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Inuit
Traditional qamutik (sled), Cape Dorset, Nunavut
Total population
118,426[1][2][3]
Regions with significant populations
Greenland 51,365[2]
Canada 50,480[1]
United States 16,581[3]
Languages
Inuit languages, Danish, English, French, andvarious others
Religion
Christianity, Inuit religion
Related ethnic groups
Aleut and Yupik peoples[4]
InuitFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Inuit (pronounced /nut/ or /njut/; Inuktitut:, "the people"[5])
are a group of culturally similarindigenous peoples inhabiting the
Arctic regions ofGreenland, Canada, and Alaska.[6] Inuit is a
plural noun;the singular is Inuk.[5] The Inuit languages are
classifiedin the Eskimo-Aleut family.[7]
In the United States and Canada the term "Eskimo" wascommonly
used to describe the Inuit, and Alaska's Yupikand Iupiat. "Inuit"
is not accepted as a term for theYupik, and "Eskimo"[8] is the only
term that includesYupik, Iupiat and Inuit. However, Aboriginal
peoples inCanada and Greenland view "Eskimo" as pejorative,
and"Inuit" has become more common.[9][10] In Canada,sections 25 and
35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 namedthe "Inuit" as a
distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadianswho are not included under
either the First Nations or theMtis.[11]
The Inuit live throughout most of the Canadian Arctic
andsubarctic in the territory of Nunavut; "Nunavik" in thenorthern
third of Quebec; "Nunatsiavut" and"NunatuKavut" in Labrador; and in
various parts of theNorthwest Territories, particularly around the
ArcticOcean. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the
"InuitNunangat".[12][13] In the United States, Inupiat live on
theNorth Slope in Alaska and on Little Diomede Island.
TheGreenlandic Inuit are the descendants of migrations fromCanada
and are citizens of Denmark, although not of theEuropean Union.
Contents1 Prehistory2 Postcontact history
2.1 Canada2.1.1 Early contact with Europeans2.1.2 Early 20th
century2.1.3 Second World War to the 1960s
2.1.4 Cultural renewal
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2.1.4 Cultural renewal2.1.5 Inuit cabinet members at the federal
level
3 Nomenclature4 Cultural history
4.1 Languages4.2 Diet4.3 Transport, navigation, and dogs4.4
Industry, art, and clothing4.5 Gender roles, marriage, birth, and
community4.6 Raiding4.7 Suicide, murder, and death4.8 Traditional
law
5 Traditional beliefs6 Demographics
6.1 Canada6.2 Greenland6.3 United States6.4 Russia
7 Governance7.1 Regional autonomy in Canada7.2 Greenland
autonomous country7.3 Alaska
8 Modern culture9 References10 Further reading11 External
links
Prehistory
Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule
culture,[14] who emerged from westernAlaska, after crossing from
Siberia, around 1000 CE and spread eastwards across the Arctic.[15]
Theydisplaced the related Dorset culture, the last major
Paleo-Eskimo culture (in Inuktitut, called the Tuniit).[16]
Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as "giants", people who were
taller and stronger than the Inuit.[17] Lessfrequently, the legends
refer to the Dorset as "dwarfs".[18] Researchers believe that the
Dorset culture lackeddogs, larger weapons and other technologies
that gave the expanding Inuit society an advantage.[19] By1300, the
Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and they moved into east
Greenland over the followingcentury.[20]
Faced with population pressures from the Thule and other
surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian andSiouan to the south,
the Tuniit gradually receded.[21] They were thought to have become
completely extinctas a people by about 1400 or 1500.
But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined
that, based on the ruins found at NativePoint, the Sadlermiut were
likely the last remnants of the Dorset culture.[22] The Sadlermiut
populationsurvived up until winter 190203, when exposure to new
infectious diseases brought by contact with
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Europeans led to their extinction as a people.[23] More
recently,mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of
continuitybetween the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut.[24][25] It also
has providedevidence that a population displacement did not occur
within the AleutianIslands between the Dorset and Thule
transition.[26] In contrast to otherTuniit populations, the Aleut
and Sadlermiut benefited from bothgeographical isolation and their
ability to adopt certain Thuletechnologies.
In Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively
north of the"Arctic tree line", the effective southern border of
Inuit society. The mostsouthern "officially recognized" Inuit
community in the world isRigolet[27] in Nunatsiavut. South of
Nunatsiavut, the descendants of thesouthern Labrador Inuit in
NunatuKavut continued their traditionaltranshumant semi-nomadic way
of life until the mid-1900s. TheNunatukavummuit were usually spread
out among islands and bays andtherefore did not establish
stationary communities. In other areas south ofthe tree line,
Native American cultures were well established. The cultureand
technology of Inuit society that served so well in the Arctic were
notsuited to subarctic regions, so they did not displace their
southernneighbors.
Inuit had trade relations with more southern cultures; boundary
disputeswere common and gave rise to aggressive actions. Warfare
was notuncommon among those Inuit groups with sufficient population
density.Inuit such as the Nunatamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited
theMackenzie River delta area often engaged in warfare. The more
sparselysettled Inuit in the Central Arctic, however, did so less
often.
Their first European contact was with the Vikings who settled
inGreenland and explored the eastern Canadian coast. The Norse
sagasrecorded meeting skrlingar, probably an undifferentiated label
for allthe native Americans whom the Norse encountered, whether
Tuniit, Inuit,or Beothuk.[28]
After about 1350, the climate grew colder during the period
known as theLittle Ice Age. During this period, Alaskan natives
were able to continuetheir whaling activities, but Inuit were
forced to abandon their huntingand whaling sites in the high Arctic
as bowhead whales disappeared fromCanada and Greenland.[29] These
Inuit then had to subsist on a much
poorer diet in addition to losing access to essential raw
materials for their tools and architecture previouslyderived from
whaling.[29]
The changing climate forced Inuit to work their way south,
forcing them into marginal niches along theedges of the tree line.
These were areas which Native Americans had not occupied or where
they were weakenough for coexistence with Inuit. Researchers have
difficulty defining when Inuit stopped territorial
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expansion. There is evidence that they were still moving into
new territory in southern Labrador when theyfirst began to interact
with Europeans in the 17th century.
Postcontact history
Canada
Early contact with Europeans
The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely
unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemenexcept for mutual
trade.[30] Labrador Inuit have had the longest continuous contact
with Europeans.[31]After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in
Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for atleast a
century. By the mid-16th century, Basque whalers and fishermen were
already working the Labradorcoast and had established whaling
stations on land, such as the one that has been excavated at
RedBay.[32][33] The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their
operations, but they raided the stations inwinter for tools and
items made of worked iron, which they adapted to their own needs.
