Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods

Introduction to Introduction to Qualitative Research Qualitative Research

MethodsMethods

Erin WhitesideErin Whiteside

John Curley Center for Sports JournalismJohn Curley Center for Sports Journalism

What is Qualitative Research?What is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative Methodology is…Qualitative Methodology is… ExploratoryExploratory DescriptiveDescriptive Seeks to document and understand meaningSeeks to document and understand meaning Useful for describing social processes and Useful for describing social processes and

relationships, understanding culture or a lived relationships, understanding culture or a lived experienceexperience

Two Research TraditionsTwo Research Traditions

QualitativeQualitative Study of everyday lifeStudy of everyday life Acknowledges inter-Acknowledges inter-

subjectivity of researchsubjectivity of research InterpretivistInterpretivist Methods:Methods:

• ObservationObservation• InterviewsInterviews• Visual analysisVisual analysis• Focus GroupsFocus Groups

QuantitativeQuantitative Study of large scale Study of large scale

patternspatterns Assumes research Assumes research

objectivityobjectivity PositivistPositivist Methods:Methods:

• SurveysSurveys• ScalesScales• DatabasesDatabases

Value of Qualitative ResearchValue of Qualitative Research

Quantitative approaches are strong for capturing Quantitative approaches are strong for capturing statistical relationships.statistical relationships.

Example: relationship between gender and incomeExample: relationship between gender and income Can’t always get at the “lived experience” or “meaning” such as Can’t always get at the “lived experience” or “meaning” such as

the experience a person has in a specific situation the experience a person has in a specific situation

Many aspects of social life can only be illuminated Many aspects of social life can only be illuminated through qualitative methods.through qualitative methods.

Example: “Five stages of grief”Example: “Five stages of grief”

A way to generate new ideas--especially useful in market A way to generate new ideas--especially useful in market researchresearch

A way to move beyond doing what we’ve always doneA way to move beyond doing what we’ve always done

When are qualitative methods When are qualitative methods most useful?most useful?

When the research When the research objectiveobjective is: is: To interpret, illuminate, illustrateTo interpret, illuminate, illustrate To understand how or why To understand how or why To describe previously unstudied processes or To describe previously unstudied processes or

situationssituations To get in-depth, detailed informationTo get in-depth, detailed information To understand contextTo understand context To learn about subjects who are few or hard to To learn about subjects who are few or hard to

reachreach To capture experienceTo capture experience

http://www.eotu.uiuc.edu/live/index.html

University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

Qualitative methods answer specific types of Qualitative methods answer specific types of questions that relate to describing and/or questions that relate to describing and/or explaining a lived experience or phenomenonexplaining a lived experience or phenomenon Qual: What is the experience of watching a Penn Qual: What is the experience of watching a Penn

State football game from the student section?State football game from the student section? Quant: What is the relationship between seat location Quant: What is the relationship between seat location

and level of enjoyment at a Penn State football and level of enjoyment at a Penn State football game?game?

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

Qual: What does the institution of marriage Qual: What does the institution of marriage mean to college students?mean to college students?

Quant: What is the relationship between age and Quant: What is the relationship between age and attitudes toward marriage? attitudes toward marriage?

Qual: What attracts college students to the ipod?Qual: What attracts college students to the ipod? Quant: What is the distribution of ipod users by Quant: What is the distribution of ipod users by

race, gender, age and major?race, gender, age and major?

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

Research questions that seek to describe Research questions that seek to describe lived experience, explain meaning or offer lived experience, explain meaning or offer rich, thick description should be answered rich, thick description should be answered using qualitative methods. using qualitative methods.

SamplingSampling

Generally always purposive Generally always purposive Definition: A goal of reaching a pre-defined groupDefinition: A goal of reaching a pre-defined group

Different types of purposive sampling:Different types of purposive sampling: Snowball, extreme case, stratified and opportunisticSnowball, extreme case, stratified and opportunistic

No need for random sampling: the goal of No need for random sampling: the goal of qualitative research is qualitative research is not to generalize but to not to generalize but to explainexplain Example:Example: We need people who have attended a We need people who have attended a

Penn State football game in order to study the Penn State football game in order to study the experiences at a Penn State football game experiences at a Penn State football game

Sampling Questions to AskSampling Questions to Ask

What is your What is your purpose?purpose?

