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2




sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .


I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2




sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .


I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2




sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)

sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate I =

∫6 cosh(3x − ln(2)) dx .


I =

∫6 cosh(u)

du

3= 2




sinh(3x − ln(2)) =1

2

(e3x−ln(2) − e−3x+ln(2)

)sinh(3x − ln(2)) =

1

2

( e3x

e ln(2)− e−3x e ln(2)

)=

e3x

4− e−3x .


Example

Evaluate the integral I =

∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .

Solution: Recall that cosh′(x) = sinh(x). We then try thesubstitution

u = cosh(3x2), du = sinh(3x2) 6x dx .

I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c

If we substitute back u = cosh(3x2), we obtain

I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .

Solution: Recall that cosh′(x) = sinh(x).

We then try thesubstitution


I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .


u = cosh(3x2),

du = sinh(3x2) 6x dx .

I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .



I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .



I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6

=4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .



I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du

=4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .



I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c

= −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .



I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C


Example


∫8x

sinh(3x2)

cosh3(3x2)dx .



I =

∫8

1

u3

du

6=

4

3

∫u−3 du =

4

3

u−2

(−2)+ c = −2

3

1

u2+ c


I = −2

3

1

cosh2(3x2)+ c . C

Integration techniques (Supp. Material 8-IT)

I Substitution rule.

I Completing the square.

I Trigonometric identities.

I Polynomial division.

I Multiplying by 1.

Substitution rule

TheoremFor every differentiable functions f , u : R → R holds,∫

f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .

Proof: This is the integral form of the chain rule for derivatives.Let F be a primitive of f , that is, F ′ = f . Then(

F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.

Integrate the equation above,∫f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫d(F (u))

dx(x) dx = F (u(x)).

Denoting y = u(x), we get∫f (u(x)) u′(x) dx = F (y) =

∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .

Proof: This is the integral form of the chain rule for derivatives.

Let F be a primitive of f , that is, F ′ = f . Then(F (u)

)′= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .

Proof: This is the integral form of the chain rule for derivatives.Let F be a primitive of f ,

that is, F ′ = f . Then(F (u)

)′= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .

Proof: This is the integral form of the chain rule for derivatives.Let F be a primitive of f , that is, F ′ = f .

Then(F (u)

)′= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′

= f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.

Integrate the equation above,

∫f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))

dx(x) dx

= F (u(x)).


∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))


Denoting y = u(x), we get

∫f (u(x)) u′(x) dx = F (y) =

∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))


Denoting y = u(x), we get∫f (u(x)) u′(x) dx = F (y)

=

∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy

=

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule


f (u(x)) u′(x) dx =

∫f (y) dy .


F (u))′

= F ′(u) u′ = f (u) u′.


∫d(F (u))



∫F ′(y) dy =

∫f (y) dy .

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .

Solution: The argument in the tangent function is has an x2,and in the integral appears the factor x dx . We try the substitution

u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .

This substitution will simplify the integration if cos2(2x2) can berelated to [1 + cos(4x2)]. And this is the case, since

cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .

Solution: The argument in the tangent function is has an x2,

and in the integral appears the factor x dx . We try the substitution

u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .

Solution: The argument in the tangent function is has an x2,and in the integral appears the factor x dx .

We try the substitution

u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2),

du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .

This substitution will simplify the integration if cos2(2x2) can berelated to [1 + cos(4x2)].

And this is the case, since

cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .

This substitution will simplify the integration if cos2(2x2) can berelated to [1 + cos(4x2)]. And this is the case,

since

cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

),

θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx

=

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx

=3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


u = tan(2x2), du =1

cos2(2x2)(4x) dx .


cos2(θ) =1

2

(1 + cos(2θ)

), θ = 2x2,

I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx =

∫3x etan(2x2)

2 cos2(2x2)dx =

3

2

∫eu du

4.

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .

Solution: Recall: I =3

2

∫eu du

4, with u = tan(2x2).

I =3

8

∫eu du =

3

8eu + c .

We now substitute back with u = tan(2x2),

I =3

8etan(2x2) + c .

C

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


2

∫eu du


I =3

8

∫eu du

=3

8eu + c .


I =3

8etan(2x2) + c .

C

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


2

∫eu du


I =3

8

∫eu du =

3

8eu + c .


I =3

8etan(2x2) + c .

C

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


2

∫eu du


I =3

8

∫eu du =

3

8eu + c .


I =3

8etan(2x2) + c .

C

Substitution rule

Example

Evaluate I =

∫3x etan(2x2)

[1 + cos(4x2)]dx .


2

∫eu du


I =3

8

∫eu du =

3

8eu + c .


I =3

8etan(2x2) + c .

C






I Multiplying by 1.

Completing the square

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.