Martin Frobisher's1576 search for the Northwest Passage was the
first well-documented post-Columbian contact betweenEuropeans and
Inuit. Frobisher's expedition landed in Frobisher Bay, Baffin
Island, not far from thesettlement now called The City of Iqaluit
which was long known as Frobisher Bay. Frobisher encounteredInuit
on Resolution Island where five sailors left the ship, under orders
from Frobisher, and became part ofInuit mythology. The homesick
sailors, tired of their adventure, attempted to leave in a small
vessel andvanished. Frobisher brought an unwilling Inuk to England,
possibly the first Inuk ever to visit Europe.[34]The Inuit oral
tradition, in contrast, recounts the natives helping Frobisher's
crewmen, whom they believedhad been abandoned.
The semi-nomadic eco-centred Inuit were fishers and hunters
harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms andtundra. While there are
some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early French and
English explorers,fishers and whalers, more recent research
suggests that the early relations with whaling stations along
theLabrador coast and later James Bay were based on a mutual
interest in trade.[35] In the final years of the18th century, the
Moravian Church began missionary activities in Labrador, supported
by the British whowere tired of the raids on their whaling
stations. The Moravian missionaries could easily provide the
Inuitwith the iron and basic materials they had been stealing from
whaling outposts, materials whose real cost toEuropeans was almost
nothing, but whose value to the Inuit was enormous and from then on
contacts inLabrador were far more peaceful.
The European arrival tremendously damaged the Inuit way of life,
causing mass death through new diseasesintroduced by whalers and
explorers, and enormous social disruptions caused by the distorting
effect ofEuropeans' material wealth. Nonetheless, Inuit society in
the higher latitudes had largely remained inisolation during the
19th century. The Hudson's Bay Company opened trading posts such as
Great WhaleRiver (1820), today the site of the twin villages of
Whapmagoostui and Kuujjuarapik, where whale productsof the
commercial whale hunt were processed and furs traded. The British
Naval Expedition of 18213 ledby Admiral William Edward Parry, which
twice over-wintered in Foxe Basin, provided the first
informed,sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic,
social and religious life of the Inuit. Parrystayed in what is now
Igloolik over the second winter. Parry's writings, with pen and ink
illustrations ofInuit everyday life, and those of George Francis
Lyon, both published in 1824 were widely read.[36] Captain
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Hudson's Bay Company Shipsbartering with Inuit off the
UpperSavage Islands, Hudson Strait, 1819
George Comer's Inuit wife Shoofly, known for her sewing skills
andelegant attire,[37] was influential in convincing him to acquire
moresewing accessories and beads for trade with Inuit.
Early 20th century
During the early 20th century a few traders and
missionariescirculated among the more accessible bands, and after
1904 theywere accompanied by a handful of Royal Canadian Mounted
Police(RCMP). Unlike most Aboriginal peoples in Canada, however,
thelands occupied by the Inuit were of little interest to European
settlers to the southerners, the homeland of the Inuit was a
hostilehinterland. Southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as
bureaucrats andservice providers to the north, but very few ever
chose to visit there. Canada, with its more hospitable landslargely
settled, began to take a greater interest in its more peripheral
territories, especially the fur andmineral-rich hinterlands. By the
late 1920s, there were no longer any Inuit who had not been
contacted bytraders, missionaries or government agents. In 1939,
the Supreme Court of Canada found, in a decisionknown as Re
Eskimos, that the Inuit should be considered Indians and were thus
under the jurisdiction of thefederal government.
Native customs were worn down by the actions of the RCMP, who
enforced Canadian criminal law on Inuit,such as Kikkik, who often
could not understand what they had done wrong, and by missionaries
whopreached a moral code very different from the one they were used
to. Many of the Inuit were systematicallyconverted to Christianity
in the 19th and 20th centuries, through rituals like the
Siqqitiq.
Second World War to the 1960s
World War II and the Cold War made Arctic Canada strategically
important for the first time and, thanks tothe development of
modern aircraft, accessible year-round. The construction of air
bases and the DistantEarly Warning Line in the 1940s and 1950s
brought more intensive contacts with European society,particularly
in the form of public education, which traditionalists complained
instilled foreign valuesdisdainful of the traditional structure of
Inuit society.[38]
In the 1950s the High Arctic relocation was undertaken by the
Government of Canada for several reasons.These were to include
protecting Canada's sovereignty in the Arctic, alleviating hunger
(as the area currentlyoccupied had been over-hunted), and
attempting to solve the "Eskimo problem", meaning the
assimilationand end of the Inuit culture. One of the more notable
relocations was undertaken in 1953, when 17 familieswere moved from
Port Harrison (now Inukjuak, Quebec) to Resolute and Grise Fiord.
They were droppedoff in early September when winter had already
arrived. The land they were sent to was very different fromthat in
the Inukjuak area; it was barren, with only a couple of months when
the temperature rose abovefreezing and several months of polar
night. The families were told by the RCMP they would be able
toreturn within two years if conditions were not right. However,
two years later more families were relocatedto the High Arctic and
it was to be thirty years before they were able to visit
Inukjuak.[39][40][41]
By 1953, Canada's prime minister Louis St. Laurent publicly
admitted, "Apparently we have administeredthe vast territories of
the north in an almost continuing absence of mind."[42] The
government began toestablish about forty permanent administrative
centres to provide education, health and economic
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development services.[42] Inuit from hundreds of smaller camps
scattered across the north, began tocongregate in these
hamlets.[43]
Regular visits from doctors, and access to modern medical care
raised the birth rate and decreased the deathrate, causing an
enormous natural increase. In the 1950s, the Canadian government
began to actively settleInuit into permanent villages and cities,
occasionally against their will (such as in Nuntak and
Hebron).These forced resettlements were acknowledged by the
Canadian government in 2005.[44] By the mid-1960s,encouraged first
by missionaries, then by the prospect of paid jobs and government
services, and finallyforced by hunger and required by police, most
Canadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements.The
nomadic migrations that were the central feature of Arctic life had
become a much smaller part of lifein the North. The Inuit, a once
self-sufficient people in an extremely harsh environment were, in
the span ofperhaps two generations, transformed into a small,
impoverished minority, lacking skills or resources to sellto the
larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for survival.