What is at stake?What is at stake? What will be What will be

sufficient?sufficient? What will be credible What will be credible

to your audience?to your audience? What resources and What resources and

time do you have?time do you have?

Choosing a MethodChoosing a Method

Different questions require different Different questions require different methods (tools):methods (tools):

In-depth interviewsIn-depth interviews Focus GroupsFocus Groups Field ResearchField Research

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Definition and key characteristicsDefinition and key characteristics ““Group” interviews led by a researcher’s Group” interviews led by a researcher’s

“focus”on a topic“focus”on a topic 2-? Participants; no magic number; 1-2 hours2-? Participants; no magic number; 1-2 hours

• Depends on participant involvement with the Depends on participant involvement with the subject. subject.

Reliance on interaction within the groupReliance on interaction within the group• The “hallmark” of qualitative workThe “hallmark” of qualitative work

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

When to use?When to use? Best used when assessing attitudes, beliefs Best used when assessing attitudes, beliefs

or perceived experiences rather than behavioror perceived experiences rather than behavior ExampleExample

What are the attitudes of Pittsburgh citizens What are the attitudes of Pittsburgh citizens toward the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette? toward the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette?

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

4 key criteria for quality groups4 key criteria for quality groups 1) The group should cover the maximum range 1) The group should cover the maximum range

of relevant topics (Range)of relevant topics (Range) 2) Provide data that are specific as possible 2) Provide data that are specific as possible

(Specificity)(Specificity) 3) Foster interaction that explores the 3) Foster interaction that explores the

participants’ feeling in some depth (Depth)participants’ feeling in some depth (Depth) 4) Take into account the personal context that 4) Take into account the personal context that

participants use in generating their responses to participants use in generating their responses to the topic (Context)the topic (Context)

Focus Groups: QuestionsFocus Groups: Questions

Structured:Structured:

Researcher has a specific Researcher has a specific set of open-ended set of open-ended questionsquestions

Example: “We are Example: “We are interested in hearing interested in hearing about how you use your about how you use your ipod. Why don’t we start ipod. Why don’t we start by walking me through a by walking me through a typical day.” typical day.”

Unstructured: Unstructured: Researcher provides Researcher provides several main topics or several main topics or subjects and asks the subjects and asks the group to discuss.group to discuss.

Example: “Today I’d Example: “Today I’d like to talk about the like to talk about the way you access, use way you access, use and enjoy music.”and enjoy music.”

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

StrengthsStrengths The creation of shared meaningThe creation of shared meaning

• Until they interact with others, people may be unaware of Until they interact with others, people may be unaware of their own implicit perspectivestheir own implicit perspectives

Effective way to collect many descriptive opinions in Effective way to collect many descriptive opinions in one sitting one sitting

• ControlControl Collects a unique form of data Collects a unique form of data

WeaknessesWeaknesses The creation of shared meaning (again)The creation of shared meaning (again)

In-depth InterviewsIn-depth Interviews

Definition and key characteristics:Definition and key characteristics: A conversation in which a researcher gently A conversation in which a researcher gently

guides a conversational partner in an extended guides a conversational partner in an extended conversation. conversation.

One-on-one: researcher and participantOne-on-one: researcher and participant In person vs. the phoneIn person vs. the phone

1-2 hours at a time, but again, no magic number1-2 hours at a time, but again, no magic number Best-used when the research focus may be Best-used when the research focus may be

sensitive; provides a sense of comfort for the sensitive; provides a sense of comfort for the participantparticipant

Each interview is unique, unlike a surveyEach interview is unique, unlike a survey

In-depth Interviews: QuestionsIn-depth Interviews: Questions

Start broad, then go focused; start easy, Start broad, then go focused; start easy, then go difficultthen go difficult

Non-loadedNon-loaded Open-endedOpen-ended Example: 1) What changes have you Example: 1) What changes have you

noticed at Penn State since you’ve been noticed at Penn State since you’ve been here?here?