Solution: The idea is to rewrite the function inside the square root:

x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4

= x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4

= x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4

= (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5

u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3,

du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5

=1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

x2 + 6x + 4.


x2 + 6x + 4 = x2 + 2(6

2

)x + 4 = x2 + 2(3x) + 4

x2 + 6x + 4 = [x2 + 2(3x) + 9]− 9 + 4 = (x + 3)2 − 5.

I =

∫dx

(x + 3)√

(x + 3)2 − 5u = x + 3, du = dx

I =

∫du

u√

u2 − 5=

1√5

arcsec( |u|√

5

)+ c .

We obtain I =1√5

arcsec( |x + 3|√

5

)+ c . C


Remark: Sometimes completing the square is not needed.

Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.

Solution: Since the factor (x + 3) is in the numerator, instead ofthe denominator, substitution will work:

u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .

We conclude that I =√

x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.

Solution: Since the factor (x + 3) is in the numerator, instead ofthe denominator,

substitution will work:

u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4,

du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx

= 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2

=1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du

=1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C



Example

Evaluate I =

∫(x + 3) dx√x2 + 6x + 4

.


u = x2 + 6x + 4, du = (2x + 6) dx = 2(x + 3) dx .

I =

∫1√u

du

2=

1

2

∫u−1/2 du =

1

2

(2u1/2

)+ c .


x2 + 6x + 4 + c . C






I Multiplying by 1.

Trigonometric identities

Example

Evaluate I =

∫ [sec(x) + tan(x)

]2dx .

Solution: This problem can be solved using trigonometric identitiesfor sine and cosine functions only.

f (x) =[sec(x) + tan(x)

]2=

[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2=

(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .



]2

=[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2=

(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .



]2=

[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2

=(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .



]2=

[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2=

(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .



]2=

[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2=

(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)

=1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .



]2=

[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2=

(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .



]2=

[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2=

(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)

=1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .



]2=

[ 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

]2=

(1 + sin(x))2

cos2(x).

f (x) =1 + 2 sin(x) + sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x).

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1− cos2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .

Solution: Recall: f (x) =[sec(x) + tan(x)

]2,

f (x) =1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x)and

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.

f (x) =2

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)− 1.

I =

∫2 dx

cos2(x)+

∫2 sin(x) dx

cos2(x)−

∫dx .

u = cos(x),

du = − sin(x) dx .

I = 2 tan(x)− 2

∫du

u2− x + c ⇒ I = 2 tan(x) +

2

cos(x)− x + c .


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .


]2,

f (x) =1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x)and

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.

f (x) =2

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)− 1.

I =

∫2 dx

cos2(x)+

∫2 sin(x) dx

cos2(x)−

∫dx .

u = cos(x),


I = 2 tan(x)− 2

∫du

u2− x + c ⇒ I = 2 tan(x) +

2

cos(x)− x + c .


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .


]2,

f (x) =1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x)and

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.

f (x) =2

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)− 1.

I =

∫2 dx

cos2(x)+

∫2 sin(x) dx

cos2(x)−

∫dx .

u = cos(x),


I = 2 tan(x)− 2

∫du

u2− x + c ⇒ I = 2 tan(x) +

2

cos(x)− x + c .


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .


]2,

f (x) =1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x)and

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.

f (x) =2

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)− 1.

I =

∫2 dx

cos2(x)+

∫2 sin(x) dx

cos2(x)−

∫dx .

u = cos(x),


I = 2 tan(x)− 2

∫du

u2− x + c ⇒ I = 2 tan(x) +

2

cos(x)− x + c .


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .


]2,

f (x) =1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x)and

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.

f (x) =2

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)− 1.

I =

∫2 dx

cos2(x)+

∫2 sin(x) dx

cos2(x)−

∫dx .

u = cos(x),


I = 2 tan(x)− 2

∫du

u2− x + c

⇒ I = 2 tan(x) +2

cos(x)− x + c .


Example

Evaluate I =


]2dx .


]2,

f (x) =1

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)+

sin2(x)

cos2(x)and

sin2(x)

cos2(x)=

1

cos2(x)− 1.

f (x) =2

cos2(x)+

2 sin(x)

cos2(x)− 1.

I =

∫2 dx

cos2(x)+

∫2 sin(x) dx

cos2(x)−

∫dx .

u = cos(x),


I = 2 tan(x)− 2

∫du

u2− x + c ⇒ I = 2 tan(x) +

2

cos(x)− x + c .






I Multiplying by 1.

Polynomial division

Example

Evaluate I =

∫4x2 − 7

2x + 3dx .

Solution: The degree of the polynomial in the numerator is greateror equal the degree of the polynomial in the denominator.In this case it is convenient to do the division:

2x − 3

2x + 3)

4x2 − 7− 4x2 − 6x

− 6x − 76x + 9

2

⇒ 4x2 − 7

2x + 3= 2x − 3 +

2

2x + 3.