Although anthropologists like Diamond Jenness (1964) were quick
to predict that Inuit culture was facingextinction, Inuit political
activism was already emerging.
Cultural renewal
In the 1960s, the Canadian government funded the establishment
of secular, government-operated highschools in the Northwest
Territories (including what is now Nunavut) and Inuit areas in
Quebec andLabrador along with the residential school system. The
Inuit population was not large enough to support afull high school
in every community, so this meant only a few schools were built,
and students from acrossthe territories were boarded there. These
schools, in Aklavik, Iqaluit, Yellowknife, Inuvik and
Kuujjuaq,brought together young Inuit from across the Arctic in one
place for the first time, and exposed them to therhetoric of civil
and human rights that prevailed in Canada in the 1960s. This was a
real wake-up call for theInuit, and it stimulated the emergence of
a new generation of young Inuit activists in the late 1960s whocame
forward and pushed for respect for the Inuit and their
territories.
The Inuit began to emerge as a political force in the late 1960s
and early 1970s, shortly after the firstgraduates returned home.
They formed new politically active associations in the early 1970s,
starting withthe Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (Inuit Brotherhood and
today known as Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami), an outgrowthof the Indian
and Eskimo Association of the '60s, in 1971, and more region
specific organizations shortlyafterwards, including the Committee
for the Original People's Entitlement (representing the
Inuvialuit),[45]the Northern Quebec Inuit Association (Makivik
Corporation) and the Labrador Inuit Association (LIA)representing
Northern Labrador Inuit. Since the mid-1980s the Southern Labrador
Inuit of NunatuKavutbegan organizing politically after being
geographically cut out of the LIA, however, for political
expediencythe organization was erroneously called the Labrador Mtis
Nation. These various activist movements beganto change the
direction of Inuit society in 1975 with the James Bay and Northern
Quebec Agreement. Thiscomprehensive land claims settlement for
Quebec Inuit, along with a large cash settlement and
substantialadministrative autonomy in the new region of Nunavik,
set the precedent for the settlements to follow. Thenorthern
Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in 1977, although they
had to wait until 2005 to have asigned land settlement establishing
Nunatsiavut. Southern Labrador Inuit of NunatuKavut are currently
inthe process of establishing landclaims and title rights that
would allow them to negotiate with theNewfoundland Government.
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Canada's 1982 Constitution Act recognized the Inuit as
Aboriginal peoples in Canada, but not FirstNations.[11] In the same
year, the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut (TFN) was incorporated,
in order totake over negotiations for land claims on behalf of the
Inuit living in the eastern Northwest Territories, thatwould later
become Nunavut, from the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, which became a
joint association of the Inuitof Quebec, Labrador and the Northwest
Territories.
Inuit cabinet members at the federal level
On October 30, 2008, Leona Aglukkaq was appointed as Minister of
Health, "[becoming] the first Inuk tohold a senior cabinet
position, although she is not the first Inuk to be in cabinet
altogether."[46] Jack Anawakand Nancy Karetak-Lindell were both
parliamentary secretaries respectively from 1993 to 1996 and in
2003.
NomenclatureIn the United States, the term "Eskimo" is still
commonly used, because it includes; Inuit, Aleut, Iupiat,and Yupik
peoples - whilst distinguishing them from American Indians. The
Yupik do not speak an Inuitlanguage or consider themselves to be
Inuit.[8] However, the term is probably
aMontagnais[47][48][49]exonym as well as being widely used
in[47][50][51][52] folk etymology as meaning"eater of raw meat" in
the Cree language.[10][53] It is now considered pejorative or even
a racial sluramongst the Canadian and English-speaking Greenlandic
Inuit.[10][53]
In Canada and Greenland, "Inuit" is preferred. Inuit is the
Eastern Canadian Inuit (Inuktitut) and WestGreenlandic
(Kalaallisut) word for "the people."[5] Since Inuktitut and
Kalaallisut are the prestige dialects inCanada and Greenland,
respectively, their version has become dominant, although every
Inuit dialect usescognates from the Proto-Eskimo *iu for example,
"people" is inughuit in North Greenlandic and iivit inEast
Greenlandic.
Cultural history
Languages
Inuit speak Inuinnaqtun, Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, and
Greenlandic Inuktitut, which belong to the Inuit-Inupiaq branch of
the Eskimo-Aleut language family.[4] Greenlandic Inuktitut is
divided into: Kalallisut(Western), Inuktun (Northern), and Tunumiit
(Eastern).[54]
Inuktitut is spoken in Canada. Kalaallisut is the official
language of Greenland.[55] As Inuktitut was thelanguage of the
Eastern Canadian Inuit and Kalaallisut is the language of the
Western Greenlandic Inuit,they are related more closely than most
other dialects.[56]
Inuit in Alaska and Canada also typically speak English. In
Greenland, Inuit also speak Danish and learnEnglish in school.
Canadian Inuit may also speak Qubcois French.
Diet
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Distribution of Inuit dialects
Inupiat in a kayak, Noatak, Alaska, c.1929 (photo by Edward S.
Curtis)
The Inuit have traditionally been fishers and hunters. They
still hunt whales (esp. bowhead whale), walrus,caribou, seal, polar
bears, muskoxen, birds, and fish and at times other less commonly
eaten animals such asthe Arctic Fox. The typical Inuit diet is high
in protein and very high in fat in their traditional diets,
Inuitconsumed an average of 75% of their daily energy intake from
fat.[57] While it is not possible to cultivateplants for food in
the Arctic, the Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are
naturally available. Grasses,tubers, roots, stems, berries, and
seaweed (kuanniq or edible seaweed) were collected and
preserveddepending on the season and the
location.[58][59][60][61][62] There is a vast array of different
huntingtechnologies that the Inuit used to gather their food.
In the 1920s anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson lived with and
studied a group of Inuit.[63] The studyfocused on the fact that the
Inuit's low-carbohydrate diet had no adverse effects on their
health, nor indeed,Stefansson's own health. Stefansson (1946) also
observed that the Inuit were able to get the necessaryvitamins they
needed from their traditional winter diet,which did not contain any
plant matter. In particular, hefound that adequate vitamin C could
be obtained fromitems in their traditional diet of raw meat such as
RingedSeal liver and whale skin (muktuk). While there
wasconsiderable skepticism when he reported thesefindings, they
have been borne out in recent studies andanalyses.[64][65] However,
the Inuit have lifespans 12 to15 years shorter than the average
Canadian's, which isthought to be a result of limited access to
medicalservices.[66] The life expectancy gap is
notclosing.[66][67][68]
Transport, navigation, and dogs
The natives hunted sea animals from single-passenger,covered
seal-skin boats called qajaq (Inuktitut syllabics:)[69] which were
extraordinarily buoyant, and could easily berighted by a seated
person, even if completely overturned. Becauseof this property the
design was copied by Europeans and Americanswho still produce them
under the Inuit name kayak.