2) How do you feel about those changes?2) How do you feel about those changes?

In-depth questions and probesIn-depth questions and probes

Interview questions structure the interview by focusing on Interview questions structure the interview by focusing on your research questionsyour research questions

Tour Questions (Generally broad)Tour Questions (Generally broad) Hypothetical Questions (Generally broad)Hypothetical Questions (Generally broad) Chronology Questions (Generally more focused)Chronology Questions (Generally more focused) Stage Questions (Generally more focused)Stage Questions (Generally more focused) Confirmatory Questions (Generally more focused)Confirmatory Questions (Generally more focused)

Probes manage the conversation, fill in gaps and keep the Probes manage the conversation, fill in gaps and keep the conversation on-topicconversation on-topic Continuation, elaboration, clarification, steering, sequence, Continuation, elaboration, clarification, steering, sequence,

evidence, slant probesevidence, slant probes

QuestionsQuestions

Tour QuestionsTour Questions Very generalVery general ““Could you walk me Could you walk me

through this process?through this process? ““How do you prepare How do you prepare

for class?”for class?” ““What is a typical day What is a typical day

like for you?”like for you?”

Hypothetical QsHypothetical Qs Very generalVery general ““If you were given the If you were given the

option, when would option, when would you prefer to have you prefer to have classes? Why is that?”classes? Why is that?”

QuestionsQuestions

ChronologyChronology More focusedMore focused Try and use Try and use

appropriate vocabularyappropriate vocabulary ““What happened after What happened after

the tailagate?”the tailagate?”

Stage QuestionsStage Questions More focusedMore focused Used after you discover the Used after you discover the

stages of a processstages of a process Focus in on a time and ask Focus in on a time and ask

the interviewee about that the interviewee about that stagestage

““I noticed you said your I noticed you said your parents dropped you off at parents dropped you off at school a day before school a day before classes started. How did classes started. How did you go about meeting you go about meeting people?”people?”

QuestionsQuestions

Confirmatory QuestionsConfirmatory Questions Very specificVery specific Used to confirm with interviewees that you are Used to confirm with interviewees that you are

interpreting their answers in a way that interpreting their answers in a way that resonates with themresonates with them

““What I am hearing you say is…”What I am hearing you say is…”

ProbesProbes

Continuation ProbesContinuation Probes ““Then what?”Then what?” ““Mhmmm”Mhmmm” ““Can you say more Can you say more

about that?about that?

Elaboration ProbesElaboration Probes Virginia: “I grew up on Dodge and Virginia: “I grew up on Dodge and

Rollers…in that neighborhood. Rollers…in that neighborhood. There was always a gang around, There was always a gang around, but the difference that I noticed, in but the difference that I noticed, in the same neighborhood today is the same neighborhood today is the gangs--when we were growing the gangs--when we were growing up--had a tendency to take care of up--had a tendency to take care of their turf, or their neighborhood their turf, or their neighborhood and now the gangs don’t. They and now the gangs don’t. They have a tendency to just milk it for have a tendency to just milk it for what it’s worth.what it’s worth.

Interviewer: What do you mean Interviewer: What do you mean that the gangs took care of their that the gangs took care of their neighborhood?neighborhood?

ProbesProbes

Attention ProbesAttention Probes Good for cueing the Good for cueing the

interviewee that you interviewee that you are following what they are following what they are sayingare saying

““Okay, I understand”Okay, I understand” ““Very interesting…”Very interesting…”

Clarification ProbesClarification Probes ““You said the ‘whole You said the ‘whole

scene is crowded.’ Did scene is crowded.’ Did you mean the tailgate you mean the tailgate or inside during the or inside during the game?”game?”