I =

∫(2x−3) dx +

∫2 dx

2x + 3⇒ I = x2−3x +ln(2x +3)+ c .

Polynomial division

Example

Evaluate I =

∫4x2 − 7

2x + 3dx .

Solution: The degree of the polynomial in the numerator is greateror equal the degree of the polynomial in the denominator.

In this case it is convenient to do the division:

2x − 3

2x + 3)

4x2 − 7− 4x2 − 6x

− 6x − 76x + 9

2

⇒ 4x2 − 7

2x + 3= 2x − 3 +

2

2x + 3.

I =

∫(2x−3) dx +

∫2 dx

2x + 3⇒ I = x2−3x +ln(2x +3)+ c .

Polynomial division

Example

Evaluate I =

∫4x2 − 7

2x + 3dx .


2x − 3

2x + 3)

4x2 − 7− 4x2 − 6x

− 6x − 76x + 9

2

⇒ 4x2 − 7

2x + 3= 2x − 3 +

2

2x + 3.

I =

∫(2x−3) dx +

∫2 dx

2x + 3⇒ I = x2−3x +ln(2x +3)+ c .

Polynomial division

Example

Evaluate I =

∫4x2 − 7

2x + 3dx .


2x − 3

2x + 3)

4x2 − 7− 4x2 − 6x

− 6x − 76x + 9

2

⇒ 4x2 − 7

2x + 3= 2x − 3 +

2

2x + 3.

I =

∫(2x−3) dx +

∫2 dx

2x + 3⇒ I = x2−3x +ln(2x +3)+ c .

Polynomial division

Example

Evaluate I =

∫4x2 − 7

2x + 3dx .


2x − 3

2x + 3)

4x2 − 7− 4x2 − 6x

− 6x − 76x + 9

2

⇒ 4x2 − 7

2x + 3= 2x − 3 +

2

2x + 3.

I =

∫(2x−3) dx +

∫2 dx

2x + 3⇒ I = x2−3x +ln(2x +3)+ c .

Polynomial division

Example

Evaluate I =

∫4x2 − 7

2x + 3dx .


2x − 3

2x + 3)

4x2 − 7− 4x2 − 6x

− 6x − 76x + 9

2

⇒ 4x2 − 7

2x + 3= 2x − 3 +

2

2x + 3.

I =

∫(2x−3) dx +

∫2 dx

2x + 3

⇒ I = x2−3x +ln(2x +3)+ c .

Polynomial division

Example

Evaluate I =

∫4x2 − 7

2x + 3dx .


2x − 3

2x + 3)

4x2 − 7− 4x2 − 6x

− 6x − 76x + 9

2

⇒ 4x2 − 7

2x + 3= 2x − 3 +

2

2x + 3.

I =

∫(2x−3) dx +

∫2 dx

2x + 3⇒ I = x2−3x +ln(2x +3)+ c .






I Multiplying by 1.

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1

cos2(x)and u = cos(x) implies du = − sin(x) dx ,

I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .

We conclude that I = tan(x)− sec(x) + c . C

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx

=

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx

=

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1

cos2(x)

and u = cos(x) implies du = − sin(x) dx ,

I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1

cos2(x)and u = cos(x)

implies du = − sin(x) dx ,

I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2

= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c

= tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫dx

1 + sin(x).

Solution:

I =

∫1(

1 + sin(x)) (

1− sin(x))(

1− sin(x)) dx =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)(1− sin2(x)

) dx .

I =

∫ (1− sin(x)

)cos2(x)

dx =

∫dx

cos2(x)−

∫sin(x)

cos2(x)dx .

Since tan′(x) =1


I = tan(x) +

∫du

u2= tan(x)− 1

u+ c = tan(x)− 1

cos(x)+ c .


Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1

cos(x) + sin(x)cos(x)

)′(1


) dx ⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1


)′(1


) dx ⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)

=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1


)′(1


) dx ⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1


)′(1


) dx ⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx

and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1


)′(1


) dx ⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1


)′(1


) dx ⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1


)′(1


) dx

⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Multiplying by 1

Example

Evaluate I =

∫sec(x) dx .


I =

∫dx

cos(x)=

∫1

cos(x)

(1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos2(x)

+ sin(x)cos2(x)

) dx

I =

∫ (1

cos2(x)+ sin(x)

cos2(x)

)(

1cos(x) + sin(x)

cos(x)

) dx and

( 1

cos(x)

)′=

sin(x)

cos2(x),( sin(x)

cos(x)

)′=

1

cos2(x).

I =

∫ (1


)′(1


) dx ⇒ I = ln( 1

cos(x)+

sin(x)

cos(x)

)+ c .

Inverse trigonometric functions (Sect. 7.6) · Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions Remark: Derivatives inverse functions can be computed with f−1 0 (x) = 1 f0 f−1(x)

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