Inuit also made umiaq ("woman's boat"), larger open boats made
ofwood frames covered with animal skins, for transporting
people,goods and dogs. They were 612m (2039ft) long and had a
flatbottom so that the boats could come close to shore. In the
winter,Inuit would also hunt sea mammals by patiently watching an
aglu(breathing hole) in the ice and waiting for the air-breathing
seals touse them. This technique is also used by the polar bear,
who huntsby seeking holes in the ice and waiting nearby.
In winter, both on land and on sea ice, the Inuit used dog sleds
(qamutik) for transportation. The husky dogbreed comes from Inuit
breeding of dogs and wolves for transportation. A team of dogs in
either atandem/side-by-side or fan formation would pull a sled made
of wood, animal bones, or the baleen from a
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Urbanization in Greenland
Inupiat baleen basket, with an ivoryhandle, made by Kinguktuk
(18711941) of Barrow, Alaska. Displayedat the Museum of Man, San
Diego,California.
whale's mouth and even frozen fish,[70] over the snow and ice.
The Inuit used stars to navigate at sea andlandmarks to navigate on
land; they possessed a comprehensive native system of toponymy.
Where naturallandmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect an
inukshuk.
Dogs played an integral role in the annual routine of the
Inuit.During the summer they became pack animals, sometimes
draggingup to 20kg (44lb) of baggage and in the winter they pulled
the sled.Yearlong they assisted with hunting by sniffing out seals'
holes andpestering polar bears. They also protected the Inuit
villages bybarking at bears and strangers. The Inuit generally
favored, and triedto breed, the most striking and handsome of dogs,
especially oneswith bright eyes and a healthy coat. Common husky
dog breeds usedby the Inuit were the Canadian Eskimo Dog, the
official animal ofNunavut,[71] (Qimmiq; Inuktitut for dog), the
Greenland Dog, theSiberian Husky and the Alaskan Malamute. The
Inuit would performrituals over the newborn pup to give it
favorable qualities; the legswere pulled to make them grow strong
and the nose was poked witha pin to enhance the sense of smell.
Industry, art, and clothing
Inuit industry relied almost exclusively on animal hides,
driftwood,and bones, although some tools were also made out of
workedstones, particularly the readily worked soapstone. Walrus
ivory wasa particularly essential material, used to make knives.
Art played abig part in Inuit society and continues to do so today.
Smallsculptures of animals and human figures, usually depicting
everydayactivities such as hunting and whaling, were carved from
ivory andbone. In modern times prints and figurative works carved
inrelatively soft stone such as soapstone, serpentinite, or
argillite havealso become popular.
Inuit made clothes and footwear from animal skins, sewn
togetherusing needles made from animal bones and threads made from
otheranimal products, such as sinew. The anorak (parka) is made in
a similar fashion by Arctic peoples fromEurope through Asia and the
Americas, including the Inuit. The hood of an amauti, (women's
parka, pluralamautiit) was traditionally made extra large with a
separate compartment below the hood to allow themother to carry a
baby against her back and protect it from the harsh wind. Styles
vary from region toregion, from the shape of the hood to the length
of the tails. Boots (mukluk or kamik[72]), could be made ofcaribou
or seal skin, and designed for men and women.
During the winter, certain Inuit lived in a temporary shelter
made from snow called an iglu, and during thefew months of the year
when temperatures were above freezing, they lived in tents, known
as tupiq,[73]
made of animal skins supported by a frame of bones or
wood.[74][75] Some, such as the Siglit, useddriftwood,[76] while
others built sod houses.[77]
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Inuit woman's parka, Canada.
Traditional clothing; left: seal, right:caribou.
Gender roles, marriage, birth, and community
The division of labor in traditional Inuit society had a strong
gender component, but it was not absolute. Themen were
traditionally hunters and fishermen and the women took care of the
children, cleaned the home,sewed, processed food, and cooked.
However, there are numerous examples of women who hunted, out
ofnecessity or as a personal choice. At the same time men, who
could be away from camp for several days at atime, would be
expected to know how to sew and cook.[78]
The marital customs among the Inuit were not strictly
monogamous: many Inuit relationships wereimplicitly or explicitly
sexual. Open marriages, polygamy, divorce, and remarriage were
known. Amongsome Inuit groups, if there were children, divorce
required the approval of the community and particularlythe
agreement of the elders. Marriages were often arranged, sometimes
in infancy, and occasionally forcedon the couple by the
community.[79]
Marriage was common for women at puberty and for men when
theybecame productive hunters. Family structure was flexible:
ahousehold might consist of a man and his wife (or wives)
andchildren; it might include his parents or his wife's parents as
well asadopted children; it might be a larger formation of several
siblingswith their parents, wives and children; or even more than
one familysharing dwellings and resources. Every household had its
head, anelder or a particularly respected man.[80]
There was also a larger notion of community as, generally,
severalfamilies shared a place where they wintered. Goods were
sharedwithin a household, and also, to a significant extent, within
a wholecommunity.
The Inuit were huntergatherers,[81] and have been referred to
asnomadic.[82] One of the customs following the birth of an infant
wasfor an Angakkuq (shaman) to place a tiny ivory carving of a
whaleinto the baby's mouth, in hopes this would make the child good
athunting. Loud singing and drumming were also customary after
abirth.[83]
Raiding
Virtually all Inuit cultures have oral traditions of raids by
otherindigenous peoples, including fellow Inuit, and of taking
vengeanceon them in return, such as the Bloody Falls Massacre.
Westernobservers often regarded these tales as generally not
entirelyaccurate historical accounts, but more as self-serving
myths.However, evidence shows that Inuit cultures had quite
accuratemethods of teaching historical accounts to each new
generation.[84]In northern Canada, historically there were ethnic
feuds between the
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Igloo.
Inupiat woman, Alaska, circa 1907
An Inupiat family from Noatak,Alaska, 1929.