““I’m not sure what you I’m not sure what you mean by ‘winking’ on mean by ‘winking’ on match.com. Can you match.com. Can you explain that?”explain that?”

ProbesProbes

Steering ProbesSteering Probes Useful for re-directing Useful for re-directing

the conversation. Use the conversation. Use carefullycarefully

““I’m sorry, I distracted I’m sorry, I distracted you with that question. you with that question. Let’s get back to…”Let’s get back to…”

Sequence ProbesSequence Probes Based on timeBased on time ““Could you tell me Could you tell me

what happened step-what happened step-by-step?”by-step?”

““When did that When did that happen?”happen?”

ProbesProbes

Evidence ProbesEvidence Probes Used if you are Used if you are

receiving conflicting receiving conflicting informationinformation

““You said you do the You said you do the majority of the majority of the cooking. Can you give cooking. Can you give me some examples?”me some examples?”

Slant ProbesSlant Probes Used to get people to Used to get people to

explain or justify their explain or justify their slant or bias.slant or bias.

Use very gentlyUse very gently ““Really?” Really?”

Field WorkField Work

A type of research method in which the researchers A type of research method in which the researchers interacts with, observes and sometimes even interacts with, observes and sometimes even participates in a social phenomenon. participates in a social phenomenon.

Sometimes only observational, but many times Sometimes only observational, but many times used in conjunction with interviews or focus groupsused in conjunction with interviews or focus groups

Advantages:Advantages: Observations happen in natural settingObservations happen in natural setting Best way to get rich, thick dataBest way to get rich, thick data

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Time-consuming and often costlyTime-consuming and often costly

The “Fridge Pack”The “Fridge Pack” Research Question:Research Question:

WhyWhy are soda sales down? are soda sales down? How How can we improve can we improve

sales?sales? MethodMethod

Interviews, field workInterviews, field work FindingsFindings

Storage issues creating Storage issues creating difficultiesdifficulties

Result of Fridge Pack:Result of Fridge Pack: 10% sales increase in 10% sales increase in

three months three months

American Heart AssociationAmerican Heart Association Research Question:Research Question:

How How can we better educate can we better educate cardiovascular disease cardiovascular disease patients on health issues?patients on health issues?

MethodMethod Interviews, field workInterviews, field work

FindingsFindings A problem of motivationA problem of motivation

Result of New Program:Result of New Program: Implementation of new, Implementation of new,

more active “coaching” more active “coaching” programs that will keep programs that will keep people on track with a people on track with a healthy lifestyle healthy lifestyle

Pizza HutPizza Hut Research Question:Research Question:

How do How do mothers or others mothers or others make decisions about make decisions about various family meals?various family meals?

HowHow can Pizza Hut be a part can Pizza Hut be a part of those decisions?of those decisions?

WhatWhat are pizza-eaters’ are pizza-eaters’ experiences like with Pizza experiences like with Pizza Hut employees?Hut employees?

MethodMethod Interviews, participant Interviews, participant

observation (ordering and observation (ordering and eating pizza)eating pizza)

FindingsFindings Ongoing Study Ongoing Study

Masterbrand CabinetsMasterbrand Cabinets

Research QuestionsResearch Questions How do Americans organize their cabinets?How do Americans organize their cabinets?

MethodMethod Field ObservationsField Observations

FindingsFindings Cabinets have a social function as well as a utilitarian Cabinets have a social function as well as a utilitarian

functionfunction Result of studyResult of study

New cabinet products with organization features New cabinet products with organization features designed for the way people really livedesigned for the way people really live

In-class ExerciseIn-class Exercise Phase I: In small groups Phase I: In small groups

come up with three come up with three research questions per research questions per group related to the topic group related to the topic of life as a college of life as a college studentstudent

Phase 2: Individually Phase 2: Individually write 5 broad interview write 5 broad interview questions related to the questions related to the RQ; discuss as a classRQ; discuss as a class

Phase 3: Interviews and Phase 3: Interviews and then class discussion on then class discussion on the the process.process.