Dene and the Inuit, as witnessed by Samuel Hearne in 1771.[85]
In1996, Dene and Inuit representatives participated in a
healingceremony to reconcile the centuries-old grievances.[86]
The historic accounts of violence against outsiders does make
clearthat there was a history of hostile contact within the Inuit
culturesand with other cultures.[87] It also makes it clear that
Inuit nationsexisted through history, as well as confederations of
such nations.The known confederations were usually formed to defend
against amore prosperous, and thus stronger, nation. Alternately,
people wholived in less productive geographical areas tended to be
less warlike,as they had to spend more time producing food.
Justice within Inuit culture was moderated by the form
ofgovernance that gave significant power to the elders. As in
mostcultures around the world, justice could be harsh and often
includedcapital punishment for serious crimes against the community
or theindividual. During raids against other peoples, the Inuit,
like theirnon-Inuit neighbors, tended to be merciless.[88]
Suicide, murder, and death
A pervasive European myth about Inuit is that they killed
elderly(senicide) and unproductive people",[89] but this is not
generallytrue.[90][91][92] In a culture with an oral history,
elders are thekeepers of communal knowledge, effectively the
communitylibrary.[93] Because they are of extreme value as the
repository ofknowledge, there are cultural taboos against
sacrificing elders.[94][95]
In Antoon A. Leenaar's book Suicide in Canada he states
that"Rasmussen found that the death of elders by suicide was
acommonplace among the Iglulik Inuit."[96] He heard of many oldmen
and women who had hanged themselves.[96] By ensuring theydied a
violent death, Inuit elders purified their souls for journey tothe
afterworld.[96]
According to Franz Boas, suicide was "...not of rare
occurrence..."and was generally accomplished through hanging.[97]
Writing of theLabrador Inuit, Hawkes (1916) was considerably more
explicit on the subject of suicide and the burden ofthe
elderly:
Aged people who have outlived their usefulness and whose life is
a burden both to themselvesand their relatives are put to death by
stabbing or strangulation. This is customarily done at therequest
of the individual concerned, but not always so. Aged people who are
a hindrance on the
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trail are abandoned.
Antoon A. Leenaars,Suicide in Canada[98]
People seeking assistance in their suicide made three
consecutive requests to relatives for help.[99] Familymembers would
attempt to dissuade the individual at each suggestion, but with the
third request by a person,assistance became obligatory.[99] In some
cases, a suicide was a publicly acknowledged and attendedevent.[99]
Once the suicide had been agreed to, the victim would dress him or
herself as the dead are clothed,with clothing turned
inside-out.[99] The death occurred at a specific place, where the
material possessions ofdeceased people were brought to be
destroyed.[99]
When food is not sufficient, the elderly are the least likely to
survive. In the extreme case of famine, theInuit fully understood
that, if there was to be any hope of obtaining more food, a hunter
was necessarily theone to feed on whatever food was left. However,
a common response to desperate conditions and the threatof
starvation was infanticide.[100][101] A mother abandoned an infant
in hopes that someone less desperatemight find and adopt the child
before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that the Inuit
regularly resortedto infanticide may be due in part to studies done
by Asen Balikci,[102] Milton Freeman[103] and DavidRiches[104]
among the Netsilik, along with the trial of Kikkik.[105][106] Other
recent research has noted that"While there is little disagreement
that there were examples of infanticide in Inuit communities, it
ispresently not known the depth and breadth of these incidents. The
research is neither complete norconclusive to allow for a
determination of whether infanticide was a rare or a widely
practiced event."[107]
Anthropologists believed that Inuit cultures routinely killed
children born with physical defects because ofthe demands of the
extreme climate. These views were changed by late 20th century
discoveries of burials atan archaeological site. Between 1982 and
1994, a storm with high winds caused ocean waves to erode partof
the bluffs near Barrow, Alaska, and a body was discovered to have
been washed out of the mud.Unfortunately the storm claimed the
body, which was not recovered. But examination of the eroded
bankindicated that an ancient house, perhaps with other remains,
was likely to be claimed by the next storm. Thesite, known as the
"Ukkuqsi archaeological site", was excavated. Several frozen bodies
(now known as the"frozen family") were recovered, autopsies were
performed, and they were re-interred as the first burials inthe
then-new Imaiqsaun Cemetery south of Barrow.[108] Years later
another body was washed out of thebluff. It was a female child,
approximately 9 years old, who had clearly been born with a
congenital birthdefect.[109] This child had never been able to
walk, but must have been cared for by family throughout
herlife.[110] She was the best preserved body ever recovered in
Alaska, and radiocarbon dating of grave goodsand of a strand of her
hair all place her back to about 1200 CE.[110]
During the 19th century, the Western Arctic suffered a
population decline of close to 90%, resulting fromexposure to new
diseases, including tuberculosis, measles, influenza, and smallpox.
Autopsies nearGreenland reveal that, more commonly pneumonia,
kidney diseases, trichinosis, malnutrition, anddegenerative
disorders may have contributed to mass deaths among different Inuit
tribes. The Inuit believedthat the causes of the disease were of a
spiritual origin.[111]
Traditional law
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Some Inuit believed that the spirits oftheir ancestors could be
seen in theAurora Borealis
Inuit traditional laws are anthropologically different from
Western law concepts. Customary law wasthought non-existent in
Inuit society before the introduction of the Canadian legal system.
Hoebel, in 1954,concluded that only 'rudimentary law' existed
amongst the Inuit. Indeed, prior to about 1970, it is impossibleto
find even one reference to a Western observer who was aware that
any form of governance existed amongany Inuit,[112] however, there
was a set way of doing things that had to be followed:
maligait refers to what has to be followedpiqujait refers to
what has to be donetirigusuusiit refers to what has to be
avoided
If an individual's actions went against the tirigusuusiit,
maligait or piqujait, the angakkuq (shaman) mighthave to intervene,
lest the consequences be dire to the individual or the
community.[113]
We are told today that Inuit never had laws or "maligait". Why?
They say because they are notwritten on paper. When I think of
paper, I think you can tear it up, and the laws are gone. Thelaws
of the Inuit are not on paper.
Mariano Aupilaarjuk, Rankin Inlet, Nunavut,Perspectives on
Traditional Law[114]
Traditional beliefsThe environment in which the Inuit lived
inspired a mythology filledwith adventure tales of whale and walrus
hunts. Long winter monthsof waiting for caribou herds or sitting
near breathing holes huntingseals gave birth to stories of
mysterious and sudden appearance ofghosts and fantastic creatures.
Some Inuit looked into the auroraborealis, or northern lights, to
find images of their family and friendsdancing in the next
life.[115] However, some Inuit believed that thelights were more
sinister and if you whistled at them, they wouldcome down and cut
off your head. This tale is still told to childrentoday.[116] For
others they were invisible giants, the souls ofanimals, a guide to
hunting and as a spirit for the angakkuq to helpwith
healing.[116][117] They relied upon the angakkuq (shaman)
forspiritual interpretation. The nearest thing to a central deity
was the Old Woman (Sedna), who lived beneaththe sea. The waters, a
central food source, were believed to contain great gods.
The Inuit practiced a form of shamanism based on animist
principles. They believed that all things had aform of spirit,
including humans, and that to some extent these spirits could be
influenced by a pantheon ofsupernatural entities that could be
appeased when one required some animal or inanimate thing to act in
acertain way. The angakkuq of a community of Inuit was not the
leader, but rather a sort of healer andpsychotherapist, who tended
wounds and offered advice, as well as invoking the spirits to
assist people intheir lives. His or her role was to see, interpret
and exhort the subtle and unseen. Angakkuit were not trained;they
were held to be born with the ability and recognized by the
community as they approached adulthood.
Inuit religion was closely tied to a system of rituals
integrated into the daily life of the people. These ritualswere
simple but held to be necessary. According to a customary Inuit
saying,
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The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet
consists entirely of souls.
By believing that all things, including animals, have souls like
those of humans, any hunt that failed to showappropriate respect
and customary supplication would only give the liberated spirits
cause to avengethemselves.
The harshness and unpredictability of life in the Arctic ensured
that Inuit lived with concern for theuncontrollable, where a streak
of bad luck could destroy an entire community. To offend a spirit
was to riskits interference with an already marginal existence. The
Inuit understood that they had to work in harmonywith supernatural
powers to provide the necessities of day-to-day life. Before the
1940s, Inuit had minimalcontact with Europeans, who passed through
on their way to hunt whales or trade furs but seldom had
anyinterest in settling down on the frozen land of the Arctic. So
the Inuit had the place to themselves. Theymoved between summer and
winter camps to always be living where there were animals to
hunt.
But that changed. As World War II ended and the Cold War began,
the Arctic became a place wherecountries that did not get along
were close to each other. The Arctic had always been seen as
inaccessible,but the invention of aircraft made it easier for
non-Arctic dwellers to get there. As new airbases and radarstations
were built in the Arctic to monitor rival nations, permanent
settlements were developed aroundthem, including schools and health
care centres. In many places, Inuit children were required to
attendschools that emphasized non-native traditions. With better
health care, the Inuit population grew too large tosustain itself
solely by hunting. Many Inuit from smaller camps moved into
permanent settlements becausethere was access to jobs and food. In
many areas Inuit were required to live in towns by the 1960s.
DemographicsIn total there are about 118,426 Inuit living in
three countries, Canada, Greenland and the
UnitedStates.[1][2][3]
Canada
Although the 50,480[1] Inuit listed in the 2006 Canada Census
can be found throughout Canada themajority, 44,470, live in four
regions.[118][119][120][121]
As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 4,715 Inuit living in
Newfoundland and Labrador[118] and about2,160 live in
Nunatsiavut.[122] There are also about 6,000 NunatuKavut people
(Labrador Metis or Inuit-metis) living in southern Labrador in what
is called NunatuKavut.[123]
As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 4,165 Inuit living in
the Northwest Territories.[119] The majority,about 3,115, live in
the six communities of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region.[124]
As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 24,640 Inuit living in
Nunavut.[120] In Nunavut the Inuitpopulation forms a majority in
all communities and is the only jurisdiction of Canada where
Aboriginalpeoples form a majority.
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Map showing the members of the Inuit CircumpolarConference.
As of the 2006 Canada Census there were 10,950 Inuit living in
Quebec.[121] The majority, about 9,565, livein Nunavik.[125]
Greenland
According to the 2013 edition of The World Factbook, published
by the Central Intelligence Agency, theInuit population of
Greenland is 89% (51,365) out of a total of 57,714 people.[2] Like
Nunavut thepopulation lives throughout the region.
United States
According to the 2000 United States Census there were a total of
16,581 Inuit/Inupiat living throughout thecountry.[3] The majority,
about 14,718, live in the state of Alaska.[126]
Russia
According to the 2010 Russian Census there were a total of 1,738
Inuit/Eskimo living throughout thecountry, mostly in the East of
the Far Eastern Federal District.
GovernanceThe Inuit Circumpolar Council is a United
Nations-recognized non-governmental organization (NGO),which
defines its constituency as Canada's Inuit andInuvialuit,
Greenland's Kalaallit Inuit, Alaska's Inupiatand Yup'ik, and
Russia's Siberian Yupik,[127] despite thelast two neither speaking
an Inuit dialect[8] orconsidering themselves "Inuit". Nonetheless,
it hascome together with other circumpolar cultural andpolitical
groups to promote the Inuit and other northernpeople in their fight
against ecological problems such asclimate change which
disproportionately affects theInuit population. The Inuit
Circumpolar Council is oneof the six group of Arctic indigenous
peoples that have aseat as a so-called "Permanent Participant" on
the ArcticCouncil,[128] an international high level forum in
whichthe eight Arctic Countries (USA, Canada, Russia,Denmark,
Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland andRussia) discuss Arctic policy.
On 12 May 2011,Greenland's Prime Minister Kuupik Kleist hosted
the
ministerial meeting of the Arctic Council, an event for which
the American Secretary of State HillaryClinton came to Nuuk, as did
many other high-ranking officials such as Russian Foreign Minister
SergeiLavrov, Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt and Norwegian
Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Stre. At thatevent they signed the Nuuk
Declaration.[129]
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Map of all Inuit regions
Regional autonomy in Canada
The Inuvialuit are western Canadian Inuit who remained in
theNorthwest Territories when Nunavut split off. They live
primarily inthe Mackenzie River delta, on Banks Island, and parts
of VictoriaIsland in the Northwest Territories. They are officially
representedby the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation and, in 1984,
received acomprehensive land claims settlement, the first in
Northern Canada,with the signing of the Inuvialuit Final
Agreement.[130]
The TFN worked for ten years and, in September 1992, came to
afinal agreement with the Government of Canada. This
agreementcalled for the separation of the Northwest Territories
into an easternterritory whose Aboriginal population would be
predominatelyInuit,[131] the future Nunavut, and a rump Northwest
Territories in the west. It was the largest land claimsagreement in
Canadian history. In November 1992, the Nunavut Final Agreement was
approved by nearly85% of the Inuit of what would become Nunavut. As
the final step in this long process, the Nunavut LandClaims
Agreement was signed on May 25, 1993, in Iqaluit by Prime Minister
Brian Mulroney and by PaulQuassa, the president of Nunavut
Tunngavik Incorporated, which replaced the TFN with the
ratification ofthe Nunavut Final Agreement. The Canadian Parliament
passed the supporting legislation in June of thesame year, enabling
the 1999 establishment of Nunavut as a territorial entity.
With the establishment of Nunatsiavut in 2005, almost all the
traditional Inuit lands in Canada, with theexception NunatuKavut in
central and South Labrador, are now covered by some sort of land
claimsagreement providing for regional autonomy.
Greenland autonomous country
In 1953, Denmark put an end to the colonial status of Greenland
and granted home rule in 1979 and in 2008a self-government
referendum was passed with 75% approval. Although still a part of
the Kingdom ofDenmark, Greenland, known as Kalaallit Nunaat,
maintains much autonomy today. Of a population of55,000, 80% of
Greenlanders identify as Inuit. Their economy is based on fishing
and shrimping.[132]
The Thule people arrived in Greenland in the 13th century. There
they encountered the Norsemen, who hadestablished colonies there
since the late 10th century, as well as a later wave of the Dorset
people. Becausemost of Greenland is covered in ice, the Greenland
Inuit (or Kalaallit) only live in coastal settlements,particularly
the northern polar coast, the eastern Amassalik coast and the
central coasts of westernGreenland.[133]
Alaska
Currently Alaska is governed as a State within United States
with very limited autonomy for Alaska Nativepeoples. European
Colonization of Alaska started in the 18th century by Russia. By
the 1860s, the Russiangovernment was considering ridding itself of
its Russian America colony. Alaska was officiallyincorporated to
United States on January 3, 1959.
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Municipalities of Greenland
Alaska Native Regional Corporations
The Inuit of Alaska are the Inupiat (from Inuit- people and
piaq/piat real, i.e. 'real people') who live in theNorthwest Arctic
Borough, the North Slope Borough and the Bering Straits region.
Barrow, thenorthernmost city in the United States, is in the
Inupiat region. Their language is Iupiaq (which is thesingular form
of Inupiat).
Modern cultureInuit art, carving, print making, textiles and
Inuit throat singing, are very popular, not only in Canada
butglobally, and Inuit artists are widely known. Canada has adopted
some of the Inuit culture as nationalsymbols, using Inuit cultural
icons like the inukshuk in unlikely places, such as its use as a
symbol at the2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Respected art
galleries display Inuit art, the largest collection ofwhich is at
the Winnipeg Art Gallery.
Some Inuit languages such as Inuktitut, appears to have a more
secure future in Quebec and Nunavut. Thereare a surprising number
of Inuit, even those who now live in urban centres such as Ottawa,
Montreal andWinnipeg, who have experienced living on the land in
the traditional life style. People such as LegislativeAssembly of
Nunavut member, Levinia Brown and former Commissioner of Nunavut
and the NWT, HelenMaksagak were born and lived the early part of
their life "on the land". Inuit culture is alive and vibranttoday
in spite of the negative impacts of recent history.
An importantbiennial event,the ArcticWinter Games,is held
incommunitiesacross thenorthern regionsof the
world,featuringtraditional Inuitand northernsports as part ofthe
events. Acultural event is also held. The games were first held in
1970, andwhile rotated usually among Alaska, Yukon and the
NorthwestTerritories, they have also been held in Schefferville,
Quebec in1976, in Slave Lake, Alberta, and a joint Iqaluit,
Nunavut-Nuuk,Greenland staging in 2002. In other sporting events,
Jordin Tootoobecame the first Inuk to play in the National Hockey
League in the200304 season, playing for the Nashville
Predators.
Although Inuit life has changed significantly over the past
century, many traditions continue. InuitQaujimajatuqangit, or
traditional knowledge, such as storytelling, mythology, music and
dancing remainimportant parts of the culture. Family and community
are very important. The Inuktitut language is stillspoken in many
areas of the Arctic and is common on radio and in television
programming.
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Inuit women at Nain, Newfoundlandand Labrador
Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armedwith a harpoon.
Well-known Inuit politicians include Premier of Nunavut, Eva
Aariak, Nancy Karetak-Lindell, former MPfor the riding of Nunavut,
and Kuupik Kleist, Prime Minister of Greenland. Leona Aglukkaq,
current MP,was the first Inuk to be sworn into the Canadian Federal
Cabinet as Health Minister in 2008. In May 2011after being
re-elected for her second term, Ms. Aglukkaq was given the
additional portfolio of Minister ofthe Canadian Northern Economic
Development Agency. In July 2013 she was sworn in as the Minister
ofthe Environment.[134]
Visual and performing artsare strong. In 2002 the firstfeature
film in Inuktitut,Atanarjuat, was releasedworldwide to great
criticaland popular acclaim. It wasdirected by Zacharias Kunuk,and
written, filmed,produced, directed, and actedalmost entirely by the
Inuit ofIgloolik. In 2009 the film, LeVoyage D'Inuk, a Greenlandic
language feature film directed by
Mike Magidson and co-written by Magidson and French film
producer Jean-Michel Huctin.[135] One of themost famous Inuit
artists is Pitseolak Ashoona. Susan Aglukark is a popular singer.
Mitiarjuk AttasieNappaaluk works at preserving Inuktitut and has
written the first novel published in that language.[136] In2006,
Cape Dorset was hailed as Canada's most artistic city, with 23% of
the labor force employed in thearts.[137] Inuit art such as
soapstone carvings is one of Nunavut's most important
industries.
Recently, there has been an identity struggle among the younger
generations of Inuit, between theirtraditional heritage and the
modern society which their cultures have been forced to assimilate
into in orderto maintain a livelihood. With current dependence on
modern society for necessities, (includinggovernmental jobs, food,
aid, medicine, etc.), the Inuit have had much interaction with and
exposure to thesocietal norms outside their previous cultural
boundaries. The stressors regarding the identity crisis
amongteenagers have led to disturbingly high numbers of
suicide.[138]
A series of authors has focused upon the increasing myopia in
the youngest generations of Inuit. Myopiawas almost unknown prior
to the Inuit adoption of western culture. Principal theories are
the change to awestern style diet with more refined foods, and
extended education.[139][140][141]
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Further readingAlia, Valerie (2009). Names and Nunavut: Culture
and Identity in Arctic Canada
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=rVoNxuS4n1gC&lpg=PA118&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
Berghahn Books. ISBN978-1-84545-165-3.Billson, Janet Mancini; Kyra
Mancini (2007). Inuit women: their powerful spirit in a century of
change(http://books.google.ca/books?id=8M8aihnBACwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).Rowman
& Littlefield. ISBN978-0-7425-3596-1.Briggs, Jean L. (1971).
Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=A9QuJjQbh7MC&lpg=PP1&dq=Never%20in%20Anger%3A%20Portrait%20of%20an%20Eskimo%20Family&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
ISBN0-674-60828-3.Forman, Werner; Burch, Ernest S. (1988). The
Eskimos
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=BUDUvjJpnzUC&lpg=PA7&dq=The%20Eskimos&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
Norman: University ofOklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-2126-2.CBC. History
of the Thule
Migration(http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/natureofthings/2009/inuitodyssey/history.html),
The Nature of Things,Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
Informational webpage related to the TV documentary, Inuit
Odyssey,shown below in the External links section.Crandall, Richard
C (2000). Inuit Art: A History
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=M4p8ZrkbSCkC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
McFarland. ISBN0-7864-0711-5.De Poncins, Gontran. Kabloona. St.
Paul, MN: Graywolf Press, 1996 (originally 1941). ISBN
1-55597-249-7Eber, Dorothy (1997). Images of Justice: A Legal
History of the Northwest Territories and
Yellowknife(http://books.google.ca/books?id=g7Qcr7vzQbQC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).McGill-Queen's
University Press. ISBN0-7735-1675-1.Eber, Dorothy (2008).
Encounters on the Passage: Inuit meet the explorers
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=zG50985kCSUC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
University of Toronto Press.ISBN978-1-4426-8798-1.Hauser, Michael;
Erik Holtved; Bent Jensen (2010). Traditional Inuit songs from the
Thule area, Volume
2(http://books.google.ca/books?id=NjgysV2UGygC&lpg=PA1&dq=Inuit&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=true).Museum
Tusculanum Press. ISBN978-87-635-2589-3.Hessell, Ingo (2006).
Arctic Spirit: The Albrecht Collection of Inuit Art at the Heard
Museum. Vancouver:Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN1-55365-189-8.Hund,
Andrew (2012). Inuit. SAGE Publications, Inc.
ISBN978-1412992619.Kulchyski, Peter Keith; Frank J. Tester (2007).
Kiumajut (talking back): game management and Inuit rights,190070
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=RGB7w2x0sa0C&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
UBC Press. ISBN978-0-7748-1241-2.King, J. C. H; Birgit Pauksztat;
Robert Storrie (2005). Arctic clothing of North AmericaAlaska,
Canada,Greenland
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZD2_7LRxGwsC&lpg=PA132&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
McGill-Queen's UniversityPress. ISBN0-7735-3008-8.
139. "Short-sightedness may be tied to refined diet"
(http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn2120).Newscientist.com.
5 April 2002. Retrieved 2011-01-24.
140. Morgan RW, Speakman JS, Grimshaw SE (March 1975). "Inuit
myopia: an environmentally induced"epidemic"?"
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1956268). Can Med
Assoc J 112 (5): 5757.PMC1956268
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1956268).
PMID1116086(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1116086).
141. Bernard Gilmartin; Mark Rosenfield (1998). Myopia and
nearwork
(http://books.google.com/?id=mNT577S8uywC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=myopia+inuit).
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p.21.ISBN0-7506-3784-6.
-
5/17/2015 Inuit - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit#Canada 26/26
Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Inuit.
McGrath, Melanie (2007). The long exile: a tale of Inuit
betrayal and survival in the high Arctic. New York:Alfred A. Knopf.
ISBN1-4000-4047-7.Paver, Michelle (2008). Chronicles of Ancient
Darkness Omnibus Edition (Volume 1, 2, and 3). London:
Orion.ISBN1-84255-705-X.Ruesch, Hans (1986). Top of the World. New
York: Pocket. ISBN950-637-164-4. (Hebrew
version(http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/proppentrecker/ernenek-00.html&date=2009-10-26+01:03:35))Sowa,
F. 2014. Inuit. in: Hund, A. Antarctica and the Arctic Circle: A
Geographic Encyclopedia of the EarthsPolar Regions. Santa Barbara,
CA: ABC-CLIO, pp.390-395.Stern, Pamela R; Lisa Stevenson (2006).
Critical Inuit studies: an anthology of contemporary Arctic
ethnography(http://books.google.ca/books?id=71lBFUBkrMwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).University
of Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-4303-0.Steckley, John (2008). White
Lies about the Inuit
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=i-osjdNH3g8C&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
Broadview Press. ISBN978-1-55111-875-8.Stern, Pamela R (2004).
Historical dictionary of the Inuit
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=Xa_Pq8X_MIsC&lpg=PP1&dq=Inuit&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true).
Scarecrow Press. ISBN0-8108-5058-3.Walk, Ansgar. (1999). Kenojuak:
the life story of an Inuit artist. Manotick, Ontario: Penumbra
Press. ISBN0-921254-95-4.
External linksNational Inuit Organization in Canada
(http://www.itk.ca)Inuit
(https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Ethnicity/The_Americas/Indigenous/Inuit)
at DMOZInuktitut Living
Dictionary(http://www.livingdictionary.com/index.jsp;jsessionid=6451902113FC1DE7E2CF0B986F7B923E)Inuit
Odyssey
(http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/natureofthings/2009/inuitodyssey/),
produced by TheNature of Things and first broadcast 29 June 2009 on
the Canadian Broadcasting Corporationnetwork. This is a documentary
on the Inuits' ancestors, the Thule people and their eastward
migrationacross the Arctic to Greenland. The webpage contains a
link to view the documentary online
here(http://www.cbc.ca/player/Shows/The+Nature+of+Things/ID/1233750269/)
(length: 44:03; may notbe viewable online outside of Canada). Note:
Nature of Things episodes are also viewable on iTunes.
Retrieved from
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Categories: Aboriginal peoples in Atlantic Canada Aboriginal
peoples in Canadian territoriesAboriginal peoples in Quebec
Indigenous peoples of North AmericaHistory of indigenous peoples of
North America Hunter-gatherers of the ArcticHunter-gatherers of
Canada Hunter-gatherers of the United States Eskimos
InuitAboriginal peoples in the Arctic
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